IL PRINCIPE (The Prince 1532) by Niccolo Machiavelli

7/28/2019 IL PRINCIPE (The Prince 1532) by Niccolo Machiavelli

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The Princeby Niccolo Machiavelli

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INTRODUCTION

Nicolo Machiavelli was born at Florence on rd Ma! "#$%. &e was the second son of'ernardo di Nicolo Machiavelli( a law!er of some rep)te( and of 'artolommea di *tefanoNelli( his wife. 'oth parents were members of the old Florentine nobilit!.

&is life falls nat)rall! into three periods( each of which sin+)larl! eno)+h constit)tes adistinct and important era in the histor! of Florence. &is !o)th was conc)rrent with the+reatness of Florence as an Italian power )nder the +)idance of ,oren-o de Medici( IlMa+nifico. The downfall of the Medici in Florence occ)rred in "#%#( in which !earMachiavelli entered the p)blic service. D)rin+ his official career Florence was free )nderthe +overnment of a Rep)blic( which lasted )ntil "/"0( when the Medici ret)rned topower( and Machiavelli lost his office. The Medici a+ain r)led Florence from "/"0 )ntil"/01( when the! were once more driven o)t. This was the period of Machiavellis literar!activit! and increasin+ infl)ence2 b)t he died( within a few wee3s of the e4p)lsion of theMedici( on 00nd 5)ne "/01( in his fift!6ei+hth !ear( witho)t havin+ re+ained office.

7OUT& 8et. "60/66"#$%6%#

8ltho)+h there is little recorded of the !o)th of Machiavelli( the Florence of those da!s isso well 3nown that the earl! environment of this representative citi-en ma! be easil!ima+ined. Florence has been described as a cit! with two opposite c)rrents of life( onedirected b! the fervent and a)stere *avonarola( the other b! the splendo)r6 lovin+,oren-o. *avonarolas infl)ence )pon the !o)n+ Machiavelli m)st have been sli+ht( for

altho)+h at one time he wielded immense power over the fort)nes of Florence( he onl!f)rnished Machiavelli with a s)b9ect of a +ibe in :The Prince(: where he is cited as ane4ample of an )narmed prophet who came to a bad end. ;hereas the ma+nificence ofthe Medicean r)le d)rin+ the life of ,oren-o appeared to have impressed Machiavellistron+l!( for he fre)ido( Machiavelli shows wh! !o)th sho)ld avail itselfof its opport)nities for st)d!( and leads )s to infer that his own !o)th had been soocc)pied. &e writes= :I have received !o)r letter( which has +iven me the +reatestpleas)re( especiall! beca)se !o) tell me !o) are od +rant life to !o)( and to me( I hope to ma3e a +oodman of !o) if !o) are willin+ to do !o)r share.: Then( writin+ of a new patron( hecontin)es= :This will t)rn o)t well for !o)( b)t it is necessar! for !o) to st)d!2 since(then( !o) have no lon+er the e4c)se of illness( ta3e pains to st)d! letters and m)sic( for
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!o) see what hono)r is done to me for the little s3ill I have. Therefore( m! son( if !o)wish to please me( and to brin+ s)ccess and hono)r to !o)rself( do ri+ht and st)d!(beca)se others will help !o) if !o) help !o)rself.:

OFFIC? 8et. 0/6#66"#%#6"/"0

The second period of Machiavellis life was spent in the service of the free Rep)blic ofFlorence( which flo)rished( as stated above( from the e4p)lsion of the Medici in "#%#)ntil their ret)rn in "/"0. 8fter servin+ fo)r !ears in one of the p)blic offices he wasappointed Chancellor and *ecretar! to the *econd Chancer!( the Ten of ,ibert! andPeace. &ere we are on firm +ro)nd when dealin+ with the events of Machiavellis life( ford)rin+ this time he too3 a leadin+ part in the affairs of the Rep)blic( and we have itsdecrees( records( and dispatches to +)ide )s( as well as his own writin+s. 8 mererecapit)lation of a few of his transactions with the statesmen and soldiers of his time+ives a fair indication of his activities( and s)pplies the so)rces from which he drew thee4periences and characters which ill)strate :The Prince.:

&is first mission was in "#%% to Catherina *for-a( :m! lad! of Forli: of :The Prince(:from whose cond)ct and fate he drew the moral that it is far better to earn the confidenceof the people than to rel! on fortresses. This is a ver! noticeable principle in Machiavelli(and is )r+ed b! him in man! wa!s as a matter of vital importance to princes.

In "/@@ he was sent to France to obtain terms from ,o)is AII for contin)in+ the wara+ainst Pisa= this 3in+ it was who( in his cond)ct of affairs in Ital!( committed the fivecapital errors in statecraft s)mmari-ed in :The Prince(: and was conse


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It was to 5)li)s II that Machiavelli was sent in "/@$( when that pontiff was commencin+his enterprise a+ainst 'olo+na2 which he bro)+ht to a s)ccessf)l iss)e( as he did man! ofhis other advent)res( owin+ chiefl! to his impet)o)s character. It is in reference to Pope5)li)s that Machiavelli morali-es on the resemblance between Fort)ne and women( andconcl)des that it is the bold rather than the ca)tio)s man that will win and hold them

both.

It is impossible to follow here the var!in+ fort)nes of the Italian states( which in "/@1were controlled b! France( *pain( and >erman!( with res)lts that have lasted to o)r da!2we are concerned with those events( and with the three +reat actors in them( so far onl!as the! impin+e on the personalit! of Machiavelli. &e had several meetin+s with ,o)isAII of France( and his estimate of that monarchs character has alread! been all)ded to.Machiavelli has painted Ferdinand of 8ra+on as the man who accomplished +reat thin+s)nder the cloa3 of reli+ion( b)t who in realit! had no merc!( faith( h)manit!( or inte+rit!2and who( had he allowed himself to be infl)enced b! s)ch motives( wo)ld have beenr)ined. The ?mperor Ma4imilian was one of the most interestin+ men of the a+e( and hischaracter has been drawn b! man! hands2 b)t Machiavelli( who was an envo! at his

co)rt in "/@16E( reveals the secret of his man! fail)res when he describes him as asecretive man( witho)t force of character66i+norin+ the h)man a+encies necessar! tocarr! his schemes into effect( and never insistin+ on the f)lfilment of his wishes.

The remainin+ !ears of Machiavellis official career were filled with events arisin+ o)t ofthe ,ea+)e of Cambrai( made in "/@E between the three +reat ?)ropean powers alread!mentioned and the pope( with the ob9ect of cr)shin+ the Benetian Rep)blic. This res)lt

was attained in the battle of Baila( when Benice lost in one da! all that she had won inei+ht h)ndred !ears. Florence had a diffic)lt part to pla! d)rin+ these events(complicated as the! were b! the fe)d which bro3e o)t between the pope and the French(

beca)se friendship with France had dictated the entire polic! of the Rep)blic. ;hen( in"/""( 5)li)s II finall! formed the &ol! ,ea+)e a+ainst France( and with the assistance ofthe *wiss drove the French o)t of Ital!( Florence la! at the merc! of the Pope( and had tos)bmit to his terms( one of which was that the Medici sho)ld be restored. The ret)rn ofthe Medici to Florence on "st *eptember "/"0( and the conse


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becomin+l! re6clothed I pass into the ancient co)rts of the men of old( where( bein+lovin+l! received b! them( I am fed with that food which is mine alone2 where I do nothesitate to spea3 with them( and to as3 for the reason of their actions( and the! in their

beni+nit! answer me2 and for fo)r ho)rs I feel no weariness( I for+et ever! tro)ble(povert! does not disma!( death does not terrif! me2 I am possessed entirel! b! those+reat men. 8nd beca)se Dante sa!s=

nowled+e doth come of learnin+ well retained( Unfr)itf)l else(

I have noted down what I have +ained from their conversation( and have composed asmall wor3 on Principalities( where I po)r m!self o)t as f)ll! as I can in meditation onthe s)b9ect( disc)ssin+ what a principalit! is( what 3inds there are( how the! can beaci)liano. Filippo Casavecchio hasseen it2 he will be able to tell !o) what is in it( and of the disco)rses I have had with him2nevertheless( I am still enrichin+ and polishin+ it.:

The :little boo3: s)ffered man! vicissit)des before attainin+ the form in which it hasreached )s. Bario)s mental infl)ences were at wor3 d)rin+ its composition2 its title andpatron were chan+ed2 and for some )n3nown reason it was finall! dedicated to ,oren-ode Medici. 8ltho)+h Machiavelli disc)ssed with Casavecchio whether it sho)ld be sentor presented in person to the patron( there is no evidence that ,oren-o ever received oreven read it= he certainl! never +ave Machiavelli an! emplo!ment. 8ltho)+h it waspla+iari-ed d)rin+ Machiavellis lifetime( :The Prince: was never p)blished b! him( andits te4t is still disp)table.

Machiavelli concl)des his letter to Bettori th)s= :8nd as to this little thin+ Ghis boo3H(when it has been read it will be seen that d)rin+ the fifteen !ears I have +iven to thest)d! of statecraft I have neither slept nor idled2 and men o)+ht ever to desire to beserved b! one who has reaped e4perience at the e4pense of others. 8nd of m! lo!alt!none co)ld do)bt( beca)se havin+ alwa!s 3ept faith I co)ld not now learn how to brea3it2 for he who has been faithf)l and honest( as I have( cannot chan+e his nat)re2 and m!povert! is a witness to m! honest!.:

'efore Machiavelli had +ot :The Prince: off his hands he commenced his :Disco)rse onthe First Decade of Tit)s ,ivi)s(: which sho)ld be read conc)rrentl! with :The Prince.:These and several minor wor3s occ)pied him )ntil the !ear "/"E( when he accepted asmall commission to loo3 after the affairs of some Florentine merchants at >enoa. In"/"% the Medicean r)lers of Florence +ranted a few political concessions to her citi-ens(

and Machiavelli with others was cons)lted )pon a new constit)tion )nder which the>reat Co)ncil was to be restored2 b)t on one prete4t or another it was not prom)l+ated.

In "/0@ the Florentine merchants a+ain had reco)rse to Machiavelli to settle theirdiffic)lties with ,)cca( b)t this !ear was chiefl! remar3able for his re6entr! intoFlorentine literar! societ!( where he was m)ch so)+ht after( and also for the prod)ctionof his :8rt of ;ar.: It was in the same !ear that he received a commission at the instanceof Cardinal de Medici to write the :&istor! of Florence(: a tas3 which occ)pied him )ntil


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"/0/. &is ret)rn to pop)lar favo)r ma! have determined the Medici to +ive him thisemplo!ment( for an old writer observes that :an able statesman o)t of wor3( li3e a h)+e

whale( will endeavo)r to overt)rn the ship )nless he has an empt! cas3 to pla! with.:

;hen the :&istor! of Florence: was finished( Machiavelli too3 it to Rome forpresentation to his patron( >i)liano de Medici( who had in the meanwhile become pope)nder the title of Clement BII. It is somewhat remar3able that( as( in "/"( Machiavellihad written :The Prince: for the instr)ction of the Medici after the! had 9)st re+ainedpower in Florence( so( in "/0/( he dedicated the :&istor! of Florence: to the head of thefamil! when its r)in was now at hand. In that !ear the battle of Pavia destro!ed theFrench r)le in Ital!( and left Francis I a prisoner in the hands of his +reat rival( Charles

B. This was followed b! the sac3 of Rome( )pon the news of which the pop)lar part! atFlorence threw off the !o3e of the Medici( who were once more banished.

