Hymn to AGNI the God of Fire

P.K. Kaw

Institute for Plasma Research

Bhat, Gandhinagar 382428, INDIA

Ahmedabad 2004

Search for sources of energySearch for sources of energy

• Has typically ended with an encounter with Has typically ended with an encounter with Fire – Fire – Agni in one of its manifestations –Agni in one of its manifestations –eithereither fashioning fuels for storage fashioning fuels for storage oror consuming them for energy release.consuming them for energy release.

• As we trace this history we stand in awe of As we trace this history we stand in awe of AGNIAGNI – hence the title in praise of the Lord – hence the title in praise of the Lord of Fire!of Fire!

OutlineOutline

• Why the search ?Why the search ?

• Muscle PowerMuscle Power

• CombustiblesCombustibles

• RenewablesRenewables

• Nuclear PowerNuclear Power

• Future OptionsFuture Options

• EpilogueEpilogue

Why the search ?Why the search ?• Man does not live by bread alone ! Limited Man does not live by bread alone ! Limited

prowess but unlimited dreams. Needs a slave prowess but unlimited dreams. Needs a slave ( ENERGY) to help fulfill his dreams !( ENERGY) to help fulfill his dreams !

• Energy is also required for normal comfortable Energy is also required for normal comfortable living :- heating, cooling, transporting, living :- heating, cooling, transporting, manufacture, cooking etc.manufacture, cooking etc.

• Quality of life ~ Electricity ConsumptionQuality of life ~ Electricity Consumption Huge gap.Huge gap.• Average consumption/person in developed world Average consumption/person in developed world

= 6000 KWH/year ~ 17 KWH/day= 6000 KWH/year ~ 17 KWH/day• In India ~ 1 KWH/day.In India ~ 1 KWH/day.

Units …Units …

• 1 KWH = 1 unit of electricity ~ Rs. 2- 41 KWH = 1 unit of electricity ~ Rs. 2- 4

This is equivalent to energy used in lifting This is equivalent to energy used in lifting 2000 bags of 100 Kg rice by 2 meters .2000 bags of 100 Kg rice by 2 meters .

• Energy that would be supplied by 6 slaves Energy that would be supplied by 6 slaves working full time.working full time.

• Modern man needs energy equivalent of Modern man needs energy equivalent of 100 slaves/person to live in comfort !!!100 slaves/person to live in comfort !!!

Muscle PowerMuscle Power

• First source used by man. His own as well First source used by man. His own as well as that of slaves and animals. Pyramids, as that of slaves and animals. Pyramids, Galley ships …West upto 19Galley ships …West upto 19thth century . century . Has limited utility.Has limited utility.

• Source of energy ~ Food Source of energy ~ Food Average intake per person per day ~ 2500 Average intake per person per day ~ 2500

Cals = 3 KWH. Mostly used up for the Cals = 3 KWH. Mostly used up for the business of staying alive – keeping warm, business of staying alive – keeping warm, repair and maintenance, growth etc.repair and maintenance, growth etc.

Muscle Power (Contd.)Muscle Power (Contd.)

• We may be able to divert 10 % of energy We may be able to divert 10 % of energy during waking hours to do useful work = during waking hours to do useful work = 0.3/2 = 0.15 KWH/day. 0.3/2 = 0.15 KWH/day.

• This explains why we need ~ 100 slaves to This explains why we need ~ 100 slaves to keep 1 modern man in comfort.keep 1 modern man in comfort.

• Not acceptable in free democratic world.Not acceptable in free democratic world.

How do animals (including man) do work and How do animals (including man) do work and generate heat?generate heat?

