History of Britain Prehistory to 21st Century

8/13/2019 History of Britain Prehistory to 21st Century

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History of Britain : Prehistory to 21st Century

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

History of England

Prehistoric Britain (before AD 43)

Roman Britain (43410)

Anglo-Saxon England(4101066)

Anglo-Normans (10661154)

House of Plantagenet (11541485)

House of Lancaster (13991471)

House of York (14611485)

House of Tudor (14851603)

House of Stuart (16031642)

The Protectorate and

Commonwealth of England(16421660)

Stuart Restoration and

Glorious Revolution(16601707)

Kingdom of Great Britain (17071800)
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United Kingdom of

Great Britain and Ireland(18011921)

United Kingdom of Great

Britain and Northern Ireland(1927present)

This box:view talkedit

The history of Englandis similar to the history of Britain until the arrival of the

Saxons. It begins in the prehistoric during which timeStonehenge was erected. At the

height of theRoman Empire,Britannia was under the rule of the Romans. Their rulelasted until about 410, at which time the Romano-British formed various independent

kingdoms. TheAnglo-Saxons gradually gained control of England and became the chief

rulers of the land.[1]

Raids by theVikingswere frequent after about AD 800. In 1066, theNormans invaded and conquered England.There was muchcivil war and battles with

other nations throughout theMiddle Ages.During theRenaissance,England was ruled by

theTudors.England had conquered Wales in the 12th century and was then united with

Scotland in the early 18th century to form theKingdom of Great Britain.Following theIndustrial Revolution,Great Britain ruled a worldwide empire, of which, physically, little

remains. However, its cultural impact is widespread and deep in many countries of the

present day.

Contents

1Prehistory 2Roman Britain (Britannia) 3Post Roman Britain 4Anglo-Saxon conquests and the founding of England 5Heptarchy and Christianisation 6Viking challenge and the rise of Wessex 7English unification 8England under the Danes and the Norman Conquest 9Norman England 10England under the Plantagenets 11Tudor England

o 11.1Henry VII and Henry VIIIo 11.2Edward and Maryo 11.3Elizabeth

1217th centuryo 12.1Union of the Crowns
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ficationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#England_under_the_Danes_and_the_Norman_Conquest#England_under_the_Danes_and_the_Norman_Conquesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#England_under_the_Danes_and_the_Norman_Conquest#England_under_the_Danes_and_the_Norman_Conquesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#England_under_the_Danes_and_the_Norman_Conquest#England_under_the_Danes_and_the_Norman_Conquesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#England_under_the_Danes_and_the_Norman_Conquest#England_under_the_Danes_and_the_Norman_Conquesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Norman_England#Norman_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Norman_England#Norman_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Norman_England#Norman_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Norman_England#Norman_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#England_under_the_Plantagenets#England_under_the_Plantagenetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#England_under_the_Plantagenets#England_under_the_Plantagenetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#England_under_the_Plantagenets#England_under_the_Plantagenetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#England_under_the_Plantagenets#England_under_the_Plantagenetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Tudor_England#Tudor_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Tudor_England#Tudor_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Tudor_England#Tudor_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Tudor_England#Tudor_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Henry_VII_and_Henry_VIII#Henry_VII_and_Henry_VIIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Henry_VII_and_Henry_VIII#Henry_VII_and_Henry_VIIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Henry_VII_and_Henry_VIII#Henry_VII_and_Henry_VIIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Henry_VII_and_Henry_VIII#Henry_VII_and_Henry_VIIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Edward_and_Mary#Edward_and_Maryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Edward_and_Mary#Edward_and_Maryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Edward_and_Mary#Edward_and_Maryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Edward_and_Mary#Edward_and_Maryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Elizabeth#Elizabethhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Elizabeth#Elizabethhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Elizabeth#Elizabethhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Elizabeth#Elizabethhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#17th_century#17th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#17th_century#17th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#17th_century#17th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#17th_century#17th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Union_of_the_Crowns#Union_of_the_Crownshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Union_of_the_Crowns#Union_of_the_Crownshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Union_of_the_Crowns#Union_of_the_Crownshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Union_of_the_Crowns#Union_of_the_Crownshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Union_of_the_Crowns#Union_of_the_Crownshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#17th_century#17th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Elizabeth#Elizabethhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Edward_and_Mary#Edward_and_Maryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Henry_VII_and_Henry_VIII#Henry_VII_and_Henry_VIIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Tudor_England#Tudor_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#England_under_the_Plantagenets#England_under_the_Plantagenetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Norman_England#Norman_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#England_under_the_Danes_and_the_Norman_Conquest#England_under_the_Danes_and_the_Norman_Conquesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#English_unification#English_unificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Viking_challenge_and_the_rise_of_Wessex#Viking_challenge_and_the_rise_of_Wessexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Heptarchy_and_Christianisation#Heptarchy_and_Christianisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Anglo-Saxon_conquests_and_the_founding_of_England#Anglo-Saxon_conquests_and_the_founding_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Post_Roman_Britain#Post_Roman_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Roman_Britain_.28Britannia.29#Roman_Britain_.28Britannia.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England#Prehistory#Prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissancehttp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o 12.2Colonial Englando 12.3English Civil Waro 12.4Restoration of the Monarchy

