How does the acquisition of skill affect performance?•Stages of skill acquisition•Characteristics of the learner•The learning environment•Assessment of skill and performance

Stages of Skill AcquisitionThe Cognitive Stage• This stage is identified as the basic or understanding stage

of skill learning.• It focuses on what to do.• Learners at this stage will experience frequent large errors.• The learner is often unable to recognise errors.• The learner needs to see, feel and experience the

movement.• Demonstration is the best means of communication.• Learners must identify sub-routines.• The learner will often exhibit a slow learning speed and

inefficient movement.• Learning is supported with the use of teaching aids e.g.

Demonstrations, pictures, videos, etc.

Stages of Skill AcquisitionThe Associative Stage• This stage is identified as the intermediate or practice stage

of skill learning.• It focuses on how to do the skill.• Some errors are made but not so large.• The learner is able to recognise errors.• The learner needs to practice to kinaesthetically develop at

this stage.• Emphasis is on temporal patterning. The player will know

the sub-routines and is competent in assembling them into the required skill.

• The learner will often exhibit moderate speed and reasonable efficient movement.

• Further improvement requires practice of set patterns of movements in controlled situations.

Stages of Skill AcquisitionThe Autonomous Stage• This stage is identified as the advanced stage at which skills are

performed reflexively.• Learners at this stage have the ability to focus on other tasks.• Very few errors are made at this stage.• The performer is able to detect and correct errors as they occur.• The performer is able to adapt movements to pressure situations.• Movements can be rehearsed under varying conditions.• Demonstrations are only essential to refine particular movements.• Temporal and sequential patterning of sub-routines is automatic

at this stage.• The performer exhibits speed and efficiency that relate to the

specific requirements of the situation.• Improvement at this stage requires the manipulation of the

environment to ensure the skill is able to be reproduced under varying conditions.

Stages of Skill AcquisitionMedia Resourceshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V8QZzvhkIyQhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TMa0XpI3Rl0http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wWuXyFU5EQs

Characteristics of the LearnerPersonality• Many athletes that are successful have not only

physical talent but also positive personality traits. These traits include determination, desire to succeed, motivation, cooperation, optimism and enthusiasm. These personality traits coupled with physical talent enhance the learning of new skills.

• Learners who’s personality reflects positive ways of behaving are more receptive to instruction and advice, more cooperative in performing set tasks and more helpful in creating a productive learning environment.

Characteristics of the LearnerHeredity• Hereditary factors are characteristics inherited from

parents. These factors cannot be changed and help to determine how quickly (or slowly) a new skill is learnt. Hereditary factors include:- the percentage of fast and slow twitch muscle fibres (fast twitch fibres are naturally suited to sprint and explosive events, slow twitch are more suited to endurance.

- somatotype (mesomorphy, endomorphy and ectomorphy.- gender - Height- Conceptual ability (the ability to visualise movement and make it materialise .

• Heredity factors determine the ‘ceiling’ for performance potential.

Characteristics of the LearnerConfidence• Confidence in learning a skill leads to successful

skill development. Consistent failure may affect the confidence of a learner. Therefore, the coach needs to offer positive feedback so that confidence remains high.

• Confidence unlocks energy and creativity. Confident people are able to help others as well as themselves.

• Confident people approach new skill learning situations with feelings of being able to rise to the challenge and that the outcome will be favourable regardless of the outcome.

Characteristics of the LearnerPrior Experience• If the learner has already learnt a similar skill this

knowledge can be transferred to the new skill being learnt. This is known as transfer of learning and it increases the rate of skill development.

• Lateral transfer – skill transfer from one similar task to another e.g. Backhand in squash to a backhand in tennis.

• Vertical transfer – the act of mastering a lower order task as a prerequisite for something much more difficult e.g. Learning a butterfly kick using a kickboard before progressing to butterfly swimming.

Characteristics of the LearnerAbility•Ability is the ease at which a learner

develops new skills. It takes into account a number of factors such as the intelligence of the learner, their thought processes and problem solving skills, reaction time and perception.

The Learning EnvironmentThe learning environment refers to everything outside the

learner and embraces the skill itself, the situation in which it is practiced, information from coaches and even the influence of the surrounding weather conditions.

The Nature of SkillAll skills have observable characteristics, so can be

grouped according to specific criteria. Skills are commonly classified as open or closed; gross motor or fine motor; discrete, serial or continuous; self-paced or externally paced. Most skills fit a number of classifications.

The Learning EnvironmentThe Nature of SkillOpen Skills:• Occur in an environment that is unpredictable and

frequently changing. Athletes are required to modify their techniques to adapt to the instability of the surrounding environment. E.g. Surfing is an open skill due to the unpredictability of the environment.

Closed Skills:• Occur in an environment that is stable and

predictable. This is much more conducive to learning for inexperienced individuals as there are no external distractions. E.g. Ten pin bowling is a closed skill.

The Learning EnvironmentThe Nature of SkillGross Motor Skills:• Require the use of large muscle groups for

execution. E.g. Running, leaping, vaulting, tackling and surfing.