Animals are controlled furnaces ‘slowly Animals are controlled furnaces ‘slowly burning’ the fuel of food and generating energy:burning’ the fuel of food and generating energy:

Sugars , fats etc. + OSugars , fats etc. + O2 2 COCO22 + H + H22O + energyO + energy

(Food)(Food) (Respiration)(Respiration) Storage and heatStorage and heat

Energy StorageEnergy Storage

Adenosine Adenosine diphosphate diphosphate (ADP)(ADP)

Adenosine Adenosine triphosphate triphosphate (ATP)(ATP)

+Inorganic Inorganic phosphatephosphate

+ energyenergy

ATP is stored in muscles and converted into ADP and ATP is stored in muscles and converted into ADP and muscular energy (by contraction) + heat when we order muscular energy (by contraction) + heat when we order the muscles to do work.the muscles to do work.

Our first encounter with AGNIOur first encounter with AGNI..

Living matter is a slow fire (combustion!) converting Living matter is a slow fire (combustion!) converting energy trapped in food into a usable form.energy trapped in food into a usable form.

Also uses the strategy of employing special catalysts Also uses the strategy of employing special catalysts (enzymes) to give decent rates of reaction at near room (enzymes) to give decent rates of reaction at near room temperatures!temperatures!

CombustiblesCombustibles• Discovery of Fire (direct encounter with AGNI ) Discovery of Fire (direct encounter with AGNI )

25000 years ago. 25000 years ago.• Natural fire – learnt to keep alive by adding Natural fire – learnt to keep alive by adding

combustibles (wood, dry leaves , fat etc.) ; combustibles (wood, dry leaves , fat etc.) ; ignition.ignition.

• Heat (warmth) , light (security) , cook (health) , Heat (warmth) , light (security) , cook (health) , work , metals (improved weapons) .work , metals (improved weapons) .

• First put to work in steam engines of 19First put to work in steam engines of 19 thth century century – led to the industrial revolution and explosive – led to the industrial revolution and explosive growth of western civilization.growth of western civilization.

Combustibles (contd.)Combustibles (contd.)

• Thus began the age of Fossil fuels.

• Internal combustion engine and generators of electricity invented.

• Coal, Oil, Natural gas have become key commodities in the 20th century.

• Availability and price of the fuels determines the pace of world economic development.

Combustibles (contd.)Combustibles (contd.)• Can we depend on them in 21Can we depend on them in 21stst century and century and

beyond ? beyond ? • Let us look at this question in a fundamental way!Let us look at this question in a fundamental way!

Fossil fuels (like coal, oil, gas) are hydrocarbons produced Fossil fuels (like coal, oil, gas) are hydrocarbons produced from plants and animal remains trapped by geological from plants and animal remains trapped by geological upheavals for millions of years under the earth.upheavals for millions of years under the earth.

Like Food they release energy by combustion.Like Food they release energy by combustion.

Hydrocarbons +OHydrocarbons +O22 CO CO22 + H + H22O + energyO + energy

FIRE!!FIRE!!

In either case (food or fossil fuels) energy is liberated In either case (food or fossil fuels) energy is liberated because electronic linkages binding atoms in fuel are weaker because electronic linkages binding atoms in fuel are weaker than those in product molecules.than those in product molecules.

Energy per Energy per carbon atom carbon atom in fuelin fuel

Energy per carbon Energy per carbon atom in COatom in CO22

Energy released / Energy released / carbon atom.carbon atom.

Energy released/mol ~ few eV ~ 10Energy released/mol ~ few eV ~ 10-19-19 Watt secs. Watt secs.1 gm. mol has 6 x 101 gm. mol has 6 x 1023 23 mols.mols.

Total known reserves of fossil fuel ~ 10Total known reserves of fossil fuel ~ 101212 tons. tons. ~ 10~ 101616 KWH of energy KWH of energy

Energy required /year for world Energy required /year for world ~ 5 x 10~ 5 x 109 9 x 6000 KWH x 6000 KWH = 3 x 10= 3 x 101313 KWH KWH

Reserves will last for for 10Reserves will last for for 101616/3 x 10/3 x 1013 13 ~ 300 years.~ 300 years.Detailed estimates show that Oil will finish in 50 Detailed estimates show that Oil will finish in 50 years , Gas in 100 years and Coal in 500 years.years , Gas in 100 years and Coal in 500 years.