Machiavelli was absent from Florence at this time( b)t hastened his ret)rn( hopin+ tosec)re his former office of secretar! to the :Ten of ,ibert! and Peace.: Unhappil! he wasta3en ill soon after he reached Florence( where he died on 00nd 5)ne "/01.


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T&? M8N 8ND &I* ;OR*

No one can sa! where the bones of Machiavelli rest( b)t modern Florence has decreedhim a statel! cenotaph in *anta Croce( b! the side of her most famo)s sons2 reco+ni-in+that( whatever other nations ma! have fo)nd in his wor3s( Ital! fo)nd in them the idea ofher )nit! and the +erms of her renaissance amon+ the nations of ?)rope. ;hilst it is idleto protest a+ainst the world6wide and evil si+nification of his name( it ma! be pointed o)tthat the harsh constr)ction of his doctrine which this sinister rep)tation implies was)n3nown to his own da!( and that the researches of recent times have enabled )s tointerpret him more reasonabl!. It is d)e to these in


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It is the cr! of a far later da! than Machiavellis that +overnment sho)ld be elevated intoa livin+ moral force( capable of inspirin+ the people with a 9)st reco+nition of thef)ndamental principles of societ!2 to this :hi+h ar+)ment: :The Prince: contrib)tes b)tlittle. Machiavelli alwa!s ref)sed to write either of men or of +overnments otherwise thanas he fo)nd them( and he writes with s)ch s3ill and insi+ht that his wor3 is of abidin+

val)e. ')t what invests :The Prince: with more than a merel! artistic or historicalinterest is the incontrovertible tr)th that it deals with the +reat principles which still+)ide nations and r)lers in their relationship with each other and their nei+hbo)rs.

In translatin+ :The Prince: m! aim has been to achieve at all costs an e4act literalrenderin+ of the ori+inal( rather than a fl)ent paraphrase adapted to the modern notionsof st!le and e4pression. Machiavelli was no facile phrasemon+er2 the conditions )nder

which he wrote obli+ed him to wei+h ever! word2 his themes were loft!( his s)bstance+rave( his manner nobl! plain and serio)s. :)is eo f)it )nreece( wo)ld b! an?li-abethan be correctl! rendered :entertain(: and ever! contemporar! reader wo)ld)nderstand what was meant b! sa!in+ that :Rome entertained the 8etolians and the

8chaeans witho)t a)+mentin+ their power.: ')t to6da! s)ch a phrase wo)ld seemobsolete and ambi+)o)s( if not )nmeanin+= we are compelled to sa! that :Romemaintained friendl! relations with the 8etolians(: etc.( )sin+ fo)r words to do the wor3 ofone. I have tried to preserve the pith! brevit! of the Italian so far as was consistent withan absol)te fidelit! to the sense. If the res)lt be an occasional asperit! I can onl! hopethat the reader( in his ea+erness to reach the a)thors meanin+( ma! overloo3 the

ro)+hness of the road that leads him to it.

The followin+ is a list of the wor3s of Machiavelli=

Principal wor3s. Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa( "#%%2 Del modo di trattare i popoli dellaBaldichiana ribellati( "/@02 Del modo ten)to dal d)ca Balentino nell amma--areBitello--o Bitelli( Oliverotto da Fermo( etc.( "/@02 Discorso sopra la provisione deldanaro( "/@02 Decennale primo poem in ter-a rima( "/@$2 Ritratti delle cose dell

8lema+na( "/@E6"02 Decennale secondo( "/@%2 Ritratti delle cose di Francia( "/"@2Discorsi sopra la prima deca di T. ,ivio( vols.( "/"06"12 Il Principe( "/"2 8ndria(comed! translated from Terence( "/" J2 Mandra+ola( prose comed! in five acts( with

prolo+)e in verse( "/"2 Della lin+)a dialo+)e( "/"#2 Cli-ia( comed! in prose( "/"/ J2'elfa+or arcidiavolo novel( "/"/2 8sino doro poem in ter-a rima( "/"12 Dell arte della+)erra( "/"%60@2 Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firen-e( "/0@2 *ommario dellecose della citta di ,)cca( "/0@2 Bita di Castr)ccio Castracani da ,)cca( "/0@2 Istoriefiorentine( E boo3s( "/0"6/2 Frammenti storici( "/0/.

Other poems incl)de *onetti( Can-oni( Ottave( and Canti carnascialeschi.


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?ditions. 8ldo( Benice( "/#$2 della Tertina( "//@2 Cambia+i( Florence( $ vols.( "1E06/2 deiClassici( Milan( "@ "E"2 *ilvestri( % vols.( "E0@602 Passerini( Fanfani( Milanesi( $ vols.onl! p)blished( "E161.

Minor wor3s. ?d. F. ,. Polidori( "E/02 ,ettere familiari( ed. ?. 8lvisi( "EE( 0 editions(one with e4cisions2 Credited ;ritin+s( ed. >. Canestrini( "E/12 ,etters to F. Bettori( see

8. Ridolfi( Pensieri intorno allo scopo di N. Machiavelli nel libro Il Principe( etc.2 D.Ferrara( The Private Correspondence of Nicolo Machiavelli( "%0%.


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D?DIC8TION

To the Ma+nificent ,oren-o Di Piero De Medici=

Those who strive to obtain the +ood +races of a prince are acc)stomed to come beforehim with s)ch thin+s as the! hold most precio)s( or in which the! see him ta3e mostdeli+ht2 whence one often sees horses( arms( cloth of +old( precio)s stones( and similarornaments presented to princes( worth! of their +reatness.

Desirin+ therefore to present m!self to !o)r Ma+nificence with some testimon! of m!devotion towards !o)( I have not fo)nd amon+ m! possessions an!thin+ which I holdmore dear than( or val)e so m)ch as( the 3nowled+e of the actions of +reat men( ac


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C&8PT?R I

&O; M8N7 IND* OF PRINCIP8,ITI?* T&?R? 8R?( 8ND '7 ;&8T M?8N* T&?78R? 8CUIR?D

8ll states( all powers( that have held and hold r)le over men have been and are eitherrep)blics or principalities.

Principalities are either hereditar!( in which the famil! has been lon+ established2 or the!are new.

The new are either entirel! new( as was Milan to Francesco *for-a( or the! are( as it were(members anne4ed to the hereditar! state of the prince who has ac


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C&8PT?R II

CONC?RNIN> &?R?DIT8R7 PRINCIP8,ITI?*

I will leave o)t all disc)ssion on rep)blics( inasm)ch as in another place I have written ofthem at len+th( and will address m!self onl! to principalities. In doin+ so I will 3eep tothe order indicated above( and disc)ss how s)ch principalities are to be r)led andpreserved.

I sa! at once there are fewer diffic)lties in holdin+ hereditar! states( and those lon+acc)stomed to the famil! of their prince( than new ones2 for it is s)fficient onl! not totrans+ress the c)stoms of his ancestors( and to deal pr)dentl! with circ)mstances as the!arise( for a prince of avera+e powers to maintain himself in his state( )nless he bedeprived of it b! some e4traordinar! and e4cessive force2 and if he sho)ld be so deprivedof it( whenever an!thin+ sinister happens to the )s)rper( he will re+ain it.

;e have in Ital!( for e4ample( the D)3e of Ferrara( who co)ld not have withstood the

attac3s of the Benetians in E#( nor those of Pope 5)li)s in "@( )nless he had been lon+established in his dominions. For the hereditar! prince has less ca)se and less necessit!to offend2 hence it happens that he will be more loved2 and )nless e4traordinar! vicesca)se him to be hated( it is reasonable to e4pect that his s)b9ects will be nat)rall! welldisposed towards him2 and in the anti


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C&8PT?R III

CONC?RNIN> MIA?D PRINCIP8,ITI?*

')t the diffic)lties occ)r in a new principalit!. 8nd firstl!( if it be not entirel! new( b)t is(as it were( a member of a state which( ta3en collectivel!( ma! be called composite( thechan+es arise chiefl! from an inherent diffic)lt! which there is in all new principalities2for men chan+e their r)lers willin+l!( hopin+ to better themselves( and this hope ind)cesthem to ta3e )p arms a+ainst him who r)les= wherein the! are deceived( beca)se the!afterwards find b! e4perience the! have +one from bad to worse. This follows also onanother nat)ral and common necessit!( which alwa!s ca)ses a new prince to b)rdenthose who have s)bmitted to him with his soldier! and with infinite other hardships

which he m)st p)t )pon his new ac


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seen in 'rittan!( ')r+)nd!( >ascon!( and Normand!( which have been bo)nd to Francefor so lon+ a time= and( altho)+h there ma! be some difference in lan+)a+e( neverthelessthe c)stoms are ali3e( and the people will easil! be able to +et on amon+st themselves.&e who has anne4ed them( if he wishes to hold them( has onl! to bear in mind twoconsiderations= the one( that the famil! of their former lord is e4tin+)ished2 the other(that neither their laws nor their ta4es are altered( so that in a ver! short time the! will

become entirel! one bod! with the old principalit!.

')t when states are ac


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an! accident( +et a footin+ there2 for it will alwa!s happen that s)ch a one will beintrod)ced b! those who are discontented( either thro)+h e4cess of ambition or thro)+hfear( as one has seen alread!. The Romans were bro)+ht into >reece b! the 8etolians2and in ever! other co)ntr! where the! obtained a footin+ the! were bro)+ht in b! theinhabitants. 8nd the )s)al co)rse of affairs is that( as soon as a powerf)l forei+ner entersa co)ntr!( all the s)b9ect states are drawn to him( moved b! the hatred which the! feela+ainst the r)lin+ power. *o that in respect to those s)b9ect states he has not to ta3e an!tro)ble to +ain them over to himself( for the whole of them


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be observed( he havin+ held possession of Ital! for the lon+est period2 and !o) will seethat he has done the opposite to those thin+s which o)+ht to be done to retain a statecomposed of divers elements.

GKH ,o)is AII( in+ of France( :The Father of the People(: born "#$0( died "/"/.

