HI136 The History of HI136 The History of GermanyGermanyLecture 9Lecture 9

Revisionism and Revisionism and the Search for the Search for

StabilityStability

Gustav Stresemann Gustav Stresemann (1878-1929)(1878-1929)

From a lower-class Berlin family.From a lower-class Berlin family. Studied economics and was a Studied economics and was a

successful businessman before successful businessman before entering politics in 1907.entering politics in 1907.

The youngest Deputy in the The youngest Deputy in the Reichstag when first elected.Reichstag when first elected.

1917: Became parliamentary 1917: Became parliamentary leader of the National Liberal leader of the National Liberal Party.Party.

1918: Founder member of the 1918: Founder member of the DVP.DVP.

1923: Served as Chancellor at the 1923: Served as Chancellor at the height of the Inflation Crisis.height of the Inflation Crisis.

1923-29: Served as Reich Foreign 1923-29: Served as Reich Foreign Minister in successive coalitions.Minister in successive coalitions.

1926: Received the Nobel Peace 1926: Received the Nobel Peace Prize.Prize.

‘‘Weimar’s greatest statesman’?Weimar’s greatest statesman’?

Source: Mark Mazower, The Dark Continent: Europe’s Twentieth Century

(1998)

The Treaty of VersaillesThe Treaty of Versailles France given control of the coalmines in the Saar basin (Article 45).France given control of the coalmines in the Saar basin (Article 45). The German Army to be reduced to 100,000 men by March 1920 and the The German Army to be reduced to 100,000 men by March 1920 and the

German General Staff abolished (Article 160).German General Staff abolished (Article 160). Germany forced to accept full responsibility for the war (Article 231).Germany forced to accept full responsibility for the war (Article 231). Germany to compensate the Allies for all damage and financial losses Germany to compensate the Allies for all damage and financial losses

incurred during the war by paying an indeterminate sum in reparations. A incurred during the war by paying an indeterminate sum in reparations. A Commission is established to decide on the final amount by May 1921 Commission is established to decide on the final amount by May 1921 (Article 232).(Article 232).

Germany to cede West Prussia and Posen to the new Polish republic Germany to cede West Prussia and Posen to the new Polish republic (Article 87).(Article 87).

Germany also loses Alsace and Lorraine to France, Eupen and Melmedy to Germany also loses Alsace and Lorraine to France, Eupen and Melmedy to Belgium, Northern Schleswig to Denmark, Upper Silesia to Poland and Belgium, Northern Schleswig to Denmark, Upper Silesia to Poland and Memel to Lithuania.Memel to Lithuania.

Germany forced to cede her colonies to the Allies (Article 119).Germany forced to cede her colonies to the Allies (Article 119). To ensure that Germany abides by the terms of the Treaty, the territory west To ensure that Germany abides by the terms of the Treaty, the territory west

of the Rhine and the bridgeheads at Cologne, Mainz and Koblenz are to be of the Rhine and the bridgeheads at Cologne, Mainz and Koblenz are to be occupied by Allied troops for up to 15 years (Article 428)occupied by Allied troops for up to 15 years (Article 428)

The Treaty of VersaillesThe Treaty of Versailles

Source: G. Layton, From Bismarck to Hitler 1890-1933

ARTICLE 231.

“The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.”

ReparationsReparations The Allies needed reparations to cover the costs of the war.The Allies needed reparations to cover the costs of the war. Disagreement over how much Germany should pay and what Disagreement over how much Germany should pay and what

percentage should be given to each of the Allies.percentage should be given to each of the Allies. It was agreed that a Reparations Commission should be established It was agreed that a Reparations Commission should be established

to decide on a final figure by May 1921 – in the meantime Germany to decide on a final figure by May 1921 – in the meantime Germany was required to pay a lump sum of 20 billion gold marks and raise a was required to pay a lump sum of 20 billion gold marks and raise a further 60 billion through the sale of bonds.further 60 billion through the sale of bonds.

Jan. 1921: the Allies present Germany with a bill for 226,000 billion Jan. 1921: the Allies present Germany with a bill for 226,000 billion marks to be paid over 42 years. The Germans suggest the marks to be paid over 42 years. The Germans suggest the alternative figure of 30 billion marks.alternative figure of 30 billion marks.

April 1921: The Reparations Commission sets the total amount to April 1921: The Reparations Commission sets the total amount to be paid at 132,000 billion marks and Germany is given a month to be paid at 132,000 billion marks and Germany is given a month to agree to this figure.agree to this figure.