Energy in fossil fuelsEnergy in fossil fuels• Food and fossil fuel have energy stored in them in Food and fossil fuel have energy stored in them in

the form of weaker electronic linkages of atoms. the form of weaker electronic linkages of atoms. Where did this energy come from? Where did this energy come from?

• It came from the SUN – that fierce manifestation It came from the SUN – that fierce manifestation of AGNI – in our skies. HOW? of AGNI – in our skies. HOW?

• Solar radiation was utilized by ChlorophyllSolar radiation was utilized by Chlorophyll (green (green colouring matter in plants) colouring matter in plants) to carry out to carry out photosynthesis.photosynthesis.

COCO22 + H + H22O + light energy OO + light energy O22 + sugars, carbohydrates + sugars, carbohydrates

Estimate of fossil fuel reservesSun aims about 10Sun aims about 101717 Watts at earth. Watts at earth.

Of this 0.01 % is trapped by photosynthesis.Of this 0.01 % is trapped by photosynthesis.

About 10About 10-6-6 of the plant matter is stored as of the plant matter is stored as Fossil fuels.Fossil fuels.

101077 Watts for ~ billion years ~ 10 Watts for ~ billion years ~ 101717 KWH of KWH of fuels ~ 10fuels ~ 101313 tons. tons.

Gives an upper bound to fossil fuel reserve.Gives an upper bound to fossil fuel reserve.

Homage toThee, O AGNI in the form of SUNHomage toThee, O AGNI in the form of SUN

Problems with fossil fuelsProblems with fossil fuels

• It has taken almost a billion years to build these It has taken almost a billion years to build these reserves and they can be squandered away in less reserves and they can be squandered away in less than 500 years time.than 500 years time. It is a wealth belonging to all It is a wealth belonging to all future generations. future generations. Should we just burn it ? Should we just burn it ?

• Environment degradation, greenhouse effect, cost Environment degradation, greenhouse effect, cost of clean up. of clean up.

• Uneven distribution Uneven distribution (e.g countries with 6% of (e.g countries with 6% of world population have 66 % oil wealth)world population have 66 % oil wealth) leads to leads to political tensions, wars!political tensions, wars!

• Thus fossil fuel cannot be a long term solution .Thus fossil fuel cannot be a long term solution .

Fossil fuel era in the few thousand year history of mankind

RenewablesAGNI as Sun delivers a lot of energy to earth – AGNI as Sun delivers a lot of energy to earth – albeit in a dilute form.albeit in a dilute form.

8 x 1016 W direct

conversion to heat.(Solar)

4 x 1016 W Evaporation, Precipitation,

Storage in water cycle.

(Hydro)

4 x 1014 W Winds, waves

(Wind)

4 x 1013 W Photosynthesis

Storage in plants

(Biomass)

HydropowerHydropower

Energy of moving water in rivers used since antiquity Energy of moving water in rivers used since antiquity – water mills to grind corn, run irrigation systems, saw – water mills to grind corn, run irrigation systems, saw wood, run textile looms…wood, run textile looms…

Modern version is to run dynamos to generate Modern version is to run dynamos to generate electricity in hydroelectric power stations. electricity in hydroelectric power stations. Non – polluting, low running cost but limited because Non – polluting, low running cost but limited because of geography.of geography.

Potential capacity in India ~ 85 G Watts nearly 10 % Potential capacity in India ~ 85 G Watts nearly 10 % of total requirement in future!of total requirement in future!