GLH Charles BIII( in+ of France( born "#1@( died "#%E.

in+ ,o)is was bro)+ht into Ital! b! the ambition of the Benetians( who desired toobtain half the state of ,ombard! b! his intervention. I will not blame the co)rse ta3en

b! the 3in+( beca)se( wishin+ to +et a foothold in Ital!( and havin+ no friends there66seein+ rather that ever! door was sh)t to him owin+ to the cond)ct of Charles66he wasforced to accept those friendships which he co)ld +et( and he wo)ld have s)cceeded ver!


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Benetians in ,ombard! was 9)stified b! the e4c)se that b! it she +ot a foothold in Ital!(this other partition merited blame( for it had not the e4c)se of that necessit!.

Therefore ,o)is made these five errors= he destro!ed the minor powers( he increased thestren+th of one of the +reater powers in Ital!( he bro)+ht in a forei+n power( he did notsettle in the co)ntr!( he did not send colonies. ;hich errors( had he lived( were noteno)+h to in9)re him had he not made a si4th b! ta3in+ awa! their dominions from the

Benetians2 beca)se( had he not a++randi-ed the Ch)rch( nor bro)+ht *pain into Ital!( itwo)ld have been ver! reasonable and necessar! to h)mble them2 b)t havin+ first ta3enthese steps( he o)+ht never to have consented to their r)in( for the!( bein+ powerf)l(

wo)ld alwa!s have 3ept off others from desi+ns on ,ombard!( to which the Benetianswo)ld never have consented e4cept to become masters themselves there2 also beca)sethe others wo)ld not wish to ta3e ,ombard! from France in order to +ive it to the

Benetians( and to r)n co)nter to both the! wo)ld not have had the co)ra+e.

8nd if an! one sho)ld sa!= :in+ ,o)is !ielded the Roma+na to 8le4ander and the3in+dom to *pain to avoid war( I answer for the reasons +iven above that a bl)nder

o)+ht never to be perpetrated to avoid war( beca)se it is not to be avoided( b)t is onl!deferred to !o)r disadvanta+e. 8nd if another sho)ld alle+e the pled+e which the 3in+had +iven to the Pope that he wo)ld assist him in the enterprise( in e4chan+e for thedissol)tion of his marria+eGKH and for the cap to Ro)en(GLH to that I repl! what I shall

write later on concernin+ the faith of princes( and how it o)+ht to be 3ept.

GKH ,o)is AII divorced his wife( 5eanne( da)+hter of ,o)is AI( and married in "#%% 8nneof 'rittan!( widow of Charles BIII( in order to retain the D)ch! of 'rittan! for the crown.

GLH The 8rchbishop of Ro)en. &e was >eor+es d8mboise( created a cardinal b!8le4ander BI. 'orn "#$@( died "/"@.

Th)s in+ ,o)is lost ,ombard! b! not havin+ followed an! of the conditions observed b!those who have ta3en possession of co)ntries and wished to retain them. Nor is therean! miracle in this( b)t m)ch that is reasonable and


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C&8PT?R IB

;&7 T&? IN>DOM OF D8RIU*( CONU?R?D '7 8,?A8ND?R( DID NOT R?'?,8>8IN*T T&? *UCC?**OR* OF 8,?A8ND?R 8T &I* D?8T&

Considerin+ the diffic)lties which men have had to hold to a newl! acreat became the master of 8sia in a few

!ears( and died whilst it was scarcel! settled whence it mi+ht appear reasonable that thewhole empire wo)ld have rebelled( nevertheless his s)ccessors maintained themselves(and had to meet no other diffic)lt! than that which arose amon+ themselves from theirown ambitions.

I answer that the principalities of which one has record are fo)nd to be +overned in twodifferent wa!s2 either b! a prince( with a bod! of servants( who assist him to +overn the3in+dom as ministers b! his favo)r and permission2 or b! a prince and barons( who holdthat di+nit! b! anti


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cr)shed. Nor is it eno)+h for !o) to have e4terminated the famil! of the prince( beca)sethe lords that remain ma3e themselves the heads of fresh movements a+ainst !o)( and as

!o) are )nable either to satisf! or e4terminate them( that state is lost whenever timebrin+s the opport)nit!.

Now if !o) will consider what was the nat)re of the +overnment of Dari)s( !o) will find itsimilar to the 3in+dom of the T)r3( and therefore it was onl! necessar! for 8le4ander(first to overthrow him in the field( and then to ta3e the co)ntr! from him. 8fter which

victor!( Dari)s bein+ 3illed( the state remained sec)re to 8le4ander( for the abovereasons. 8nd if his s)ccessors had been )nited the! wo)ld have en9o!ed it sec)rel! and attheir ease( for there were no t)m)lts raised in the 3in+dom e4cept those the! provo3edthemselves.

')t it is impossible to hold with s)ch tran


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C&8PT?R B

CONC?RNIN> T&? ;87 TO >OB?RN CITI?* OR PRINCIP8,ITI?* ;&IC& ,IB?DUND?R T&?IR O;N ,8;* '?FOR? T&?7 ;?R? 8NN?A?D

;henever those states which have been ac


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C&8PT?R BI

CONC?RNIN> N?; PRINCIP8,ITI?* ;&IC& 8R? 8CUIR?D '7 ON?* O;N8RM* 8ND 8'I,IT7

,et no one be s)rprised if( in spea3in+ of entirel! new principalities as I shall do( Iadd)ce the hi+hest e4amples both of prince and of state2 beca)se men( wal3in+ almostalwa!s in paths beaten b! others( and followin+ b! imitation their deeds( are !et )nableto 3eep entirel! to the wa!s of others or attain to the power of those the! imitate. 8 wiseman o)+ht alwa!s to follow the paths beaten b! +reat men( and to imitate those whohave been s)preme( so that if his abilit! does not e


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Those who b! valoro)s wa!s become princes( li3e these men( acirolamo *avonarola( who

was r)ined with his new order of thin+s immediatel! the m)ltit)de believed in him nolon+er( and he had no means of 3eepin+ steadfast those who believed or of ma3in+ the)nbelievers to believe. Therefore s)ch as these have +reat diffic)lties in cons)mmatin+their enterprise( for all their dan+ers are in the ascent( !et with abilit! the! will overcomethem2 b)t when these are overcome( and those who envied them their s)ccess aree4terminated( the! will be+in to be respected( and the! will contin)e afterwardspowerf)l( sec)re( hono)red( and happ!.

To these +reat e4amples I wish to add a lesser one2 still it bears some resemblance tothem( and I wish it to s)ffice me for all of a li3e 3ind= it is &iero the *!rac)san.GKH Thisman rose from a private station to be Prince of *!rac)se( nor did he( either( owe an!thin+to fort)ne b)t opport)nit!2 for the *!rac)sans( bein+ oppressed( chose him for theircaptain( afterwards he was rewarded b! bein+ made their prince. &e was of so +reat

abilit!( even as a private citi-en( that one who writes of him sa!s he wanted nothin+ b)t a3in+dom to be a 3in+. This man abolished the old soldier!( or+ani-ed the new( +ave )pold alliances( made new ones2 and as he had his own soldiers and allies( on s)chfo)ndations he was able to b)ild an! edifice= th)s( whilst he had end)red m)ch tro)blein ac


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C&8PT?R BII

CONC?RNIN> N?; PRINCIP8,ITI?* ;&IC& 8R? 8CUIR?D ?IT&?R '7 T&?8RM* OF OT&?R* OR '7 >OOD FORTUN?

Those who solel! b! +ood fort)ne become princes from bein+ private citi-ens have littletro)ble in risin+( b)t m)ch in 3eepin+ atop2 the! have not an! diffic)lties on the wa! )p(

beca)se the! fl!( b)t the! have man! when the! reach the s)mmit. *)ch are those towhom some state is +iven either for mone! or b! the favo)r of him who bestows it2 ashappened to man! in >reece( in the cities of Ionia and of the &ellespont( where princes

were made b! Dari)s( in order that the! mi+ht hold the cities both for his sec)rit! andhis +lor!2 as also were those emperors who( b! the corr)ption of the soldiers( from bein+citi-ens came to empire. *)ch stand simpl! elevated )pon the +oodwill and the fort)ne ofhim who has elevated them66two most inconstant and )nstable thin+s. Neither have the!the 3nowled+e re


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'eca)se( as is stated above( he who has not first laid his fo)ndations ma! be able with+reat abilit! to la! them afterwards( b)t the! will be laid with tro)ble to the architect anddan+er to the b)ildin+. If( therefore( all the steps ta3en b! the d)3e be considered( it will

be seen that he laid solid fo)ndations for his f)t)re power( and I do not consider its)perfl)o)s to disc)ss them( beca)se I do not 3now what better precepts to +ive a newprince than the e4ample of his actions2 and if his dispositions were of no avail( that wasnot his fa)lt( b)t the e4traordinar! and e4treme mali+nit! of fort)ne.

8le4ander the *i4th( in wishin+ to a++randi-e the d)3e( his son( had man! immediateand prospective diffic)lties. Firstl!( he did not see his wa! to ma3e him master of an!state that was not a state of the Ch)rch2 and if he was willin+ to rob the Ch)rch he 3newthat the D)3e of Milan and the Benetians wo)ld not consent( beca)se Faen-a and Rimini

were alread! )nder the protection of the Benetians. 'esides this( he saw the arms ofItal!( especiall! those b! which he mi+ht have been assisted( in hands that wo)ld fear thea++randi-ement of the Pope( namel!( the Orsini and the Colonnesi and their followin+. It

behoved him( therefore( to )pset this state of affairs and embroil the powers( so as toma3e himself sec)rel! master of part of their states. This was eas! for him to do( beca)se

he fo)nd the Benetians( moved b! other reasons( inclined to brin+ bac3 the French intoItal!2 he wo)ld not onl! not oppose this( b)t he wo)ld render it more eas! b! dissolvin+the former marria+e of in+ ,o)is. Therefore the 3in+ came into Ital! with the assistanceof the Benetians and the consent of 8le4ander. &e was no sooner in Milan than the Popehad soldiers from him for the attempt on the Roma+na( which !ielded to him on therep)tation of the 3in+. The d)3e( therefore( havin+ ac


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their simplicit! bro)+ht them into his power at *ini+alia.GKH &avin+ e4terminated theleaders( and t)rned their partisans into his friends( the d)3e laid s)fficientl! +oodfo)ndations to his power( havin+ all the Roma+na and the D)ch! of Urbino2 and thepeople now be+innin+ to appreciate their prosperit!( he +ained them all over to himself.

8nd as this point is worth! of notice( and to be imitated b! others( I am not willin+ toleave it o)t.

GKH *ini+alia( "st December "/@0.