The Occupation of the The Occupation of the RhinelandRhineland

The Rhineland to be occupied for The Rhineland to be occupied for 15 years as a guarantee of 15 years as a guarantee of reparations payments and French reparations payments and French security.security.

The area divided into 4 zones, The area divided into 4 zones, each occupied by a different allied each occupied by a different allied army.army.

From June 1919 the occupation From June 1919 the occupation was presided over by a civilian was presided over by a civilian body, the Inter-Allied Rhineland body, the Inter-Allied Rhineland High Commission (IARHC).High Commission (IARHC).

The relationship between The relationship between occupiers and occupied varied in occupiers and occupied varied in the different zones, but generally the different zones, but generally the Germans resented the the Germans resented the presence of foreign troops on their presence of foreign troops on their soil.soil.

Soucre: R. Overy, The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Third Reich (1996)

Two contrasting images of the Occupation: anti-French propaganda on a target (1923) and a young German woman says farewell to her British husband (Wiesbaden, 1929)

RevisionismRevisionism Opposition to the Treaty of Versailles was about the only issue on Opposition to the Treaty of Versailles was about the only issue on

which most Germans could agree during the Weimar period.which most Germans could agree during the Weimar period. But division over how to overturn the Treaty:But division over how to overturn the Treaty:

‘‘Hardliners’ – any concession to the Allies should be avoided: Hardliners’ – any concession to the Allies should be avoided: reparations should not be paid, disarmament flouted and the territorial reparations should not be paid, disarmament flouted and the territorial clauses overturned.clauses overturned.

‘‘Moderates’ – recognised that Germany’s domestic instability and Moderates’ – recognised that Germany’s domestic instability and diplomatic isolation hampered freedom of movement in foreign policy. diplomatic isolation hampered freedom of movement in foreign policy. The only way to achieve revision of the treaty was through negotiation. The only way to achieve revision of the treaty was through negotiation.

ErfErfüllungspolitiküllungspolitik (‘Fulfillment Policy’): an attempt to fulfill as many of (‘Fulfillment Policy’): an attempt to fulfill as many of the clauses of the Treaty as possible, in the hope that this display of the clauses of the Treaty as possible, in the hope that this display of goodwill would encourage the Allies to grant concessions. goodwill would encourage the Allies to grant concessions.

The Rapallo Treaty The Rapallo Treaty (1922)(1922)

Treaty signed between Germany and the Soviet Union in Treaty signed between Germany and the Soviet Union in April 1922.April 1922.

Re-established full diplomatic relations between Re-established full diplomatic relations between Germany and Russia – Germany the first nation in the Germany and Russia – Germany the first nation in the world to formally recognize the USSR.world to formally recognize the USSR.

Both countries renounced claims to war debts and Both countries renounced claims to war debts and reparations, and agreed to co-operate over economic reparations, and agreed to co-operate over economic matters.matters.

Secret clauses of the Treaty allowed Germany to Secret clauses of the Treaty allowed Germany to circumvent the military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles circumvent the military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles by training troops and developing forbidden weapons by training troops and developing forbidden weapons (tanks, an airforce etc.) on Russian soil. (tanks, an airforce etc.) on Russian soil.

The Ruhr Crisis, 1923-24The Ruhr Crisis, 1923-24 Germany defaulted on reparations payments in July 1922 and Germany defaulted on reparations payments in July 1922 and

asked for a 3 year moratorium.asked for a 3 year moratorium. At the same time France and Britain were under pressure to repay At the same time France and Britain were under pressure to repay

wartime loans.wartime loans. The French government therefore felt that they had no choice but to The French government therefore felt that they had no choice but to

occupy the Ruhr in order to force Germany to pay up.occupy the Ruhr in order to force Germany to pay up. On 11 January 1923 French and Belgian troops entered the Ruhr.On 11 January 1923 French and Belgian troops entered the Ruhr. Germany responded by pursuing a policy of ‘passive resistance’, but Germany responded by pursuing a policy of ‘passive resistance’, but

this placed strain on the already weak German economy and led to this placed strain on the already weak German economy and led to hyperinflation.hyperinflation.

Stresemann was appointed Chancellor on 13 August 1923, a state Stresemann was appointed Chancellor on 13 August 1923, a state of emergency was proclaimed and passive resistance called off.of emergency was proclaimed and passive resistance called off.