Solar PowerSolar PowerToo dilute and diffuse: Not suitable for centralized Too dilute and diffuse: Not suitable for centralized urban industrial complexes. urban industrial complexes. Problems of storage of heat for night, cloudy days.Problems of storage of heat for night, cloudy days. Mostly residential use – solar cooker, water heater etc. Mostly residential use – solar cooker, water heater etc. Electricity plant ~ 35Mwatts/km sq feasibleElectricity plant ~ 35Mwatts/km sq feasible

Solar photovoltaic – direct conversion of sunlight into Solar photovoltaic – direct conversion of sunlight into electricity by semiconductor materialselectricity by semiconductor materials – relatively – relatively expensive, high maintenance and inefficientexpensive, high maintenance and inefficient – has – has found applications in specialized niche areas like space found applications in specialized niche areas like space vehicle power systems, remote places etc.vehicle power systems, remote places etc.

Wind PowerWind Power

BiomassBiomass

Limited applicability in certain areas with high wind Limited applicability in certain areas with high wind velocity like coastal areas of Tamilnadu & Gujaratvelocity like coastal areas of Tamilnadu & Gujarat

Fast growing cash crops used for direct burning or Fast growing cash crops used for direct burning or conversion into alcohols for use as liquid fuels or conversion into alcohols for use as liquid fuels or conversion into bio gas . Could be integrated with local conversion into bio gas . Could be integrated with local rural economics. rural economics. Not a major player in total energy Not a major player in total energy scene but scene but Significant social consequences for a country like India !

Nuclear Energy Nuclear Energy

Sun has been burning brightly for 5 billion Sun has been burning brightly for 5 billion years. It has spewed out years. It has spewed out 10101717 Watts x 10 Watts x 1088 x 5 x 10 x 5 x 109 9 x 3 x 10x 3 x 1077 = 10 = 104242 Joules. Joules.

( 1 KWH = 3.6 Million Joules )( 1 KWH = 3.6 Million Joules )

of energy. It has a mass of ~ 10of energy. It has a mass of ~ 103333 gms. Even gms. Even if every atom burnt in a chemical fire, if every atom burnt in a chemical fire, rearranging electronic linkages, we would at rearranging electronic linkages, we would at best produce 10best produce 103838 Joules. Joules. AGNI in sun is an AGNI in sun is an unusual fire ! It is a unusual fire ! It is a thermonuclearthermonuclear fire !! fire !!

Nuclear EnergyNuclear EnergyNuclear energy discovered in 20Nuclear energy discovered in 20thth century. century.Einstein showed that mass and energy are interconvertible.Einstein showed that mass and energy are interconvertible.

2mcE Energy releasedEnergy released

Mass lostMass lost

Here c is the Here c is the velocity of light.velocity of light.

10104242 Joules of energy may be produced by loss of 10 Joules of energy may be produced by loss of 102828 gms. i.e. 1/100,000 of the Sun’s mass. This mass loss gms. i.e. 1/100,000 of the Sun’s mass. This mass loss would not have any other drastic consequence on Sun.would not have any other drastic consequence on Sun.

Nuclear Fission and Fusion

Bohr – Rutherford model already showed that the mass Bohr – Rutherford model already showed that the mass of atom is concentrated in nucleus.of atom is concentrated in nucleus.Hence nuclear reactions – as opposed to chemical Hence nuclear reactions – as opposed to chemical reactions could change mass and release energy.reactions could change mass and release energy.

FissionFissionU + n fission U + n fission

fragments.fragments.Heavy nucleiHeavy nuclei

FusionFusionD+T He +n D+T He +n

+17.6 MeV. +17.6 MeV. Light NucleiLight Nuclei

Mass is lost and energy is released Mass is lost and energy is released

Energy/nucleon Energy/nucleon in Uraniumin Uranium Energy/nucleon in Energy/nucleon in

Fe nucleus.Fe nucleus. Most Most stable nucleus stable nucleus which is bound which is bound intensely.intensely.

Energy/nucleon Energy/nucleon in D, Tin D, T

Nuclear energy released / nucleus ~ 10Nuclear energy released / nucleus ~ 106 6 times the times the chemical release /atom.chemical release /atom.

Sun releases its energy by thermonuclear fusion of protons:Sun releases its energy by thermonuclear fusion of protons:

4 protons4 protons Helium + electrons + energyHelium + electrons + energy

Need for high temperatures. Need for high temperatures. Containment by gravitation on Sun.Containment by gravitation on Sun.