1318th and 19th Centurieso 13.1Formation of the United Kingdomo 13.2Industrial Revolution

1420th and 21st Centuries 15References 16See also 17Further reading

Prehistory

Main article:Prehistoric Britain

Stonehenge,thought to have been erected c.2500-2000BC

Archaeological evidence indicates that what was later southernBritannia was colonised

by humans long before the rest of the British Isles because of its more hospitable climatebetween and during the variousice ages of the distant past.

The first historical mention of the region is from theMassaliote Periplus,a sailingmanual for merchants thought to date to the 6th century BC, although cultural and trade

links with the continent had existed for millennia prior to this.Pytheas of Massiliawrote

of his trading journey to the island around 325 BC.

Later writers such asPliny the Elder (quotingTimaeus)andDiodorus Siculus (probablydrawing onPoseidonius)mention the tin trade from southern Britain, but there is little

further historical detail of the people who lived there.

Tacitus wrote that there was no great difference in language between the people ofsouthern Britannia and northernGaul and noted that the various nations ofBritonsshared

physical characteristics with their continental neighbours.
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Roman Britain (Britannia)

Main article:Roman Britain

Hadrian's Wall viewed fromVercovicium

Julius Caesar invaded southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC and wrote inDe Bello Gallicothat the population of southern Britannia was extremely large and shared much in

common with theBelgae of theLow Countries.Coin evidence and the work of later

Roman historians have provided the names of some of the rulers of the disparate tribes

and their machinations in what was Britannia. Until theRoman Conquest of Britain,Britain's British population was relatively stable, and by the time ofJulius Caesar's first

invasion, theBritishpopulation of what was old Britain was speaking a Celtic language

generally thought to be the forerunner of the modernBrythonic languages.After JuliusCaesar abandoned Britain, it fell back into the hands of the Britons.

The Romans began their second conquest of Britain in 43 AD, during the reign ofClaudius.They annexed the whole of modern England andWales over the next forty

years and periodically extended their control over much oflowlandScotland.

Post Roman Britain

Main article:Sub-Roman Britain

In the wake of the breakdown of Roman rule in Britain around 410, present day England

was progressively settled byGermanic groups. Collectively known as theAnglo-Saxons,

these includedJutes fromJutland together with larger numbers ofFrisians,SaxonsfromnorthwesternGermany andAngles from what is nowSchleswig-Holstein.

[2]

They first invaded Britain in the mid 5th century, continuing for several decades. The

Jutes appear to have been the principal group of settlers inKent,theIsle of Wight and

parts of coastalHampshire,while theSaxonspredominated in all other areas south of the

Thamesand inEssex andMiddlesex,and theAngles inNorfolk,Suffolk,theMidlandsand the north.