But the occupation had weakened the French economy as well and But the occupation had weakened the French economy as well and in January 1924 they were forced to agree to the establishment of a in January 1924 they were forced to agree to the establishment of a commission to investigate the problem of reparations.commission to investigate the problem of reparations.

The Dawes Plan (1924) did not alter the total sum to be repaid, but The Dawes Plan (1924) did not alter the total sum to be repaid, but drew up a more realistic repayment plan and provided a large drew up a more realistic repayment plan and provided a large American loan to help finance German economic recovery.American loan to help finance German economic recovery.

The Locarno Treaties The Locarno Treaties (1925)(1925)

An attempt to allay France’s An attempt to allay France’s security concerns and free security concerns and free Germany (and Britain) from the Germany (and Britain) from the burden of occupation.burden of occupation.

An international conference at An international conference at Locarno between 5 and 16 Locarno between 5 and 16 November 1925 led to a series of November 1925 led to a series of agreements.agreements.

Germany agreed to accept her Germany agreed to accept her western borders (including the western borders (including the demilitarized Rhineland).demilitarized Rhineland).

Significantly, there was no Significantly, there was no agreement over Germany’s agreement over Germany’s eastern frontiers.eastern frontiers.After signing the Locarno Treaties, London,

16 Nov. 1925. French Premier Aristide Briandis in the centre, Gustav Streseman stands behind

him. British Foreign Secretary Austin Chamberliainis on the left.

“Locarno…is the achievement of lasting peace on the Rhine, guaranteed by the formal renunciation of force by the two great neighbouring nations and also by the

commitment of other states to come to the aid of the victim of an act of aggression in

violation of this treaty…It can and it ought to be the basis for a general cooperative effort

among these nations to spread peace wherever their material power and moral

influence reach.”

Gustav Stresemann, 1926

RehabilitationRehabilitation 1926: Germany allowed to join 1926: Germany allowed to join

the League of Nations.the League of Nations. 1926: Treaty of Berlin with 1926: Treaty of Berlin with

USSR reaffirms the USSR reaffirms the agreements made at Rapallo agreements made at Rapallo in 1922.in 1922.

1928: Germany signs the 1928: Germany signs the Kellog-Briand Pact, thereby Kellog-Briand Pact, thereby renouncing the use of force renouncing the use of force and committing herself to and committing herself to disarmament.disarmament.

1929: The Young Plan – a 1929: The Young Plan – a revised scheme for repaying revised scheme for repaying Reparations. The allies agree Reparations. The allies agree to evacuate the Rhineland to evacuate the Rhineland early.early.

Stresemann – a good Stresemann – a good European?European?

Conciliatory cooperative Conciliatory cooperative policy towards France policy towards France and Britain.and Britain.

Germany joins League of Germany joins League of Nations.Nations.

International recognition International recognition Nobel Peace Prize Nobel Peace Prize (together with Aristide (together with Aristide Briand).Briand).

Economic pressure on Economic pressure on Poland.Poland.

Germany as advocate of Germany as advocate of rights of German rights of German minorities in Eastern minorities in Eastern Europe.Europe.

Letter to Crown Prince: Letter to Crown Prince: readjustment of Eastern readjustment of Eastern borders and liberation of borders and liberation of Germany from foreign Germany from foreign domination.domination.

Illegal military Illegal military cooperation with Soviet cooperation with Soviet Russia.Russia.

Was Stresemann Was Stresemann successful?successful?

Foreign PolicyForeign Policy Reparation payments now clear.Reparation payments now clear. American investment.American investment. Beginning of reconciliation with Beginning of reconciliation with

France and integration into France and integration into European policies.European policies.

Early withdrawal of French Early withdrawal of French troops from Ruhr and later from troops from Ruhr and later from Rhineland.Rhineland.

No territorial revisions in the No territorial revisions in the East.East.

Effects on domestic Effects on domestic policypolicy

German public opinion German public opinion violently against amount and violently against amount and length of payments.length of payments.

German financial system German financial system dependent on American dependent on American money.money.

Public opinion: Public opinion: Germany gained too little by Germany gained too little by renouncing claim to Alsace-renouncing claim to Alsace-Lorraine.Lorraine.

Disappointment.Disappointment.

Without doubt constructive and successful foreign policy in longer term Without doubt constructive and successful foreign policy in longer term perspective, in short-term perspective was not supported by German public perspective, in short-term perspective was not supported by German public opinion – was not able to give additional legitimacy to Weimar democracy.opinion – was not able to give additional legitimacy to Weimar democracy.