Fission and Fusion energy on earthFission and Fusion energy on earthAtomic and Hydrogen Bombs.Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs.Controlled reactors for Electricity Production.Controlled reactors for Electricity Production.

Fission Reactors Commercially exploited > 50 yrsFission Reactors Commercially exploited > 50 yrs

France 75 % France 75 % USA 25% USA 25% Japan 33% Japan 33% Korea 40% Korea 40% India 3%India 3% 15% by 202015% by 2020

Radioactive waste problemRadiation Hazard – 3 mile island, ChernobyllFuel Proliferation

Why Fusion ?Why Fusion ?• Fuel is limitless! Fuel is limitless! D (1 part in 6000 of sea water)D (1 part in 6000 of sea water) T bred from Lithium (earth’s crust +oceans)T bred from Lithium (earth’s crust +oceans) Gives energy security to all nations.Gives energy security to all nations.• Waste Products minimalWaste Products minimal - reaction products non radio –active- reaction products non radio –active - neutron induced radio – activity in vessel etc. - neutron induced radio – activity in vessel etc.

can be minimized by use of low activation can be minimized by use of low activation materials.materials.

- radioactivity can be eliminated in advanced - radioactivity can be eliminated in advanced reactors (p-B, D- Hereactors (p-B, D- He33 etc.). etc.).

Why Fusion ?Why Fusion ?

• Inherently safe system.Inherently safe system.

no chain reaction, melt down etc.no chain reaction, melt down etc.

• No dangers of proliferationNo dangers of proliferation

• No Atmospheric pollutionNo Atmospheric pollution (no CO(no CO2 ,2 , GHG GHG

etc.)etc.) Tritium leakage problem minimal Tritium leakage problem minimal since it is continuously bred.since it is continuously bred.

With so many merits, stakes in the With so many merits, stakes in the development of FUSION are Colossal !!development of FUSION are Colossal !!

How to achieve Fusion?How to achieve Fusion?

• Heat the fuel mixture to 100 million degrees and Heat the fuel mixture to 100 million degrees and get conditions such that get conditions such that

Density x Temp x confinement time > 5.1021m-3 keV secs.

• Ignition of thermonuclear Ignition of thermonuclear AGNIAGNI• He nuclei keep the fuel hot. Neutrons take energy He nuclei keep the fuel hot. Neutrons take energy

out, trapped in blanket like fission reactor.out, trapped in blanket like fission reactor.• Mixture at sub-atmospheric densities (~10Mixture at sub-atmospheric densities (~102020 m m-3-3) to ) to

be held and thermally isolated for seconds.be held and thermally isolated for seconds.

Fuel is in a Plasma StateFuel is in a Plasma State

D + T He +n +17.6MeVD + T He +n +17.6MeV

Figure 4a Components of a fusion reactor Figure 4a Components of a fusion reactor  

Confining Plasma …Confining Plasma …

• Can be held in cages made of non material Can be held in cages made of non material magnetic field lines – Magnetic bottles. magnetic field lines – Magnetic bottles.

Ex:Ex: TOKAMAKS TOKAMAKS

• Plasma heated by currents and microwaves.Plasma heated by currents and microwaves.

• Once the Fire ignites it stays hot and we Once the Fire ignites it stays hot and we simply keep adding more and more fuel.simply keep adding more and more fuel.

 

Figure 5 Progress in the critical Figure 5 Progress in the critical parameters for fusion reactor experimentsparameters for fusion reactor experiments

ITER: International thermonuclear ITER: International thermonuclear Experimental ReactorExperimental Reactor

• Is the flagship experiment being built at a Is the flagship experiment being built at a cost of 5 billion US dollars cost of 5 billion US dollars

• Original parties:Original parties: US, Russia, Europe, Japan. US, Russia, Europe, Japan.• Recent Additions:Recent Additions: China, Korea, Canada. China, Korea, Canada.• Each partner contributing around ½ billion Each partner contributing around ½ billion

dollars (Rs. 2500 crores). dollars (Rs. 2500 crores). • Experiment ready by 2012. Will pave the Experiment ready by 2012. Will pave the

way for DEMO ~ operational by 2030. way for DEMO ~ operational by 2030. • First commercial reactors available in 2035-First commercial reactors available in 2035-

2050.2050.