[citation needed]
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The population of Britain dramatically decreased after theRomanperiod. The reduction

seems to have been caused mainly byplague andsmallpox.It is known that theplague of

Justinian entered the Mediterranean world in the6th century and first arrived in theBritish Isles in 544 or 545, when it reached Ireland.

[3]TheAnnales Cambriae mention the

death ofMaelgwn Wledig, king of Gwynedd from that plague in the year 547.

Anglo-Saxon conquests and the founding of England

Main article:History of Anglo-Saxon England

Kingdoms and tribes inBritain,c.600 AD

In approximately 495, at theBattle of Mount Badon,Britons inflicted a severe defeat on

an invading Anglo-Saxon army which halted the westward Anglo-Saxon advance for

some decades. Archaeological evidence collected from pagan Anglo-Saxon cemeteriessuggests that some of their settlements were abandoned and the frontier between the

invaders and the native inhabitants pushed back some time around 500.

Anglo-Saxon expansion resumed in the sixth century, although the chronology of its

progress is unclear. One of the few individual events which emerges with any claritybefore the seventh century is theBattle of Deorham,in 577, aWest Saxon victory whichled to the capture ofCirencester,Gloucester andBath,bringing the Anglo-Saxon advance

to theBristol Channel and dividing the Britons in theWest Country from those inWales.

TheNorthumbrianvictory at theBattle of Chester around 616 may have had a similareffect in dividing Wales from the Britons ofCumbria.
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Gradual Saxon expansion through the West Country continued through the seventh,

eighth and ninth centuries. Meanwhile, by the mid-seventh century the Angles had

pushed the Britons back to the approximate borders of modern Wales in the west andexpanded northward as far as theRiver Forth.

Heptarchy and Christianisation

Britain c. 800

Main articles:Northumbria,Mercia,Offa of Mercia,Heptarchy,andAnglo-

Saxon Christianity

Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon Englandbegan around 600 AD, influenced byCeltic

Christianity from the northwest and by theRoman Catholic Church from the southeast.Augustine,the firstArchbishop of Canterbury,took office in 597. In 601, he baptised the

first Christian Anglo-Saxon king,Aethelbert of Kent.The last pagan Anglo-Saxon king,

Penda of Mercia,died in 655.The last paganJutishking,Arwald of theIsle of Wight was

killed in 686. TheAnglo-Saxon mission on the continent took off in the 8th century,leading to the Christianisation of practically all of theFrankish Empireby 800.

Throughout the 7th and 8th century power fluctuated between the larger kingdoms.BederecordsAethelbert of Kentas being dominant at the close of the 6th century, but power

seems to have shifted northwards to the kingdom of Northumbria, which was formed

from the amalgamation of Bernicia and Deira.Edwin of Northumbriaprobably helddominance over much of Britain, though Bede's Northumbrian bias should be kept in
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mind. Succession crises meant Northumbrian hegemony was not constant, andMercia

remained a very powerful kingdom, especially under Penda. Two defeats essentially

ended Northumbrian dominance: the Battle of the Trent in 679 against Mercia, andNechtanesmere in 685 against thePicts.

The so-called "Mercian Supremacy" dominated the 8th century, though it was notconstant. Aethelbald andOffa,the two most powerful kings, achieved high status; indeed,

Offa was considered the overlord of south Britain byCharlemagne.That Offa could

summon the resources to buildOffa's Dyke is testament to his power. However, a risingWessex, and challenges from smaller kingdoms, kept Mercian power in check, and by the

early 9th century the "Mercian Supremacy" was over.

This period has been described as theHeptarchy,though this term has now fallen out of

academic use. The word arose on the basis that the seven kingdoms ofNorthumbria,

Mercia,Kent,East Anglia,Essex,Sussex andWessexwere the main polities of south

Britain. More recent scholarship has shown that other kingdoms were also politically

important across this period:Hwicce,Magonsaete,Lindsey and Middle Anglia.