;hen the d)3e occ)pied the Roma+na he fo)nd it )nder the r)le of wea3 masters( whorather pl)ndered their s)b9ects than r)led them( and +ave them more ca)se for dis)nionthan for )nion( so that the co)ntr! was f)ll of robber!(


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escaped2 he had won over the Roman +entlemen( and he had the most n)mero)s part! inthe colle+e. 8nd as to an! fresh ac


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Onl! can he be blamed for the election of 5)li)s the *econd( in whom he made a badchoice( beca)se( as is said( not bein+ able to elect a Pope to his own mind( he co)ld havehindered an! other from bein+ elected Pope2 and he o)+ht never to have consented to theelection of an! cardinal whom he had in9)red or who had ca)se to fear him if the!

became pontiffs. For men in9)re either from fear or hatred. Those whom he had in9)red(amon+st others( were *an Pietro ad Binc)la( Colonna( *an >ior+io( and 8scanio.GKH Therest( in becomin+ Pope( had to fear him( Ro)en and the *paniards e4cepted2 the latterfrom their relationship and obli+ations( the former from his infl)ence( the 3in+dom ofFrance havin+ relations with him. Therefore( above ever!thin+( the d)3e o)+ht to havecreated a *paniard Pope( and( failin+ him( he o)+ht to have consented to Ro)en and not*an Pietro ad Binc)la. &e who believes that new benefits will ca)se +reat persona+es tofor+et old in9)ries is deceived. Therefore( the d)3e erred in his choice( and it was theca)se of his )ltimate r)in.

GKH *an >ior+io is Raffaello Riario. 8scanio is 8scanio *for-a.


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C&8PT?R BIII

CONC?RNIN> T&O*? ;&O &8B? O'T8IN?D 8 PRINCIP8,IT7 '7 ;IC?DN?**

8ltho)+h a prince ma! rise from a private station in two wa!s( neither of which can beentirel! attrib)ted to fort)ne or +eni)s( !et it is manifest to me that I m)st not be silenton them( altho)+h one co)ld be more copio)sl! treated when I disc)ss rep)blics. Thesemethods are when( either b! some wic3ed or nefario)s wa!s( one ascends to theprincipalit!( or when b! the favo)r of his fellow6citi-ens a private person becomes theprince of his co)ntr!. 8nd spea3in+ of the first method( it will be ill)strated b! twoe4amples66one ancient( the other modern66and witho)t enterin+ f)rther into the s)b9ect(I consider these two e4amples will s)ffice those who ma! be compelled to follow them.

8+athocles( the *icilian(GKH became in+ of *!rac)se not onl! from a private b)t from alow and ab9ect position. This man( the son of a potter( thro)+h all the chan+es in hisfort)nes alwa!s led an infamo)s life. Nevertheless( he accompanied his infamies with som)ch abilit! of mind and bod! that( havin+ devoted himself to the militar! profession( he

rose thro)+h its ran3s to be Praetor of *!rac)se. 'ein+ established in that position( andhavin+ deliberatel! resolved to ma3e himself prince and to sei-e b! violence( witho)tobli+ation to others( that which had been conceded to him b! assent( he came to an)nderstandin+ for this p)rpose with 8milcar( the Cartha+inian( who( with his arm!( wasfi+htin+ in *icil!. One mornin+ he assembled the people and the senate of *!rac)se( as ifhe had to disc)ss with them thin+s relatin+ to the Rep)blic( and at a +iven si+nal thesoldiers 3illed all the senators and the richest of the people2 these dead( he sei-ed andheld the princedom of that cit! witho)t an! civil commotion. 8nd altho)+h he was twicero)ted b! the Cartha+inians( and )ltimatel! besie+ed( !et not onl! was he able to defendhis cit!( b)t leavin+ part of his men for its defence( with the others he attac3ed 8frica(and in a short time raised the sie+e of *!rac)se. The Cartha+inians( red)ced to e4tremenecessit!( were compelled to come to terms with 8+athocles( and( leavin+ *icil! to him(had to be content with the possession of 8frica.

GKH 8+athocles the *icilian( born $" '.C.( died 0E% '.C.

Therefore( he who considers the actions and the +eni)s of this man will see nothin+( orlittle( which can be attrib)ted to fort)ne( inasm)ch as he attained pre6eminence( as isshown above( not b! the favo)r of an! one( b)t step b! step in the militar! profession(

which steps were +ained with a tho)sand tro)bles and perils( and were afterwards boldl!held b! him with man! ha-ardo)s dan+ers. 7et it cannot be called talent to sla! fellow6citi-ens( to deceive friends( to be witho)t faith( witho)t merc!( witho)t reli+ion2 s)chmethods ma! +ain empire( b)t not +lor!. *till( if the co)ra+e of 8+athocles in enterin+

into and e4tricatin+ himself from dan+ers be considered( to+ether with his +reatness ofmind in end)rin+ and overcomin+ hardships( it cannot be seen wh! he sho)ld beesteemed less than the most notable captain. Nevertheless( his barbaro)s cr)elt! andinh)manit! with infinite wic3edness do not permit him to be celebrated amon+ the moste4cellent men. ;hat he achieved cannot be attrib)ted either to fort)ne or +eni)s.

In o)r times( d)rin+ the r)le of 8le4ander the *i4th( Oliverotto da Fermo( havin+ beenleft an orphan man! !ears before( was bro)+ht )p b! his maternal )ncle( >iovanni


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Fo+liani( and in the earl! da!s of his !o)th sent to fi+ht )nder Pa+olo Bitelli( that( bein+trained )nder his discipline( he mi+ht attain some hi+h position in the militar!profession. 8fter Pa+olo died( he fo)+ht )nder his brother Bitello--o( and in a ver! shorttime( bein+ endowed with wit and a vi+oro)s bod! and mind( he became the first man inhis profession. ')t it appearin+ a paltr! thin+ to serve )nder others( he resolved( with theaid of some citi-ens of Fermo( to whom the slaver! of their co)ntr! was dearer than itslibert!( and with the help of the Bitelleschi( to sei-e Fermo. *o he wrote to >iovanniFo+liani that( havin+ been awa! from home for man! !ears( he wished to visit him andhis cit!( and in some meas)re to loo3 )pon his patrimon!2 and altho)+h he had notlabo)red to aciovanni toarran+e that he sho)ld be received hono)rabl! b! the Fermians( all of which wo)ld benot onl! to his hono)r( b)t also to that of >iovanni himself( who had bro)+ht him )p.

>iovanni( therefore( did not fail in an! attentions d)e to his nephew( and he ca)sed himto be hono)rabl! received b! the Fermians( and he lod+ed him in his own ho)se( where(

havin+ passed some da!s( and havin+ arran+ed what was necessar! for his wic3eddesi+ns( Oliverotto +ave a solemn baniovanni Fo+liani and thechiefs of Fermo. ;hen the viands and all the other entertainments that are )s)al in s)ch

baniovanni and others answered2 b)t he rose at once( sa!in+ that s)ch matterso)+ht to be disc)ssed in a more private place( and he betoo3 himself to a chamber(

whither >iovanni and the rest of the citi-ens went in after him. No sooner were the!seated than soldiers iss)ed from secret places and sla)+htered >iovanni and the rest.

8fter these m)rders Oliverotto( mo)nted on horsebac3( rode )p and down the town andbesie+ed the chief ma+istrate in the palace( so that in fear the people were forced to obe!him( and to form a +overnment( of which he made himself the prince. &e 3illed all the

malcontents who were able to in9)re him( and stren+thened himself with new civil andmilitar! ordinances( in s)ch a wa! that( in the !ear d)rin+ which he held the principalit!(not onl! was he sec)re in the cit! of Fermo( b)t he had become formidable to all hisnei+hbo)rs. 8nd his destr)ction wo)ld have been as diffic)lt as that of 8+athocles if hehad not allowed himself to be overreached b! Cesare 'or+ia( who too3 him with theOrsini and Bitelli at *ini+alia( as was stated above. Th)s one !ear after he had committedthis parricide( he was stran+led( to+ether with Bitello--o( whom he had made his leaderin valo)r and wic3edness.

*ome ma! wonder how it can happen that 8+athocles( and his li3e( after infinitetreacheries and cr)elties( sho)ld live for lon+ sec)re in his co)ntr!( and defend himself

from e4ternal enemies( and never be conspired a+ainst b! his own citi-ens2 seein+ thatman! others( b! means of cr)elt!( have never been able even in peacef)l times to holdthe state( still less in the do)btf)l times of war. I believe that this follows fromseveritiesGKH bein+ badl! or properl! )sed. Those ma! be called properl! )sed( if of evil itis possible to spea3 well( that are applied at one blow and are necessar! to ones sec)rit!(and that are not persisted in afterwards )nless the! can be t)rned to the advanta+e of thes)b9ects. The badl! emplo!ed are those which( notwithstandin+ the! ma! be few in thecommencement( m)ltipl! with time rather than decrease. Those who practise the first


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s!stem are able( b! aid of >od or man( to miti+ate in some de+ree their r)le( as8+athocles did. It is impossible for those who follow the other to maintain themselves.

GKH Mr ')rd s)++ests that this word probabl! comes near the modern e


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C&8PT?R IA

CONC?RNIN> 8 CIBI, PRINCIP8,IT7

')t comin+ to the other point66where a leadin+ citi-en becomes the prince of his co)ntr!(not b! wic3edness or an! intolerable violence( b)t b! the favo)r of his fellow citi-ens66this ma! be called a civil principalit!= nor is +eni)s or fort)ne alto+ether necessar! toattain to it( b)t rather a happ! shrewdness. I sa! then that s)ch a principalit! is obtainedeither b! the favo)r of the people or b! the favo)r of the nobles. 'eca)se in all citiesthese two distinct parties are fo)nd( and from this it arises that the people do not wish to

be r)led nor oppressed b! the nobles( and the nobles wish to r)le and oppress thepeople2 and from these two opposite desires there arises in cities one of three res)lts(either a principalit!( self6 +overnment( or anarch!.

8 principalit! is created either b! the people or b! the nobles( accordin+l! as one or otherof them has the opport)nit!2 for the nobles( seein+ the! cannot withstand the people(

be+in to cr! )p the rep)tation of one of themselves( and the! ma3e him a prince( so that

)nder his shadow the! can +ive vent to their ambitions. The people( findin+ the! cannotresist the nobles( also cr! )p the rep)tation of one of themselves( and ma3e him a princeso as to be defended b! his a)thorit!. &e who obtains soverei+nt! b! the assistance of thenobles maintains himself with more diffic)lt! than he who comes to it b! the aid of thepeople( beca)se the former finds himself with man! aro)nd him who considerthemselves his e


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to +)ard a+ainst s)ch( and to fear them as if the! were open enemies( beca)se inadversit! the! alwa!s help to r)in him.

