Human–wildlife conflict, unequal knowledge and the failure to conserve the Zanzibar leopard (Panthera pardus adersi)

Helle V. Goldman, Norwegian Polar Institute, goldman@npolar.no & Martin T. Walsh, University of Cambridge, mtw30@cam.ac.ukPresented at the Felid Biology and Conservation Conference, University of Oxford, 17-20 September 2007

1. The Zanzibar leopard and witchcraft Panthera pardus adersi is (or was) a small and small-spotted subspe-cies of leopard endemic to the island of Unguja in the Zanzibar archi-pelago, off the coast of Tanzania. It is thought to have been evolving in isolation from its continental African relatives since at least the end of the last Ice Age, when Unguja was cut off from the East Afri-can mainland by rising sea levels. Rapid human population growth and the expansion of farming in the mid-20th century destroyed leop-ard habitat and decimated their natural prey, bringing them increas-ingly into conflict with people. Villagers explained the growing num-ber of attacks on their children and livestock by theorizing that the leopards responsbile were magically controlled by witches and sent by them to do harm. This theory, which is elaborated in many ways, still dominates indigenous knowledge about the Zanzibar leopard.

2. Campaigns to exterminate the leopardIn the post-war period, villagers in different parts of the island acted on this theory by making several determined attempts to extermi-nate leopards and/or punish the witches believed to own them. After the Zanzibar Revolution in 1964, an island-wide leopard-eradication and witch-finding campaign was organized with government sup-port, and state-subsidized leopard hunting continued into the 1990s as part of national efforts to control animals classified as “vermin”. Although some international authorities had presumed the Zanzi-bar leopard extinct since the early 1970s, the last reported leopard bagged by National Hunters was in 1995. Despite this history of trap-ping and shooting only six museum specimens are known, and P. p. adersi has never been studied in captivity or in the wild.

References and further readingGoldman H.V. & Walsh M.T. 1997. A leopard in jeopardy: an anthropological survey of

perceptions and practices threatening the survival of the Zanzibar leopard (Panthera pardus adersi). Zanzibar Forestry Technical Paper 63. Zanzibar: Commission for Natural Resources.

Goldman H.V. & Walsh M.T. 2002. Is the Zanzibar leopard (Panthera pardus adersi) extinct? Journal of East African Natural History 91, 15–25.

km0 10

Kiwengwa/Pangeni/ Mchangani

Ndudu

Uroa

Bungi-kerenge

Ubago

Ufufuma Forest/ Jendele/Hanyegwa-mchana

Cheju Charawe

Chwaka

Ukongoroni

Mtule

Jambiani

Muyuni/ Kizimkazi/Makunduchi

MuungoniKitogani

Pete Jozani

Leopards reported killed in official records, 1990-1995

Plantations, permanent cultivationThicket, shifting cultivationJozani-Chwaka Bay National Park

1 2 4 5 63

Zanzibar Town

Chaani/Mkwajuni

Tanzania ZANZIBAR

3. The rise and fall of Zanzibar leopard conservationIn 1995, stories of the Zanzibar leopard’s continued survival were con-veyed to the chairman of the IUCN’s Cat Specialist Group. In 1996, a conservation and development project in Zanzibar asked us to inves-tigate indigenous knowledge and practice relating to the leopard. Lo-cal accounts of leopard keeping were so compelling that a number of wildlife researchers had accepted them at face value. We found that there was no evidence for leopard domestication, though there did ap-pear to be an extant wild population. However, in a follow-up survey, a South African wildlife consultant and Cat SG member found no solid evidence for the leopard’s survival, and advised that it was too late to save this felid, even if a few remained. International interest in the conservation of the Zanzibar leopard fizzled out abruptly.

4. Conflicting knowledge, inadequate practice?Disregarding presumptions of the leopard’s extinction, rural Zan-zibaris continue to allege its presence and government officials have discussed schemes for the display of domesticated leopards. This case raises awkward questions about the effectiveness of orthodox con-servation initiatives when human–wildlife conflict is compounded by conflicting scientific and indigenous knowledge about endangered animals. Could the Zanzibar leopard have been saved if local and international authorities had acted together promptly in the 1990s? Should the leopard have been presumed extirpated on the basis of a single survey concentrated in a small area? When should local knowledge be discounted and when should it be given credence? To what lengths should we go to rescue endemics where they are vehe-mently loathed? When their existence is disputed?

Halsted D.C. 1979. Birds and larger mammals of Zanzibar. East African Natural History Society Bulletin March/April, 41–45.

Nowell K. & Jackson P. (eds.) 1996. Wild cats. Gland: IUCN.Pocock R.I. 1932. The leopards of Africa. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London

1932, 543–591.Smithers R.H.N. 1971. Family Felidae. In J. Meesters & H.W. Setzer (eds.) The mammals of

Africa: an identification manual. Pp. 1–10. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.Stuart C. & Stuart T. 1997. A preliminary faunal survey of south-eastern Unguja

with special emphasis on the leopard Panthera pardus adersi. Loxton: African–Ara-bian Wildlife Research Centre.

Walsh M.T. & Goldman H.V. 2003. The Zanzibar leopard: between science and cryp-tozoology. Nature East Africa 33, 14–16.

Walsh M.T. & Goldman H.V. In press. Killing the king: the demonization and exter-mination of the Zanzibar leopard. In E. Dounias et al. (eds.) Le symbolisme des ani-maux: l’animal clef-de-voûte dans la tradition orale et les interactions homme–nature. Pp. 1033–1056. Paris: IRD.

1919 Leopard given legal protection by colonial govt

1971 Smithers pre-sumes Zanzibar leopards extirpated

1997 External consultant finds no solid evidence of leopards during 3-week survey

1950 Following leopard attacks, govt allows killing problem leop-ards with special permission

Late 1960s–early 1970s With govt sup-port, Kitanzi leads national campaign to persecute “leopard keepers” and leop-ards, unknown number of leopards killed

1996 Renewed legal protection of leopards in Zanzibar; Jozani–Chwaka Bay Conservation Project survey of Zan-zibaris’ beliefs about leopards suggests extant population; Nowell & Jackson presume Zanzibar leopards extirpated

1939-43 District Commis-sioner reports 23 leopards killed, despite law

1985–95 National Hunters report bagging more than 100 leopards, 13 leopards re-ported killed in 1993, 13 in 1994, 1 in 1995

1998–2007 No further investiga-tion of leopards, continued reports of sightings & attacks on livestock

1979 Halsted, US Consul in Zanzibar, re-ports seeing leopard skins in shoe factory during his tenure in 1975–77, was told that the authorities were killing 3–4 annually

1940s–60s Various illegal village-based initiatives target leopards & “leopard keepers”

1932 Subspecies P. p. adersi formally described by Pocock