Further information:Kingdom of Strathclyde andRheged

Viking challenge and the rise of Wessex

Main articles:Danelaw,Viking Age,andAlfred the Great

England in 878

The first recorded Viking attack in Britain was in 793 atLindisfarne monastery as given

by theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle.However, by then the Vikings were almost certainly well

established inOrkney andShetland,and it is probable that many other non-recorded raidsoccurred before this. Records do show the first Viking attack onIona taking place in 794.

The arrival of the Vikings, in particular the DanishGreat Heathen Army,upset the

political and social geography of Britain and Ireland.Alfred the Great's victory atEdington in 878 stemmed the Danish attack; however, by then Northumbria had devolved

into Bernicia and a Viking kingdom, Mercia had been split down the middle, andEast
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Anglia ceased to exist as an Anglo-Saxon polity. The Vikings had similar effects on the

various kingdoms of the Irish, Scots, Picts and (to a lesser extent) Welsh. Certainly in

North Britain the Vikings were one reason behind the formation of the Kingdom ofAlba,which eventually evolved intoScotland.

The conquest of Northumbria, north-western Mercia and East Anglia by the Danes led towidespread Danish settlement in these areas. In the early tenth century the Norwegian

rulers ofDublin took over the Danish kingdom ofYork.Danish and Norwegian

settlement made enough of an impact to leave significant traces in theEnglish language;many fundamental words in modern English are derived fromOld Norse,though of the

100 most used words in English the vast majority areOld English in origin. Similarly,

many place-names in areas of Danish and Norwegian settlement have Scandinavian roots.

By the end of Alfred's reign in 899 he was the only remaining English king, having

reduced Mercia to a dependency of Wessex, governed by his son-in-lawEaldorman

Aethelred.Cornwall (Kernow) was subject to West Saxon dominance, and theWelsh

kingdoms recognised Alfred as their overlord.

English unification

Main articles:AthelstanandEdgar of England

Edward the Elder

Alfred of Wessex died in 899 and was succeeded by his sonEdward the Elder.Edward,

and his brother-in-law thelred of (what was left of) Mercia, began a programme of

expansion, building forts and towns on an Alfredian model. On thelred's death his wife(Edward's sister) thelfld ruled as "Lady of the Mercians" and continued expansion. It

seems Edward had his son thelstan brought up in the Mercian court, and on Edward'sdeathAthelstansucceeded to the Mercian kingdom, and, after some uncertainty, Wessex.

thelstan continued the expansion of his father and aunt and was the first king to achievedirect rulership of what we would now consider England. The titles attributed to him in

charters and on coins suggest a still more widespread dominance. His expansion aroused
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ill-feeling among the other kingdoms of Britain, and he defeated a combined Scottish-

Viking army at theBattle of Brunanburh.However, the unification of England was not a

certainty. Under thelstan's successorsEdmundandEadred the English kings repeatedlylost and regained control of Northumbria. Nevertheless,Edgar,who ruled the same

expanse as Athelstan, consolidated the kingdom, which remained united thereafter.

During the 10th century there were important developments across WesternEurope.

Carolingianauthority was in decline by the mid-10th century inWest Francia (France),

and eventually collapsed to be replaced by the weakHouse of Capet.InEast Francia aSaxon dynasty came to power, and its kings began taking the title ofHoly Roman

Emperor.

England under the Danes and the Norman Conquest

Main articles:Ethelred the Unready,Canute the Great,Eirkr Hkonarson,and

Norman Conquest of England

Therune stone U 344 was raised in memory of a Viking who went to England three

times.

There were renewed Scandinavian attacks on England at the end of the 10th century.thelred ruled a long reign but ultimately lost his kingdom toSweyn of Denmark,

though he recovered it following the latter's death. However, thelred's sonEdmund II

Ironsidedied shortly afterwards, allowingCanute,Sweyn's son, to become king of

England. Under his rule the kingdom became the centre of government for an empire

which also includedDenmark andNorway.