Therefore( one who becomes a prince thro)+h the favo)r of the people o)+ht to 3eepthem friendl!( and this he can easil! do seein+ the! onl! as3 not to be oppressed b! him.')t one who( in opposition to the people( becomes a prince b! the favo)r of the nobles(o)+ht( above ever!thin+( to see3 to win the people over to himself( and this he ma! easil!do if he ta3es them )nder his protection. 'eca)se men( when the! receive +ood from himof whom the! were e4pectin+ evil( are bo)nd more closel! to their benefactor2 th)s thepeople reece( and of a victorio)sRoman arm!( and a+ainst them he defended his co)ntr! and his +overnment2 and for the

overcomin+ of this peril it was onl! necessar! for him to ma3e himself sec)re a+ainst afew( b)t this wo)ld not have been s)fficient had the people been hostile. 8nd do not letan! one imp)+n this statement with the trite proverb that :&e who b)ilds on the people(

b)ilds on the m)d(: for this is tr)e when a private citi-en ma3es a fo)ndation there( andpers)ades himself that the people will free him when he is oppressed b! his enemies or

b! the ma+istrates2 wherein he wo)ld find himself ver! often deceived( as happened tothe >racchi in Rome and to Messer >ior+io *caliGLH in Florence. ')t +ranted a prince

who has established himself as above( who can command( and is a man of co)ra+e()ndisma!ed in adversit!( who does not fail in other


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tried once. Therefore a wise prince o)+ht to adopt s)ch a co)rse that his citi-ens willalwa!s in ever! sort and 3ind of circ)mstance have need of the state and of him( and thenhe will alwa!s find them faithf)l.


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C&8PT?R A

CONC?RNIN> T&? ;87 IN ;&IC& T&? *TR?N>T& OF 8,, PRINCIP8,ITI?*OU>&T TO '? M?8*UR?D

It is necessar! to consider another point in e4aminin+ the character of theseprincipalities= that is( whether a prince has s)ch power that( in case of need( he cans)pport himself with his own reso)rces( or whether he has alwa!s need of the assistanceof others. 8nd to ma3e this erman! are absol)tel! free( the! own b)t little co)ntr! aro)nd them( andthe! !ield obedience to the emperor when it s)its them( nor do the! fear this or an! otherpower the! ma! have near them( beca)se the! are fortified in s)ch a wa! that ever! onethin3s the ta3in+ of them b! assa)lt wo)ld be tedio)s and diffic)lt( seein+ the! haveproper ditches and walls( the! have s)fficient artiller!( and the! alwa!s 3eep in p)blicdepots eno)+h for one !ears eatin+( drin3in+( and firin+. 8nd be!ond this( to 3eep thepeople


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prince( he appearin+ to be )nder obli+ations to them now that their ho)ses have beenb)rnt and their possessions r)ined in his defence. For it is the nat)re of men to be bo)ndb! the benefits the! confer as m)ch as b! those the! receive. Therefore( if ever!thin+ iswell considered( it will not be diffic)lt for a wise prince to 3eep the minds of his citi-enssteadfast from first to last( when he does not fail to s)pport and defend them.


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C&8PT?R AI

CONC?RNIN> ?CC,?*I8*TIC8, PRINCIP8,ITI?*

It onl! remains now to spea3 of ecclesiastical principalities( to)chin+ which alldiffic)lties are prior to +ettin+ possession( beca)se the! are ac


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8nd altho)+h his intention was not to a++randi-e the Ch)rch( b)t the d)3e( nevertheless(what he did contrib)ted to the +reatness of the Ch)rch( which( after his death and ther)in of the d)3e( became the heir to all his labo)rs.

Pope 5)li)s came afterwards and fo)nd the Ch)rch stron+( possessin+ all the Roma+na(the barons of Rome red)ced to impotence( and( thro)+h the chastisements of 8le4ander(the factions wiped o)t2 he also fo)nd the wa! open to acc)m)late mone! in a manners)ch as had never been practised before 8le4anders time. *)ch thin+s 5)li)s not onl!followed( b)t improved )pon( and he intended to +ain 'olo+na( to r)in the Benetians(and to drive the French o)t of Ital!. 8ll of these enterprises prospered with him( and som)ch the more to his credit( inasm)ch as he did ever!thin+ to stren+then the Ch)rch andnot an! private person. &e 3ept also the Orsini and Colonnesi factions within the bo)ndsin which he fo)nd them2 and altho)+h there was amon+ them some mind to ma3edist)rbance( nevertheless he held two thin+s firm= the one( the +reatness of the Ch)rch(

with which he terrified them2 and the other( not allowin+ them to have their owncardinals( who ca)sed the disorders amon+ them. For whenever these factions have theircardinals the! do not remain


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C&8PT?R AII

&O; M8N7 IND* OF *O,DI?R7 T&?R? 8R?( 8ND CONC?RNIN> M?RC?N8RI?*

&avin+ disco)rsed partic)larl! on the characteristics of s)ch principalities as in thebe+innin+ I proposed to disc)ss( and havin+ considered in some de+ree the ca)ses oftheir bein+ +ood or bad( and havin+ shown the methods b! which man! have so)+ht toacod nor fidelit! to men(and destr)ction is deferred onl! so lon+ as the attac3 is2 for in peace one is robbed b!them( and in war b! the enem!. The fact is( the! have no other attraction or reason for3eepin+ the field than a trifle of stipend( which is not s)fficient to ma3e them willin+ todie for !o). The! are read! eno)+h to be !o)r soldiers whilst !o) do not ma3e war( b)t if

war comes the! ta3e themselves off or r)n from the foe2 which I sho)ld have little tro)bleto prove( for the r)in of Ital! has been ca)sed b! nothin+ else than b! restin+ all herhopes for man! !ears on mercenaries( and altho)+h the! formerl! made some displa!and appeared valiant amon+st themselves( !et when the forei+ners came the! showed

what the! were. Th)s it was that Charles( in+ of France( was allowed to sei-e Ital! withchal3 in hand2GKH and he who told )s that o)r sins were the ca)se of it told the tr)th( b)tthe! were not the sins he ima+ined( b)t those which I have related. 8nd as the! were thesins of princes( it is the princes who have also s)ffered the penalt!.

GKH :;ith chal3 in hand(: :col +esso.: This is one of the bons mots of 8le4ander BI( andrefers to the ease with which Charles BIII sei-ed Ital!( impl!in+ that it was onl!necessar! for him to send his


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8nd if it be )r+ed that whoever is armed will act in the same wa!( whether mercenar! ornot( I repl! that when arms have to be resorted to( either b! a prince or a rep)blic( thenthe prince o)+ht to +o in person and perform the d)t! of a captain2 the rep)blic has tosend its citi-ens( and when one is sent who does not t)rn o)t satisfactoril!( it o)+ht torecall him( and when one is worth!( to hold him b! the laws so that he does not leave thecommand. 8nd e4perience has shown princes and rep)blics( sin+le6handed( ma3in+ the+reatest pro+ress( and mercenaries doin+ nothin+ e4cept dama+e2 and it is more diffic)ltto brin+ a rep)blic( armed with its own arms( )nder the swa! of one of its citi-ens than itis to brin+ one armed with forei+n arms. Rome and *parta stood for man! a+es armedand free. The *wit-ers are completel! armed and


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'artolomeo da 'er+amo( Roberto da *an *everino( the co)nt of Piti+liano(GH and theli3e( )nder whom the! had to dread loss and not +ain( as happened afterwards at Baila(GH where in one battle the! lost that which in ei+ht h)ndred !ears the! had aciovanni 8c)to. 8n ?n+lish 3ni+ht whose name was *ir 5ohn &aw3wood. &e fo)+htin the ?n+lish wars in France( and was 3ni+hted b! ?dward III2 afterwards he collected a

bod! of troops and went into Ital!. These became the famo)s :;hite Compan!.: &e too3part in man! wars( and died in Florence in "%#. &e was born abo)t "0@ at *ible&edin+ham( a villa+e in ?sse4. &e married Domnia( a da)+hter of 'ernabo Bisconti.

GH Carmi+n)ola. Francesco ')ssone( born at Carma+nola abo)t "%@( e4ec)ted at

Benice( /th Ma! "#0.

GH 'artolomeo Colleoni of 'er+amo2 died "#/1. Roberto of *an *everino2 died fi+htin+for Benice a+ainst *i+ism)nd( D)3e of 8)stria( in "#E1. :Primo capitano in Italia.:66Machiavelli. Co)nt of Piti+liano2 Nicolo Orsini( born "##0( died "/"@.

GH 'attle of Baila in "/@%.

8nd as with these e4amples I have reached Ital!( which has been r)led for man! !ears b!mercenaries( I wish to disc)ss them more serio)sl!( in order that( havin+ seen their riseand pro+ress( one ma! be better prepared to co)nteract them. 7o) m)st )nderstand that

the empire has recentl! come to be rep)diated in Ital!( that the Pope has ac


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tho)sand foot soldiers. The! had( besides this( )sed ever! art to lessen fati+)e anddan+er to themselves and their soldiers( not 3illin+ in the fra!( b)t ta3in+ prisoners andliberatin+ witho)t ransom. The! did not attac3 towns at ni+ht( nor did the +arrisons ofthe towns attac3 encampments at ni+ht2 the! did not s)rro)nd the camp either withstoc3ade or ditch( nor did the! campai+n in the winter. 8ll these thin+s were permitted

b! their militar! r)les( and devised b! them to avoid( as I have said( both fati+)e anddan+ers2 th)s the! have bro)+ht Ital! to slaver! and contempt.

GKH 8lberi+o da Conio. 8lberico da 'arbiano( Co)nt of C)nio in Roma+na. &e was theleader of the famo)s :Compan! of *t >eor+e(: composed entirel! of Italian soldiers. &edied in "#@%.


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C&8PT?R AIII

CONC?RNIN> 8UAI,I8RI?*( MIA?D *O,DI?R7( 8ND ON?* O;N

8)4iliaries( which are the other )seless arm( are emplo!ed when a prince is called in withhis forces to aid and defend( as was done b! Pope 5)li)s in the most recent times2 for he(havin+( in the enterprise a+ainst Ferrara( had poor proof of his mercenaries( t)rned toa)4iliaries( and stip)lated with Ferdinand( in+ of *pain(GKH for his assistance with menand arms. These arms ma! be )sef)l and +ood in themselves( b)t for him who calls themin the! are alwa!s disadvanta+eo)s2 for losin+( one is )ndone( and winnin+( one is theircaptive.

GKH Ferdinand B F. II of 8ra+on and *icil!( F. III of Naples( s)rnamed :The Catholic(:born "/#0( died "/"$.

8nd altho)+h ancient histories ma! be f)ll of e4amples( I do not wish to leave this recentone of Pope 5)li)s the *econd( the peril of which cannot fail to be perceived2 for he(

wishin+ to +et Ferrara( threw himself entirel! into the hands of the forei+ner. ')t his+ood fort)ne bro)+ht abo)t a third event( so that he did not reap the fr)it of his rashchoice2 beca)se( havin+ his a)4iliaries ro)ted at Ravenna( and the *wit-ers havin+ risenand driven o)t the con


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presentl!( on handlin+ and findin+ them do)btf)l( )nfaithf)l( and dan+ero)s( hedestro!ed and t)rned to his own men. 8nd the difference between one and the other ofthese forces can easil! be seen when one considers the difference there was in therep)tation of the d)3e( when he had the French( when he had the Orsini and Bitelli( and

when he relied on his own soldiers( on whose fidelit! he co)ld alwa!s co)nt and fo)nd itever increasin+2 he was never esteemed more hi+hl! than when ever! one saw that he

was complete master of his own forces.