Our National ProgrammeOur National Programme

• Started in mid eighties at the Institute for Started in mid eighties at the Institute for Plasma Research, Gandhinagar.Plasma Research, Gandhinagar.

• First indigenously built tokamak ADITYA First indigenously built tokamak ADITYA started operation in 1989.started operation in 1989.

• ADITYA routinely makes a few million ADITYA routinely makes a few million degrees hot artificial sun and holds it in degrees hot artificial sun and holds it in magnetic cages for fractions of a second.magnetic cages for fractions of a second.

 

Figure 7 Figure 7 ADITYA , the ADITYA , the indigenously indigenously built tokamak at built tokamak at Institute for Institute for Plasma Research Plasma Research , Gandhinagar, Gandhinagar

Our National Programme (contd.)Our National Programme (contd.)• Our second generation experiment: Steady Our second generation experiment: Steady

State superconducting tokamak SST1 will State superconducting tokamak SST1 will be ready for experiments in 2004. be ready for experiments in 2004.

• Plasma temperature will be 20 –40 million Plasma temperature will be 20 –40 million degrees. It will be the first experiment in the degrees. It will be the first experiment in the world holding a hot tokamak plasma for world holding a hot tokamak plasma for 1000 seconds and will give a preview of 1000 seconds and will give a preview of some features of ITER physics on a small some features of ITER physics on a small scale.scale.

Figure 8 SST 1 , the superconducting steady state tokamak , which will hold a fusion plasma for a 1000 seconds , being fabricated and assembled at Institute for Plasma Research , Gandhinagar

Summary and Future OptionsSummary and Future Options• Muscle power and fossil fuel are out. Nuclear

energy, specially thermonuclear fusion fire is definitely in. Renewables like hydro, wind, solar etc. are in but may play a subsidiary role.

• New ideas on improved utilization of solar by genetically engineered accelerated photosynthesis/dissociation exist, e.g. work is going on development of algae/bacteria which would use sunlight and water as inputs and generate hydrogen as a product.

Some Future Options (contd.)Some Future Options (contd.)• Hydrogen is an excellent fuel – gas, readily

transportable by pipes – produces non – polluting water in combustion. Hydrogen economy will take over from Carbon economy anyway!

• Another attractive idea is to put solar power stations on satellites –

- they would see sun all the times - they would not occupy valuable real estate. - would not be effected by dust, atmosphere etc. - would send concentrated energy through

microwave beams to ground power stations.

Fig. 9 The Solar satellite concept

Some Future Options (contd.)Some Future Options (contd.)

• A dreamer, Freeman Dyson, has asked – Why should we be satisfied with 10-8 of Sun’s energy, which it aims at us?

With improved engineering skills – trap all of Sun’s energy on spherical shell of material from Saturn at Jupiter’s orbit.

Advanced civilizations may already be doing this.

Figure 10 Our Sun surrounded by the Dyson sphere collecting all of sun’s radiation and beaming the energy to earth. 

 

EpilogueEpilogue• Explorations into search for new sources of energy

has led us into interesting alleys of fundamental science.

• Most sources were traced to nuclear fire inside the Sun or some day in our reactors.

• Where does energy trapped in nuclear fuels come from?

• Genesis of elements – nucleosynthesis of light and heavy nuclei.

• In the beginning there was the BIG BANG! The primordial FIRE or the earliest AGNI.

Epilogue (contd.)Epilogue (contd.)• It started with a ball of radiation which expanded,

cooled and formed a quark gluon plasma. As the ball cooled further, the quarks condensed into protons, neutrons and some of the lightest elements like He, Li, B … etc.