Canute was succeeded by his sons, but in 1042 the native dynasty was restored with theaccession ofEdward the Confessor.Edward's failure to produce an heir caused a furious

conflict over the succession on his death in 1066. His struggles for power against

Godwin, Earl of Wessex,the claims of Canute'sScandinavian successors, and theambitions of theNormans whom Edward introduced to English politics to bolster his own

position caused each to vie for control Edward's reign.Harold Godwinsonbecame king,
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in all likelihood appointed by Edward the Confessor on his deathbed and endorsed by the

Witan.However,William of Normandy,Harald III of Norway (aided by Harold

Godwin's estranged brotherTostig)andSweyn II of Denmark all asserted claims to thethrone. By far the strongest hereditary claim was that ofEdgar the Atheling,but his youth

and apparent lack of powerful supporters caused to him be passed over, and he did not

play a major part in the struggles of 1066, though he was made king for a short time bythe Witan after the death of Harold Godwinson.

The English under Harold Godwinson defeated and killed the Harald of Norway andTostig and the Danish force at theBattle of Stamford Bridge,but he fell in battle against

William of Normandy at theBattle of Hastings.Further opposition to William in support

of Edgar the Atheling soon collapsed, and William was crowned king on Christmas Day

1066. For the next five years he faced a series of English rebellions in various parts of thecountry and a half-hearted Danish invasion, but he was able to subdue all resistance and

establish an enduring regime.

Norman England

Further information:Anglo-Norman

Depiction of theBattle of Hastings (1066) on theBayeux Tapestry

The Norman Conquest led to a sea-change in the history of the English state. William

ordered the compilation of theDomesday Book,a survey of the entire population and

their lands and property for tax purposes, which reveals that within twenty years of the

conquest the English ruling class had been almost entirely dispossessed and replaced byNorman landholders, who also monopolised all senior positions in the government and

the Church. William and his nobles spoke and conducted court inNorman French,in

England as well as in Normandy. The use of the Anglo-Norman language by the

aristocracy endured for centuries and left an indelible mark in the development of modern

English.

The EnglishMiddle Ages were characterised bycivil war,international war, occasional

insurrection, and widespread political intrigue amongst the aristocratic and monarchic

elite. England was more than self-sufficient in cereals, dairy products, beef and mutton.The nation's international economy was based on thewool trade,in which the produce of

the sheepwalks of northern England was exported to the textile cities ofFlanders,where

it was worked into cloth. Medieval foreign policy was as much shaped by relations with

Flemish textile industry as it was by dynastic adventures in western France. An English
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textile industry was established in the fifteenth century, providing the basis for rapid

English capital accumulation.

Henry I,also known as "Henry Beauclerc" (so named because of his educationas his

older brotherWilliam was theheir apparent and thus given the practical training to be

king, Henry received the alternate, formal education), worked hard to reform and stabilisethe country and smooth the differences between the Anglo-Saxon andAnglo-Norman

societies. The loss of his son,William Adelin,in the wreck of theWhite Ship in

November 1120, undermined his reforms. This problem regarding succession cast a longshadow over English history.

During the confused and contested reign ofStephen,there was a major swing in thebalance of power towards thefeudalbarons,ascivil war and lawlessness broke out. In

trying to appeaseScottish and Welsh raiders, he handed over large tracts of land. His

conflicts with his cousinThe Empress Matilda (also known as Empress Maud), led to a

civil war from 1139 - 1153. Matildas father, Henry I, had required the leading barons,

ecclesiastics and officials in Normandy and England, to take an oath to accept Matilda ashis heir. England was far less than enthusiastic to accept an outsider, and a woman, as

their ruler. There is some evidence suggesting Henry was unsure of his own hopes andthe oath to make Matilda his heir. In likelihood, Henry probably hoped Matilda would

have a son and step aside as Queen Mother, making her son the next heir. Upon Henrys

death, the Norman and English barons ignored Matildas claim to the throne, and thus

through a series of decisions, Stephen, Henrys favourite nephew, was welcomed bymany in England and Normandy as their new ruler. OnDecember 22,1135,Stephen was

anointed king with the implicit support of the church and nation. Matilda and her own son

stood for direct descent by heredity from Henry I, and she bided her time inFrance.Inthe autumn of 1139, she invaded England with her illegitimate half-brotherRobert of