Fine Motor Skills:• Require the use of only small muscle groups to

perform the movement. E.g. Typing, tying shoelaces and writing. Isolated movements in sport such as catching in cricket, playing darts and putting in golf.

The Learning EnvironmentThe Nature of SkillDiscrete Skills:•Have a distinctive beginning and end that can

be identified. E.g. A forward roll in gymnastics.

Serial Skills:• Involve a sequence of smaller movements that

are assembled to make a total skill. E.g. A place kick in football – placing the ball, moving back, moving forward, kicking the ball and following through.

The Learning EnvironmentThe Nature of Skill

Continuous Skills:•Have no distinct beginning or end. They

appear repetitive and ongoing. E.g. Swimming, running, rowing, skiing and rock climbing. The length of these activities is unspecified, however, they do have a beginning and an end at some stage and due to this they can be categorised on a continuum ranging from discrete to continuous.

The Learning EnvironmentThe Nature of SkillSelf-paced Skills:•Are movements for which the performer

determines the timing and speed of execution. E.g. A tennis serve and kicking a football (soccer) in practice.

Externally Paced Skills:•Are movements for which an external source

controls the timing. E.g. Dancing, rhythmic gymnastics and returning a serve in tennis.

The Learning EnvironmentThe Nature of Skill

Media Resources:

Tennis as an open skill Part 1Tennis as an open skill part 2Tennis as an open skill part 3Tennis as an open skill part 4

The Learning EnvironmentThe Performance ElementsThe performance elements, namely decision making, strategic

development and tactical development, are often overshadowed by a focus on teaching and developing skill fundamentals.

We sometimes see players demonstrate proficiency in practice sessions, but they are unable to respond successfully to opponents in games because they lack the knowledge, confidence and decision making skills necessary to take advantage of the situation.

The ability to ‘read’ a game and make strategic and tactical decisions can be developed through a game centred approach. This approach aims to focus on the whole game and all the components, rather than a sequence of basic skills assembled within a game format. The emphasis is on integrating thinking and learning rather than skill development in isolation.

The Learning EnvironmentThe Performance ElementsDecision Making:• Decision making is best improved by having to make decisions in

performance like situations.• Productive decision making is best achieved through:

- Observation through the use of coaching boards and demonstrations of strategies.- Questioning. Highlight strategic options by asking athletes questions as to what may happen to players in specific play options.- Whole, part, whole approach. A game strategy needs to be taught as a whole so players can see the overall plan. Then individuals can learn their individual part/role to achieve the overall plan.- Variation. Explore different variations of strategies in training.- Creativity. Encourage all players to identify with each problematic situation and solve it as a group.

The Learning EnvironmentThe Performance ElementsStrategic and Tactical Development:• Strategic understanding refers to the way we play, where we should

be at a particular time and what to do.• Tactical awareness is about utilising ways of gaining an advantage

over an opponent. E.g. Using a cut-out pass in league or double playing an opponent in basketball.

• Strategic and tactical development is built on the following principles:- Technical efficiency. Players using correct technique in the execution of skills.- Understanding. Players need to fully understand what is required, options and variations possible and what to do if things should go wrong.- Skilful Execution. Skills need to be executed in replicated game situations. This is best achieved through invasive and part invasive game play drills that encourage players to make decisions and create options.

The Learning EnvironmentPractice MethodsMassed Practice:• Involves a continuous practice session, with the rest

intervals being shorter than the practice intervals.• Massed practice works best when performers are highly

motivated, fresh and unable to attend a number of sessions.

Distributed Practice:• Involves a broken practice session, with the intervals of

rest or alternative activities being longer than the practice intervals.

• Distributed practice works best when the performer lacks interest, the task is difficult, motivation is low, the task causes fatigue and excessive work causes discomfort.

The Learning EnvironmentPractice MethodsWhole Practice Method:• This method is applied when a skill is practiced in its

entirety. • It is used for skills that are relatively easy to learn or

when it is difficult for learners to conceptualise and integrate the smaller parts that need to be assembled to form a complex skill e.g. A somersault or handstand.

Part Practice Method:• This method is applied when a skill can be broken into

smaller components and each discrete sub-skill (subroutine) is practices separately.

The Learning EnvironmentFeedbackFeedback plays an important role in the learning process because it

provides guidance and helps the performer eradicate movement error.

Feedback can be defined as the information provided to the learner about the nature or result of their performance.

The many types of feedback include: internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results and knowledge of performance.

The relationship between feedback and performance is important.• If the action is highly unsuccessful, then feedback should suggest that

the learner substitute or replace the action.• If the action is unsuccessful, then feedback should suggest that the

learner modify the action.• If the action is successful, then feedback should suggest that the

learner repeat the action.

The Learning EnvironmentFeedback

Internal Feedback:•Occurs as a normal consequence of

performing a skill. It embodies feelings, together with sensory information such as seeing the ball and hearing the sound of a ball hitting the bat. This is known as proprioception and it helps us to develop our kinaesthetic sense or ‘feel’ for a movement and eventually to differentiate between skilful application and error.