I was not intendin+ to +o be!ond Italian and recent e4amples( b)t I am )nwillin+ to leaveo)t &iero( the *!rac)san( he bein+ one of those I have named above. This man( as I havesaid( made head of the arm! b! the *!rac)sans( soon fo)nd o)t that a mercenar!soldier!( constit)ted li3e o)r Italian condottieri( was of no )se2 and it appearin+ to himthat he co)ld neither 3eep them not let them +o( he had them all c)t to pieces( andafterwards made war with his own forces and not with aliens.

I wish also to recall to memor! an instance from the Old Testament applicable to thiss)b9ect. David offered himself to *a)l to fi+ht with >oliath( the Philistine champion( and(

to +ive him co)ra+e( *a)l armed him with his own weapons2 which David re9ected assoon as he had them on his bac3( sa!in+ he co)ld ma3e no )se of them( and that he

wished to meet the enem! with his slin+ and his 3nife. In concl)sion( the arms of otherseither fall from !o)r bac3( or the! wei+h !o) down( or the! bind !o) fast.

Charles the *eventh(GKH the father of in+ ,o)is the ?leventh(GLH havin+ b! +ood fort)neand valo)r liberated France from the ?n+lish( reco+ni-ed the necessit! of bein+ armed

with forces of his own( and he established in his 3in+dom ordinances concernin+ men6at6arms and infantr!. 8fterwards his son( in+ ,o)is( abolished the infantr! and be+an toenlist the *wit-ers( which mista3e( followed b! others( is( as is now seen( a so)rce of perilto that 3in+dom2 beca)se( havin+ raised the rep)tation of the *wit-ers( he has entirel!diminished the val)e of his own arms( for he has destro!ed the infantr! alto+ether2 andhis men6at6arms he has s)bordinated to others( for( bein+ as the! are so acc)stomed tofi+ht alon+ with *wit-ers( it does not appear that the! can now con


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>oths2 beca)se from that time the vi+o)r of the Roman ?mpire be+an to decline( and allthat valo)r which had raised it passed awa! to others.

GKH :Man! spea3ers to the &o)se the other ni+ht in the debate on the red)ction ofarmaments seemed to show a most lamentable i+norance of the conditions )nder whichthe 'ritish ?mpire maintains its e4istence. ;hen Mr 'alfo)r replied to the alle+ationsthat the Roman ?mpire san3 )nder the wei+ht of its militar! obli+ations( he said that this

was wholl! )nhistorical. &e mi+ht well have added that the Roman power was at its-enith when ever! citi-en ac3nowled+ed his liabilit! to fi+ht for the *tate( b)t that it

be+an to decline as soon as this obli+ation was no lon+er reco+ni-ed.:66Pall Mall >a-ette("/th Ma! "%@$.

I concl)de( therefore( that no principalit! is sec)re witho)t havin+ its own forces2 on thecontrar!( it is entirel! dependent on +ood fort)ne( not havin+ the valo)r which inadversit! wo)ld defend it. 8nd it has alwa!s been the opinion and 9)d+ment of wise menthat nothin+ can be so )ncertain or )nstable as fame or power not fo)nded on its ownstren+th. 8nd ones own forces are those which are composed either of s)b9ects( citi-ens(

or dependents2 all others are mercenaries or a)4iliaries. 8nd the wa! to ma3e read! onesown forces will be easil! fo)nd if the r)les s)++ested b! me shall be reflected )pon( and ifone will consider how Philip( the father of 8le4ander the >reat( and man! rep)blics andprinces have armed and or+ani-ed themselves( to which r)les I entirel! commit m!self.


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C&8PT?R AIB

T&8T ;&IC& CONC?RN* 8 PRINC? ON T&? *U'5?CT OF T&? 8RT OF ;8R

8 prince o)+ht to have no other aim or tho)+ht( nor select an!thin+ else for his st)d!(than war and its r)les and discipline2 for this is the sole art that belon+s to him whor)les( and it is of s)ch force that it not onl! )pholds those who are born princes( b)t itoften enables men to rise from a private station to that ran3. 8nd( on the contrar!( it isseen that when princes have tho)+ht more of ease than of arms the! have lost theirstates. 8nd the first ca)se of !o)r losin+ it is to ne+lect this art2 and what enables !o) toac


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b! these contin)al disc)ssions there co)ld never arise( in time of war( an! )ne4pectedcirc)mstances that he co)ld not deal with.

GKH Philopoemen( :the last of the >ree3s(: born 0/0 '.C.( died "E '.C.

')t to e4ercise the intellect the prince sho)ld read histories( and st)d! there the actionsof ill)strio)s men( to see how the! have borne themselves in war( to e4amine the ca)sesof their victories and defeat( so as to avoid the latter and imitate the former2 and aboveall do as an ill)strio)s man did( who too3 as an e4emplar one who had been praised andfamo)s before him( and whose achievements and deeds he alwa!s 3ept in his mind( as itis said 8le4ander the >reat imitated 8chilles( Caesar 8le4ander( *cipio C!r)s. 8nd

whoever reads the life of C!r)s( written b! Aenophon( will reco+ni-e afterwards in thelife of *cipio how that imitation was his +lor!( and how in chastit!( affabilit!( h)manit!(and liberalit! *cipio conformed to those thin+s which have been written of C!r)s b!Aenophon. 8 wise prince o)+ht to observe some s)ch r)les( and never in peacef)l timesstand idle( b)t increase his reso)rces with ind)str! in s)ch a wa! that the! ma! beavailable to him in adversit!( so that if fort)ne chances it ma! find him prepared to resist

her blows.


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C&8PT?R AB

CONC?RNIN> T&IN>* FOR ;&IC& M?N( 8ND ?*P?CI8,,7 PRINC?*( 8R?PR8I*?D OR ',8M?D

It remains now to see what o)+ht to be the r)les of cond)ct for a prince towards s)b9ectand friends. 8nd as I 3now that man! have written on this point( I e4pect I shall beconsidered pres)mpt)o)s in mentionin+ it a+ain( especiall! as in disc)ssin+ it I shalldepart from the methods of other people. ')t( it bein+ m! intention to write a thin+

which shall be )sef)l to him who apprehends it( it appears to me more appropriate tofollow )p the real tr)th of the matter than the ima+ination of it2 for man! have pict)redrep)blics and principalities which in fact have never been 3nown or seen( beca)se howone lives is so far distant from how one o)+ht to live( that he who ne+lects what is donefor what o)+ht to be done( sooner effects his r)in than his preservation2 for a man who

wishes to act entirel! )p to his professions of virt)e soon meets with what destro!s himamon+ so m)ch that is evil.

&ence it is necessar! for a prince wishin+ to hold his own to 3now how to do wron+( andto ma3e )se of it or not accordin+ to necessit!. Therefore( p)ttin+ on one side ima+inar!thin+s concernin+ a prince( and disc)ssin+ those which are real( I sa! that all men whenthe! are spo3en of( and chiefl! princes for bein+ more hi+hl! placed( are remar3able forsome of those


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C&8PT?R ABI

CONC?RNIN> ,I'?R8,IT7 8ND M?8NN?**

Commencin+ then with the first of the above6named characteristics( I sa! that it wo)ldbe well to be rep)ted liberal. Nevertheless( liberalit! e4ercised in a wa! that does notbrin+ !o) the rep)tation for it( in9)res !o)2 for if one e4ercises it honestl! and as itsho)ld be e4ercised( it ma! not become 3nown( and !o) will not avoid the reproach of itsopposite. Therefore( an! one wishin+ to maintain amon+ men the name of liberal isobli+ed to avoid no attrib)te of ma+nificence2 so that a prince th)s inclined will cons)mein s)ch acts all his propert!( and will be compelled in the end( if he wish to maintain thename of liberal( to )nd)l! wei+h down his people( and ta4 them( and do ever!thin+ hecan to +et mone!. This will soon ma3e him odio)s to his s)b9ects( and becomin+ poor he

will be little val)ed b! an! one2 th)s( with his liberalit!( havin+ offended man! andrewarded few( he is affected b! the ver! first tro)ble and imperilled b! whatever ma! bethe first dan+er2 reco+ni-in+ this himself( and wishin+ to draw bac3 from it( he r)ns atonce into the reproach of bein+ miserl!.

Therefore( a prince( not bein+ able to e4ercise this virt)e of liberalit! in s)ch a wa! that itis reco+ni-ed( e4cept to his cost( if he is wise he o)+ht not to fear the rep)tation of bein+mean( for in time he will come to be more considered than if liberal( seein+ that with hiseconom! his reven)es are eno)+h( that he can defend himself a+ainst all attac3s( and isable to en+a+e in enterprises witho)t b)rdenin+ his people2 th)s it comes to pass that hee4ercises liberalit! towards all from whom he does not ta3e( who are n)mberless( andmeanness towards those to whom he does not +ive( who are few.

;e have not seen +reat thin+s done in o)r time e4cept b! those who have beenconsidered mean2 the rest have failed. Pope 5)li)s the *econd was assisted in reachin+the papac! b! a rep)tation for liberalit!( !et he did not strive afterwards to 3eep it )p(

when he made war on the in+ of France2 and he made man! wars witho)t imposin+ an!e4traordinar! ta4 on his s)b9ects( for he s)pplied his additional e4penses o)t of his lon+thriftiness. The present in+ of *pain wo)ld not have )nderta3en or con


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sac3( and e4tortion( handlin+ that which belon+s to others( this liberalit! is necessar!(otherwise he wo)ld not be followed b! soldiers. 8nd of that which is neither !o)rs nor

!o)r s)b9ects !o) can be a read! +iver( as were C!r)s( Caesar( and 8le4ander2 beca)se itdoes not ta3e awa! !o)r rep)tation if !o) s


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C&8PT?R ABII

CONC?RNIN> CRU?,T7 8ND C,?M?NC7( 8ND ;&?T&?R IT I* '?TT?R TO '?,OB?D T&8N F?8R?D

Comin+ now to the other


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Nevertheless a prince o)+ht to inspire fear in s)ch a wa! that( if he does not win love( heavoids hatred2 beca)se he can end)re ver! well bein+ feared whilst he is not hated( which

will alwa!s be as lon+ as he abstains from the propert! of his citi-ens and s)b9ects andfrom their women. ')t when it is necessar! for him to proceed a+ainst the life ofsomeone( he m)st do it on proper 9)stification and for manifest ca)se( b)t above allthin+s he m)st 3eep his hands off the propert! of others( beca)se men more


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C&8PT?R ABIIIGKH

CONC?RNIN> T&? ;87 IN ;&IC& PRINC?* *&OU,D ??P F8IT&

GKH :The present chapter has +iven +reater offence than an! other portion of Machiavelliswritin+s.: ')rd( :Il Principe(: p. 0%1.