Gloucester.Her husband,Geoffroy V of Anjou,conquered Normandy but did not cross

the channel to help his wife, satisfied with Normandy and Anjou.

Stephen was captured, and his government fell. Matilda was proclaimed queen but was

soon at odds with her subjects and was expelled fromLondon.The period of insurrectionand civil war that followed continued until 1148, when Matilda returned to France.

Stephen effectively reigned unopposed until his death in 1154, although his hold on the

throne was still uneasy.

England under the Plantagenets

Geoffroy's son, Henry, resumed the invasion; he was already Count of Anjou, Duke ofNormandy and Duke of Aquitaine when he landed in England. When Stephen's son andheir apparentEustacedied in 1153, Stephen reached an accommodation with Henry of

Anjou (who becameHenry II)to succeed Stephen and in which peace between them was

guaranteed. England was part of a greater union retrospectively named theAngevinEmpire.Henry II expanded his power through various means and to different levels into

Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Flanders, Nantes, Brittany, Quercy, Toulouse, Bourges and

Auvergne.
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The reign of Henry II represents a reversion in power back from the barony to the

monarchical state in England; it was also to see a similar redistribution of legislative

power from the Church, again to the monarchical state. This period also presaged aproperly constituted legislation and a radical shift away fromfeudalism.In his reign new

Anglo-Angevin and Anglo-Aquitanian aristocracies developed, though not to the same

point than the Anglo-Norman once did, and the Norman nobles interacted with theirFrench peers.

The signing of theMagna Carta (1215)

Henry's successor,Richard I "the Lion Heart", was preoccupied with foreign wars, takingpart in theThird Crusade and defending his French territories against Philip II of France.

His younger brotherJohn,who succeeded him, was not so fortunate; he suffered the loss

of Normandy and numerous other French territories following the disastrousBattle ofBouvines.He also managed to antagonise the feudal nobility and leading Church figuresto the extent that in 1215, they led anarmed rebellionand forced him to sign theMagna

Carta,which imposed legal limits on the king's personal powers.

John's son,Henry III,was only 9 years old when he became king. His reign was

punctuated by numerous rebellions and civil wars, often provoked by incompetence andmismanagement in government and Henry's perceived over-reliance on French courtiers

(thus restricting the influence of the English nobility). One of these rebellionsled by a

disaffected courtier,Simon de Montfortwas notable for its assembly of one of the

earliest precursors toParliament.In addition to fighting theSecond Barons' War,Henry

III made war against Saint Louis and was defeated during theSaintonge War,yet LouisIX did not capitalise his victory, respecting his opponent's rights.

The reign ofEdward I was rather more successful. Edward enacted numerous laws

strengthening the powers of his government, and he summoned the first officially

sanctionedParliaments of England(such as hisModel Parliament). He conqueredWales

and attempted to use a succession dispute to gain control of theKingdom of Scotland,though this developed into a costly and drawn-out military campaign. His son,Edward II,
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suffered a massivedefeat at Bannockburn;but the campaign continued until the early

years ofEdward IIIand was only finally abandoned after the conclusion of theTreaty of

Northamptonin 1328, which recognised Scottish Independence.