• Heavier elements like C, N, O … are formed in the fusion furnaces of young stars. Elements beyond Fe are formed by neutron capture processes.

• We see a rich variety of elements because cooking in the primitive universe and stars is imperfect. Perfect cooking would have led to Fe everywhere.

What are we ? A deeper look at ourselves What are we ? A deeper look at ourselves

• Made of natural elements H, C, N, O … • Our atoms are billions of years old !• Each H nucleus of my body was fashioned from

quarks in that primeval AGNI 14 billion years ago.

• Each C,N, O nucleus has been fashioned in the fusion furnace of some star, spewed out into space during its death – throes and picked up by the gas clouds from which our Sun and its planets have emerged.

Thus we may verily say to AGNI: Thus we may verily say to AGNI:

Thou art the SourceThou art the SourceAnd fashioned every limb of mine …And fashioned every limb of mine …Thou art the sustainer Thou art the sustainer And provide energy to keep me together …And provide energy to keep me together …And when I am ready to SleepAnd when I am ready to SleepInto thy bosom will I disappear!Into thy bosom will I disappear!

In expressing our deepest yearnings, our sentiments In expressing our deepest yearnings, our sentiments are no different form our RIGVEDIC ancestors are no different form our RIGVEDIC ancestors who sangwho sang Hymns to AGNI!!Hymns to AGNI!!

Figure 6 Figure 6 ITER , the ITER , the International International Thermo-Thermo-nuclear nuclear Experimental Experimental ReactorReactor  

Our National Programme (contd.)Our National Programme (contd.)• Our projected plan calls for SST2 expt in 2015-20 Our projected plan calls for SST2 expt in 2015-20

time frame. SST2 will be a prototype fusion time frame. SST2 will be a prototype fusion breeder which will use neutrons from the fusion breeder which will use neutrons from the fusion fire to breed fissile material from Thorium.fire to breed fissile material from Thorium.

• If pure fusion makes unqualified progress by then If pure fusion makes unqualified progress by then we will follow that path.we will follow that path.

• Otherwise we will continue the path of hybrid Otherwise we will continue the path of hybrid development in which fusion fire will be used to development in which fusion fire will be used to exploit our enormous deposits of Thorium into exploit our enormous deposits of Thorium into fissile material for use in fission reactors.fissile material for use in fission reactors.

Figure 4 b Figure 4 b Magnetic Magnetic Bottles ...the Bottles ...the Tokamak Tokamak Concept Concept where the where the magnetic cage magnetic cage is produced by is produced by a combination a combination of plasma of plasma currents and currents and external coil external coil currentscurrents  

Progress and OutlookProgress and Outlook

• Early experiments showed that tokamak Early experiments showed that tokamak plasmas lose heat more rapidly than they plasmas lose heat more rapidly than they should!should! Traced to theTraced to the Collective effectsCollective effects or or mob mentality of matter in Plasma state!mob mentality of matter in Plasma state!Gives electromagnetic storms which makes Gives electromagnetic storms which makes the bottles leaky.the bottles leaky.

• It has taken 4 decades to learn enough of It has taken 4 decades to learn enough of plasma science to know how to plug these plasma science to know how to plug these leaks. leaks.

Phenomenal progress in past Phenomenal progress in past decadedecade

• Temperatures upto 400 million degrees.Temperatures upto 400 million degrees.• nTnT within striking distance of ignition. within striking distance of ignition.• Fusion power output ~ 16 Mwatts sustained for Fusion power output ~ 16 Mwatts sustained for

seconds. seconds. • Reactor Size plasmas (millions of Amps of current Reactor Size plasmas (millions of Amps of current

and several cubic meters in volume) manipulatedand several cubic meters in volume) manipulated• Next Step Experiments:Next Step Experiments: Will study Burning Will study Burning

plasmas, Steady State devices and Fusion plasmas, Steady State devices and Fusion materials.materials.