?ver! one admits how praiseworth! it is in a prince to 3eep faith( and to live withinte+rit! and not with craft. Nevertheless o)r e4perience has been that those princes whohave done +reat thin+s have held +ood faith of little acco)nt( and have 3nown how tocirc)mvent the intellect of men b! craft( and in the end have overcome those who haverelied on their word. 7o) m)st 3now there are two wa!s of contestin+(GKH the one b! thelaw( the other b! force2 the first method is proper to men( the second to beasts2 b)t

beca)se the first is fre


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GKH :Nondimanco sempre +li s)ccederono +li in+anni ad vot)m.: The words :ad vot)m:are omitted in the Testina addition( "//@.

8le4ander never did what he said( Cesare never said what he did.

Italian Proverb.

Therefore it is )nnecessar! for a prince to have all the +ood


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the world there are onl! the v)l+ar( for the few find a place there onl! when the man!have no +ro)nd to rest on.

One princeGKH of the present time( whom it is not well to name( never preaches an!thin+else b)t peace and +ood faith( and to both he is most hostile( and either( if he had 3ept it(

wo)ld have deprived him of rep)tation and 3in+dom man! a time.

GKH Ferdinand of 8ra+on. :;hen Machiavelli was writin+ The Prince it wo)ld have beenclearl! impossible to mention Ferdinands name here witho)t +ivin+ offence.: ')rds :IlPrincipe(: p. @E.


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C&8PT?R AIA

T&8T ON? *&OU,D 8BOID '?IN> D?*PI*?D 8ND &8T?D

Now( concernin+ the characteristics of which mention is made above( I have spo3en ofthe more important ones( the others I wish to disc)ss briefl! )nder this +eneralit!( thatthe prince m)st consider( as has been in part said before( how to avoid those thin+s

which will ma3e him hated or contemptible2 and as often as he shall have s)cceeded hewill have f)lfilled his part( and he need not fear an! dan+er in other reproaches.

It ma3es him hated above all thin+s( as I have said( to be rapacio)s( and to be a violatorof the propert! and women of his s)b9ects( from both of which he m)st abstain. 8nd

when neither their propert! nor their honor is to)ched( the ma9orit! of men live content(and he has onl! to contend with the ambition of a few( whom he can c)rb with ease inman! wa!s.

It ma3es him contemptible to be considered fic3le( frivolo)s( effeminate( mean6spirited(

irresol)te( from all of which a prince sho)ld +)ard himself as from a roc32 and he sho)ldendeavo)r to show in his actions +reatness( co)ra+e( +ravit!( and fortit)de2 and in hisprivate dealin+s with his s)b9ects let him show that his 9)d+ments are irrevocable( andmaintain himself in s)ch rep)tation that no one can hope either to deceive him or to +etro)nd him.

That prince is hi+hl! esteemed who conve!s this impression of himself( and he who ishi+hl! esteemed is not easil! conspired a+ainst2 for( provided it is well 3nown that he isan e4cellent man and revered b! his people( he can onl! be attac3ed with diffic)lt!. Forthis reason a prince o)+ht to have two fears( one from within( on acco)nt of his s)b9ects(the other from witho)t( on acco)nt of e4ternal powers. From the latter he is defended b!

bein+ well armed and havin+ +ood allies( and if he is well armed he will have +oodfriends( and affairs will alwa!s remain


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dan+ers( he m)st be a ver! rare friend( or a thoro)+hl! obstinate enem! of the prince( to3eep faith with !o).

8nd( to red)ce the matter into a small compass( I sa! that( on the side of the conspirator(there is nothin+ b)t fear( 9ealo)s!( prospect of p)nishment to terrif! him2 b)t on the sideof the prince there is the ma9est! of the principalit!( the laws( the protection of friendsand the state to defend him2 so that( addin+ to all these thin+s the pop)lar +oodwill( it isimpossible that an! one sho)ld be so rash as to conspire. For whereas in +eneral theconspirator has to fear before the e4ec)tion of his plot( in this case he has also to fear theseiovanni(GKHwho was in childhood= immediatel! after his assassination the people rose and m)rdered

all the Canneschi. This spr)n+ from the pop)lar +oodwill which the ho)se of 'entivo+lien9o!ed in those da!s in 'olo+na2 which was so +reat that( altho)+h none remained thereafter the death of 8nnibale who was able to r)le the state( the 'olo+nese( havin+information that there was one of the 'entivo+li famil! in Florence( who )p to that timehad been considered the son of a blac3smith( sent to Florence for him and +ave him the+overnment of their cit!( and it was r)led b! him )ntil Messer >iovanni came in d)eco)rse to the +overnment.

GKH >iovanni 'entivo+li( born in 'olo+na "#E( died at Milan "/@E. &e r)led 'olo+nafrom "#$0 to "/@$. Machiavellis stron+ condemnation of conspiracies ma! +et its ed+efrom his own ver! recent e4perience Febr)ar! "/"( when he had been arrested andtort)red for his alle+ed complicit! in the 'oscoli conspirac!.

For this reason I consider that a prince o)+ht to rec3on conspiracies of little acco)ntwhen his people hold him in esteem2 b)t when it is hostile to him( and bears hatredtowards him( he o)+ht to fear ever!thin+ and ever!bod!. 8nd well6ordered states and

wise princes have ta3en ever! care not to drive the nobles to desperation( and to 3eep thepeople satisfied and contented( for this is one of the most important ob9ects a prince canhave.

8mon+ the best ordered and +overned 3in+doms of o)r times is France( and in it arefo)nd man! +ood instit)tions on which depend the libert! and sec)rit! of the 3in+2 ofthese the first is the parliament and its a)thorit!( beca)se he who fo)nded the 3in+dom(

3nowin+ the ambition of the nobilit! and their boldness( considered that a bit to theirmo)ths wo)ld be necessar! to hold them in2 and( on the other side( 3nowin+ the hatredof the people( fo)nded in fear( a+ainst the nobles( he wished to protect them( !et he wasnot an4io)s for this to be the partic)lar care of the 3in+2 therefore( to ta3e awa! thereproach which he wo)ld be liable to from the nobles for favo)rin+ the people( and fromthe people for favo)rin+ the nobles( he set )p an arbiter( who sho)ld be one who co)ld

beat down the +reat and favo)r the lesser witho)t reproach to the 3in+. Neither co)ld!o) have a better or a more pr)dent arran+ement( or a +reater so)rce of sec)rit! to the


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3in+ and 3in+dom. From this one can draw another important concl)sion( that princeso)+ht to leave affairs of reproach to the mana+ement of others( and 3eep those of +racein their own hands. 8nd f)rther( I consider that a prince o)+ht to cherish the nobles( b)tnot so as to ma3e himself hated b! the people.

It ma! appear( perhaps( to some who have e4amined the lives and deaths of the Romanemperors that man! of them wo)ld be an e4ample contrar! to m! opinion( seein+ thatsome of them lived nobl! and showed +reat


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which Pertina4 wished to red)ce them2 th)s( havin+ +iven ca)se for hatred( to whichhatred there was added contempt for his old a+e( he was overthrown at the ver!

be+innin+ of his administration. 8nd here it sho)ld be noted that hatred is ac


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beca)se his s)preme renown alwa!s protected him from that hatred which the peoplemi+ht have conceived a+ainst him for his violence.

')t his son 8ntonin)s was a most eminent man( and had ver! e4cellent


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+overnance and administration of provinces( as were the armies of the Roman ?mpire2and whereas it was then more necessar! to +ive satisfaction to the soldiers than to thepeople( it is now more necessar! to all princes( e4cept the T)r3 and the *oldan( to satisf!the people rather the soldiers( beca)se the people are the more powerf)l.

From the above I have e4cepted the T)r3( who alwa!s 3eeps ro)nd him twelve tho)sandinfantr! and fifteen tho)sand cavalr! on which depend the sec)rit! and stren+th of the3in+dom( and it is necessar! that( p)ttin+ aside ever! consideration for the people( hesho)ld 3eep them his friends. The 3in+dom of the *oldan is similar2 bein+ entirel! in thehands of soldiers( it follows a+ain that( witho)t re+ard to the people( he m)st 3eep themhis friends. ')t !o) m)st note that the state of the *oldan is )nli3e all otherprincipalities( for the reason that it is li3e the Christian pontificate( which cannot becalled either an hereditar! or a newl! formed principalit!2 beca)se the sons of the oldprince are not the heirs( b)t he who is elected to that position b! those who havea)thorit!( and the sons remain onl! noblemen. 8nd this bein+ an ancient c)stom( itcannot be called a new principalit!( beca)se there are none of those diffic)lties in it thatare met with in new ones2 for altho)+h the prince is new( the constit)tion of the state is

old( and it is framed so as to receive him as if he were its hereditar! lord.

')t ret)rnin+ to the s)b9ect of o)r disco)rse( I sa! that whoever will consider it willac3nowled+e that either hatred or contempt has been fatal to the above6namedemperors( and it will be reco+ni-ed also how it happened that( a n)mber of them actin+in one wa! and a n)mber in another( onl! one in each wa! came to a happ! end and therest to )nhapp! ones. 'eca)se it wo)ld have been )seless and dan+ero)s for Pertina4and 8le4ander( bein+ new princes( to imitate Marc)s( who was heir to the principalit!2and li3ewise it wo)ld have been )tterl! destr)ctive to Caracalla( Commod)s( andMa4imin)s to have imitated *ever)s( the! not havin+ s)fficient valo)r to enable them totread in his footsteps. Therefore a prince( new to the principalit!( cannot imitate theactions of Marc)s( nor( a+ain( is it necessar! to follow those of *ever)s( b)t he o)+ht tota3e from *ever)s those parts which are necessar! to fo)nd his state( and from Marc)sthose which are proper and +lorio)s to 3eep a state that ma! alread! be stable and firm.


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C&8PT?R AA

8R? FORTR?**?*( 8ND M8N7 OT&?R T&IN>* TO ;&IC& PRINC?* OFT?NR?*ORT( 8DB8NT8>?OU* OR &URTFU,J

". *ome princes( so as to hold sec)rel! the state( have disarmed their s)b9ects2 othershave 3ept their s)b9ect towns distracted b! factions2 others have fostered enmitiesa+ainst themselves2 others have laid themselves o)t to +ain over those whom the!distr)sted in the be+innin+ of their +overnments2 some have b)ilt fortresses2 some haveoverthrown and destro!ed them. 8nd altho)+h one cannot +ive a final 9)d+ment on all ofthese thin+s )nless one possesses the partic)lars of those states in which a decision hasto be made( nevertheless I will spea3 as comprehensivel! as the matter of itself willadmit.