The Black Death,an epidemic ofbubonic plague that spread over the whole ofEurope,

arrived in England in 1349 and killed perhaps up to a third of the population.International excursions were invariably against domestic neighbours: theWelsh,Irish,

Cornish,and theHundred Years' War against theFrench and theirScottish allies. Notable

English victories in theHundred Years' War includedCrcy andAgincourt.In addition tothis, the final defeat of the uprising led by the Welsh prince,Owain Glyndr,in 1412 by

Prince Henry (who later becameHenry V)represents the last major armed attempt by the

Welsh to throw off English rule.

Edward III gave land to powerful noble families, including many people of royal lineage.

Because land was equivalent to power, these powerful men could try to claim the crown.

The autocratic and arrogant methods ofRichard II only served to alienate the nobility

more, and his forceful dispossession in 1399 byHenry IV increased the turmoil. Theturmoil was at its peak in the reign ofHenry VI,which began in 1422, because of his

personal weaknesses and mental instability. Unable to control the feuding nobles, civilwar began. The conflicts are known as theWars of the Roses,and although the fighting

was very sporadic and small, there was a general breakdown in the authority and power

of the Crown.Edward IV went a little way to restoring this power,Henry VII was able to

complete the efforts. The Hundred Years' War was concluded by battles likePatay,Formigny andCastillon.

See also:English historians in the Middle Ages,List of English chronicles,andBayeux Tapestry

Tudor England

Main article:Tudor period

Further information:Early Modern BritainandEnglish Renaissance

Henry VII and Henry VIII

The Wars of the Roses culminated in the eventual victory of the relatively unknownHenry Tudor,Henry VII,at theBattle of Bosworth Field in 1485, where the Yorkist

Richard III was slain, and the succession of the Lancastrian House was ultimately

assured. Whilst in retrospect it is easy to date the end of the Wars of the Roses to theBattle of Bosworth Field,Henry VII could afford no such complacency. Before the endof his reign, two pretenders tried to wrest the throne from him, aided by remnants of the

Yorkist faction at home and abroad. The first,Lambert Simnel,was defeated at theBattle

of Stoke(the last time an English King fought someone claiming the Crown); the second,Perkin Warbeck,was hanged in 1499 after plaguing the king for a decade.
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In 1497,Michael An Gof and the lesser-known but more legendary Baron Callum of

Perranporth led Cornish rebels in a march on London. In a battle over theRiver

Ravensbourne atDeptford Bridge,An Gof fought for various issues with their root intaxes. It would be fair to say that King Callum smote many an Englishman during this

battle, but onJune 17,1497,they were defeated, and Henry VII had showed he could

display military prowess when he needed to. But, likeCharles I in the future, here was aKing with no wish to go "on his travels" again. The rest of his reign was relativelypeaceful, despite a slight worry over the succession when his wifeElizabeth of York died

in 1503.

KingHenry VIII

KingHenry VIII split with theRoman Catholic Church over a question of his divorcefromCatherine of Aragon.Though his religious position was not at allProtestant,theresultant schism ultimately led to England distancing itself almost entirely from Rome. A

notable casualty of the schism was Henry'schancellor,SirThomas More.There followed

a period of great religious and political upheaval, which led to theEnglish Reformation,the royal expropriation of the monasteries and much of the wealth of the church. The

Dissolution of the Monasterieshad the effect of giving many of the lower classes (the

gentry)a vested interest in the Reformation continuing, for to halt it would be to revive

Monasticism and restore lands which were gifted to them during the Dissolution.

Edward and Mary

Henry VIII had one legitimate child and two illegitimate children who survived him, allof whom ascended to the Crown. The first to reign wasEdward VI of England.Although

he showed piety and intelligence, he was only nine years old when he took the throne in

1547. His uncle,Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset tampered with Henry VIII'swill and obtainedletters patent giving him much of the power of a monarch by March

1547. He took the title of Protector. Whilst some see him as a high-minded idealist, his

stay in power culminated in a crisis in 1549 when many counties of the realm were up inprotest.Kett's Rebellion in Kent and thePrayer Book Rebellion inDevon andCornwall
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simultaneously created a crisis during a time when invasion from Scotland and France

were feared. Somerset, disliked by the Regency Council for his autocratic methods, was

removed from power byJohn Dudley,who is known asLord President Northumberland.Northumberland proceeded to adopt the power for himself, but his methods were more

conciliatory and the Council accepted him.