The Learning EnvironmentFeedback

External Feedback:•Is referred to all feedback other than that

which occurs as a normal consequence of performing a skill. It includes various forms of external information, such as suggestions from the coach, video replays, judges’ scores and the race results.

The Learning EnvironmentFeedback

Concurrent Feedback:•Is feedback relayed through the body’s

proprioceptive mechanisms simultaneously with skill execution.

•Example: The feedback that a person receives while balancing in a head stand – information from the brain that enables them to maintain poise.

The Learning EnvironmentFeedback

Delayed Feedback:•Is referred to as feedback that is received

at a later stage after skill execution.•Example: Waiting for the result of a

basketball throw. The feedback (a successful or unsuccessful throw) is not received until the ball either enters or misses the basket.

The Learning EnvironmentFeedback

Knowledge of Results:•Is information about the outcome of a

movement. It suggests how successfully the skill was performed.

•Example: How many goals were scored from a number of attempts, or what distance was covered in a long jump.

•It is always external and comes from sources such as coaches or other performers.

The Learning EnvironmentFeedbackKnowledge of Performance:• Is information about the pattern of the

movement during execution. It is more specific to the way in which the skill is performed.

• Example: a comment from a coach about the height of the ball toss during a tennis serve, or the angle of the elbow during the pull phase of butterfly swimming.

• Knowledge of performance gives feedback on the quality of the execution of the skill, it may generate from internal or external sources.

Assessment of Skill and Performance

After having taught skills, assessment needs to be made of the effectiveness of methods used in terms of improvement in performance.

Each type of performance has a number of ways by which it can be measured. It is important to gather information about skill and performance using accurate and well established techniques to ensure true reflection of performance achievement.

Assessment of Skill and PerformanceCharacteristics of Skilled Performers

There is a marked difference between the movements of a skilled performer and those of an unskilled performer.

A skilled performer has certain observable qualities: kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency and technique.

Assessment of Skill and PerformanceCharacteristics of Skilled Performers

Kinaesthetic Sense:•Refers to the system of sensitivity that

exists in the muscles and their attachments.•Skilled performer’s kinaesthetic sense

allows them to ‘feel’ the movement as they perform it. They are able to identify and correct mistakes whilst moving.

• Inexperienced performers make mistakes because their ‘muscle memory’ is not fully developed.

Assessment of Skill and PerformanceCharacteristics of Skilled Performers

Anticipation:• Is the ability to predict the movement or direction of an

object and respond appropriately with timing.• Skilled athletes can quickly and easily predict the

movement of an object. This skill allows them added time in which to respond. A skilled performer can also vary the pace of a movement to confuse their opponent and also provide more opportunity to ensure the movement is performed smoothly and with coordination.

• Unskilled performers have a lack of ability to predict the movement or direction of an object and this can be identified through delayed reactions to stimuli and an inability to execute a required skill within the given time frame.

Assessment of Skill and PerformanceCharacteristics of Skilled Performers

Consistency:•Is the ability to execute a skill repeatedly

with a high degree of success.•A skilled performer is able to perform the

desired movement repeatedly. •An unskilled performer will exhibit errors

during the execution of a skill.

Assessment of Skill and PerformanceCharacteristics of Skilled Performers

Technique:• Is a procedure or practical method applied to a particular

task.

A skilled performer with good technique:• Demonstrates movement that is economical, requiring less

energy than an unskilled performer.• Demonstrates skilful movement, using only essential

muscles.• Displays movement that is aesthetically pleasing.• Has an action that has a better chance of being successful.• Has an action that has a better chance of holding up under

pressure.

Assessment of Skill and PerformanceObjective and Subjective Performance Measures

Objective measurement of skill occurs when the results of a performance are not influenced by the personal opinions of judges e.g. long jump.

Subjective measurement of skills occurs when the results are influenced by the opinion of the judge e.g. evaluating a boxing match. Many sports include judging or refereeing, which have both subjective and objective elements. To overcome criticism of favouritism, human error or inconsistency, many sports try to minimise the subjective nature of judging in their sport. Various methods such as marking criteria, check lists, rating scales, measurement systems and multiple judges are used to increase objectivity.

Assessment of Skill and PerformanceObjective and Subjective Performance Measures

Personal versus Prescribed Judging Criteria:•Personal criteria are the preconceived ideas

or expectations than an individual brings to judge a performance. E.g. A coach selecting a team for the following week based on individuals performance this week.

•Prescribed criteria are established by a sports organisation or body and form the basis of assessment for competitions in that sport or activity.

Assessment of Skill and PerformanceValidity and Reliability of Tests

Assessment of Skill and PerformancePersonal versus Prescribed Judging Criteria

•Personal criteria are the preconceived ideas or expectations than an individual brings to judge a performance. E.g. A coach selecting a team for the following week based on individuals performance this week.

•Prescribed criteria are established by a sports organisation or body and form the basis of assessment for competitions in that sport or activity.