0. There never was a new prince who has disarmed his s)b9ects2 rather when he hasfo)nd them disarmed he has alwa!s armed them( beca)se( b! armin+ them( those arms

become !o)rs( those men who were distr)sted become faithf)l( and those who were

faithf)l are 3ept so( and !o)r s)b9ects become !o)r adherents. 8nd whereas all s)b9ectscannot be armed( !et when those whom !o) do arm are benefited( the others can behandled more freel!( and this difference in their treatment( which the!


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the state. *)ch methods ar+)e( therefore( wea3ness in the prince( beca)se these factionswill never be permitted in a vi+oro)s principalit!2 s)ch methods for enablin+ one themore easil! to mana+e s)b9ects are onl! )sef)l in times of peace( b)t if war comes thispolic! proves fallacio)s.

#. ;itho)t do)bt princes become +reat when the! overcome the diffic)lties and obstaclesb! which the! are confronted( and therefore fort)ne( especiall! when she desires to ma3ea new prince +reat( who has a +reater necessit! to earn renown than an hereditar! one(ca)ses enemies to arise and form desi+ns a+ainst him( in order that he ma! have theopport)nit! of overcomin+ them( and b! them to mo)nt hi+her( as b! a ladder which hisenemies have raised. For this reason man! consider that a wise prince( when he has theopport)nit!( o)+ht with craft to foster some animosit! a+ainst himself( so that( havin+cr)shed it( his renown ma! rise hi+her.

/. Princes( especiall! new ones( have fo)nd more fidelit! and assistance in those menwho in the be+innin+ of their r)le were distr)sted than amon+ those who in thebe+innin+ were tr)sted. Pandolfo Petr)cci( Prince of *iena( r)led his state more b! those

who had been distr)sted than b! others. ')t on this


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Francesco *for-a( has made( and will ma3e( more tro)ble for the ho)se of *for-a thanan! other disorder in the state. For this reason the best possible fortress is66not to behated b! the people( beca)se( altho)+h !o) ma! hold the fortresses( !et the! will not save

!o) if the people hate !o)( for there will never be wantin+ forei+ners to assist a peoplewho have ta3en arms a+ainst !o). It has not been seen in o)r times that s)ch fortresseshave been of )se to an! prince( )nless to the Co)ntess of Forli(GKH when the Co)nt>irolamo( her consort( was 3illed2 for b! that means she was able to withstand thepop)lar attac3 and wait for assistance from Milan( and th)s recover her state2 and thepost)re of affairs was s)ch at that time that the forei+ners co)ld not assist the people.')t fortresses were of little val)e to her afterwards when Cesare 'or+ia attac3ed her( and

when the people( her enem!( were allied with forei+ners. Therefore( it wo)ld have beensafer for her( both then and before( not to have been hated b! the people than to havehad the fortresses. 8ll these thin+s considered then( I shall praise him who b)ildsfortresses as well as him who does not( and I shall blame whoever( tr)stin+ in them(cares little abo)t bein+ hated b! the people.

GKH Catherine *for-a( a da)+hter of >alea--o *for-a and ,)cre-ia ,andriani( born "#$(

died "/@%. It was to the Co)ntess of Forli that Machiavelli was sent as env! on "#%%. 8letter from Fort)nati to the co)ntess anno)nces the appointment= :I have been with thesi+nori(: wrote Fort)nati( :to learn whom the! wo)ld send and when. The! tell me thatNicolo Machiavelli( a learned !o)n+ Florentine noble( secretar! to m! ,ords of the Ten(is to leave with me at once.: Cf. :Catherine *for-a(: b! Co)nt Pasolini( translated b! P.*!lvester( "E%E.


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C&8PT?R AAI

&O; 8 PRINC? *&OU,D CONDUCT &IM*?,F *O 8* TO >8IN R?NO;N

Nothin+ ma3es a prince so m)ch esteemed as +reat enterprises and settin+ a finee4ample. ;e have in o)r time Ferdinand of 8ra+on( the present in+ of *pain. &e canalmost be called a new prince( beca)se he has risen( b! fame and +lor!( from bein+ aninsi+nificant 3in+ to be the foremost 3in+ in Christendom2 and if !o) will consider hisdeeds !o) will find them all +reat and some of them e4traordinar!. In the be+innin+ ofhis rei+n he attac3ed >ranada( and this enterprise was the fo)ndation of his dominions.&e did this


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said( that it is better and more advanta+eo)s for !o)r state not to interfere in o)r war(nothin+ can be more erroneo)s2 beca)se b! not interferin+ !o) will be left( witho)tfavo)r or consideration( the +)erdon of the con


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GKH :>)ilds or societies(: :in arti o in trib).: :8rti: were craft or trade +)ilds( cf. Florio=:8rte . . . a whole compan! of an! trade in an! cit! or corporation town.: The +)ilds ofFlorence are most admirabl! described b! Mr ?d+c)mbe *tale! in his wor3 on thes)b9ect Meth)en( "%@$. Instit)tions of a somewhat similar character( called :artel(:e4ist in R)ssia to6da!( cf. *ir Mac3en-ie ;allaces :R)ssia(: ed. "%@/= :The sons . . . werealwa!s d)rin+ the wor3in+ season members of an artel. In some of the lar+er towns thereare artels of a m)ch more comple4 3ind66 permanent associations( possessin+ lar+ecapital( and pec)niaril! responsible for the acts of the individ)al members.: The word:artel(: despite its apparent similarit!( has( Mr 8!lmer Ma)de ass)res me( no connection

with :ars: or :arte.: Its root is that of the verb :rotis!a(: to bind oneself b! an oath2 and itis +enerall! admitted to be onl! another form of :rota(: which now si+nifies a :re+imentalcompan!.: In both words the )nderl!in+ idea is that of a bod! of men )nited b! an oath.:Trib): were possibl! +entile +ro)ps( )nited b! common descent( and incl)dedindivid)als connected b! marria+e. Perhaps o)r words :septs: or :clans: wo)ld be mostappropriate.


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C&8PT?R AAII

CONC?RNIN> T&? *?CR?T8RI?* OF PRINC?*

The choice of servants is of no little importance to a prince( and the! are +ood or notaccordin+ to the discrimination of the prince. 8nd the first opinion which one forms of aprince( and of his )nderstandin+( is b! observin+ the men he has aro)nd him2 and whenthe! are capable and faithf)l he ma! alwa!s be considered wise( beca)se he has 3nownhow to reco+ni-e the capable and to 3eep them faithf)l. ')t when the! are otherwise onecannot form a +ood opinion of him( for the prime error which he made was in choosin+them.

There were none who 3new Messer 8ntonio da Benafro as the servant of PandolfoPetr)cci( Prince of *iena( who wo)ld not consider Pandolfo to be a ver! clever man inhavin+ Benafro for his servant. 'eca)se there are three classes of intellects= one whichcomprehends b! itself2 another which appreciates what others comprehended2 and athird which neither comprehends b! itself nor b! the showin+ of others2 the first is the

most e4cellent( the second is +ood( the third is )seless. Therefore( it follows necessaril!that( if Pandolfo was not in the first ran3( he was in the second( for whenever one has

9)d+ment to 3now +ood and bad when it is said and done( altho)+h he himself ma! nothave the initiative( !et he can reco+ni-e the +ood and the bad in his servant( and the onehe can praise and the other correct2 th)s the servant cannot hope to deceive him( and is3ept honest.

')t to enable a prince to form an opinion of his servant there is one test which neverfails2 when !o) see the servant thin3in+ more of his own interests than of !o)rs( andsee3in+ inwardl! his own profit in ever!thin+( s)ch a man will never ma3e a +oodservant( nor will !o) ever be able to tr)st him2 beca)se he who has the state of another inhis hands o)+ht never to thin3 of himself( b)t alwa!s of his prince( and never pa! an!attention to matters in which the prince is not concerned.

On the other hand( to 3eep his servant honest the prince o)+ht to st)d! him( hono)rin+him( enrichin+ him( doin+ him 3indnesses( sharin+ with him the hono)rs and cares2 andat the same time let him see that he cannot stand alone( so that man! hono)rs ma! notma3e him desire more( man! riches ma3e him wish for more( and that man! cares ma!ma3e him dread chances. ;hen( therefore( servants( and princes towards servants( areth)s disposed( the! can tr)st each other( b)t when it is otherwise( the end will alwa!s bedisastro)s for either one or the other.


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C&8PT?R AAIII

&O; F,8TT?R?R* *&OU,D '? 8BOID?D

I do not wish to leave o)t an important branch of this s)b9ect( for it is a dan+er fromwhich princes are with diffic)lt! preserved( )nless the! are ver! caref)l anddiscriminatin+. It is that of flatterers( of whom co)rts are f)ll( beca)se men are so self6complacent in their own affairs( and in a wa! so deceived in them( that the! arepreserved with diffic)lt! from this pest( and if the! wish to defend themselves the! r)nthe dan+er of fallin+ into contempt. 'eca)se there is no other wa! of +)ardin+ oneselffrom flatterers e4cept lettin+ men )nderstand that to tell !o) the tr)th does not offend

!o)2 b)t when ever! one ma! tell !o) the tr)th( respect for !o) abates.

Therefore a wise prince o)+ht to hold a third co)rse b! choosin+ the wise men in hisstate( and +ivin+ to them onl! the libert! of spea3in+ the tr)th to him( and then onl! ofthose thin+s of which he in


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he ma! be well +overned( b)t it wo)ld not be for lon+( beca)se s)ch a +overnor wo)ld ina short time ta3e awa! his state from him.

')t if a prince who is not ine4perienced sho)ld ta3e co)nsel from more than one he willnever +et )nited co)nsels( nor will he 3now how to )nite them. ?ach of the co)nsellors

will thin3 of his own interests( and the prince will not 3now how to control them or to seethro)+h them. 8nd the! are not to fo)nd otherwise( beca)se men will alwa!s prove)ntr)e to !o) )nless the! are 3ept honest b! constraint. Therefore it m)st be inferredthat +ood co)nsels( whencesoever the! come( are born of the wisdom of the prince( andnot the wisdom of the prince from +ood co)nsels.


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C&8PT?R AAIB

;&7 T&? PRINC?* OF IT8,7 &8B? ,O*T T&?IR *T8T?*

The previo)s s)++estions( caref)ll! observed( will enable a new prince to appear wellestablished( and render him at once more sec)re and fi4ed in the state than if he had

been lon+ seated there. For the actions of a new prince are more narrowl! observed thanthose of an hereditar! one( and when the! are seen to be able the! +ain more men and

bind far ti+hter than ancient blood2 beca)se men are attracted more b! the present thanb! the past( and wh

Documents

IL PRINCIPE (The Prince 1532) by Niccolo Machiavelli