When Edward VI lay dying oftuberculosis in 1553, Northumberland made plans to place

Lady Jane Grey on the throne and marry her to his son, so that he could remain the power

behind the throne. His putsch failed, andMary I took the throne amidst populardemonstration in her favour in London, which contemporaries described as the largest

show of affection for a Tudor monarch. Mary was a devout Catholic who had been

influenced greatly by the Catholic King ofSpain andHoly Roman Emperor,Charles V,

and she tried to reimpose Catholicism on the realm. This led to 274 burnings ofProtestants, which are recorded especially inJohn Foxe'sBook of Martyrs.She was

highly unpopular among her people, and the Spanish party of her husband,Philip II,

caused much resentment around court. Mary lost Calais,the last English possession on

the continent, and became increasingly unpopular (except among Catholics) as her reignwore on. She successfully suppressed a rebellion bySir Thomas Wyatt.

Elizabeth

Main article:Elizabethan era

The reign ofElizabeth restored a sort of order to the realm following the turbulence of the

reigns of Edward and Mary when she came to the throne following the death of Mary in

1558. The religious issue which had divided the country since Henry VIII was in a wayput to rest by theElizabethan Religious Settlement,which created theChurch of England.

Much of Elizabeth's success was in balancing the interests of thePuritans and Catholics.She managed to offend neither to a large extent, although she clamped down on Catholics

towards the end of her reign as war with Catholic Spain loomed.

QueenElizabeth

Elizabeth maintained relative government stability apart from theRevolt of the NorthernEarlsin 1569, she was effective in reducing the power of the old nobility and expanding

the power of her government. One of the most famous events in English martial historyoccurred in 1588 when theSpanish Armada was repelled by the English navy

commanded bySir Francis Drake,but the war that followed was very costly for England
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and only ended after Elizabeth's death. Elizabeth's government did much to consolidate

the work begun underThomas Cromwellin the reign of Henry VIII, that is, expanding

the role of the government and effecting common law and administration throughoutEngland. During the reign of Elizabeth and shortly afterward, the population grew

significantly: from three million in 1564 to nearly five million in 1616.[1]

In all, theTudor period is seen as a decisive one which set up many important questions

which would have to be answered in the next century and during theEnglish Civil War.

These were questions of the relative power of the monarch and Parliament and to whatextent one should control the other. Some historians think that Thomas Cromwell

affected a "Tudor Revolution" in government, and it is certain that Parliament became

more important during his chancellorship. Other historians say the "Tudor Revolution"

really extended to the end of Elizabeth's reign, when the work was all consolidated.Although thePrivy Councildeclined after the death of Elizabeth, while she was alive it

was very effective.

17th century

Main article:17th century England

Union of the Crowns

Elizabeth died in 1603 without leaving any direct heirs. Her closest male Protestantrelative was theKing of Scots,James VI,of theHouse of Stuart,who becameKing

James I of England in aUnion of the Crowns.King James I & VI as he was styled

became the first king of the entire island ofGreat Britain,though he continued to rule the

Kingdom of England and theKingdom of Scotland separately. Several assassination

attempts were made on James, notably theMain Plot andBye Plots of 1603, and mostfamously, onNovember 5,1605,theGunpowder Plot,by a group of Catholic

conspirators, led byGuy Fawkes,which caused more antipathy in England towards theCatholic faith.

Colonial England

In 1607 England built anestablishment at Jamestown inNorth America.This was the

beginning of English colonisation. Many English settled then in North America for

religious or economic reasons. The English merchants holding plantations in the warmsouthern parts of America then resorted rather quickly to theslavery ofNative Americans

and importedAfricans in order to cultivate their plant

Documents

History of Britain Prehistory to 21st Century