Images of Decolonization

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IMAGES OF DECOLONIZATION / IMAGES DE LA

DECOLONISATION

Geetha Ganapathy-Dore, Michel Olinga, Cornelius Crowley, Michel Naumann,

Yannick Le Boulicaut, Jacques Coulardeau, Sofiane Taouchichet, Claude Eric

Owono Zambo, Sonia Dosoruth, Fernanda Vilar, et al.

To cite this version:

Geetha Ganapathy-Dore, Michel Olinga, Cornelius Crowley, Michel Naumann, Yannick LeBoulicaut, et al.. IMAGES OF DECOLONIZATION / IMAGES DE LA DECOLONISATION.

Il s’agit d’un document avec references. 2013, pp.238. <

hal-00821522>

HAL Id: hal-00821522

https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00821522

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IMAGES OF DECOLONIZATION IMAGES DE LA DECOLONISATION

With an Introduction by/Avec une introduction deCorneiu! C"OWLE#

Edited by/Sou! a direction deGeetha GANA$AT%#&DO"E ' Miche OLINGA

Academic committee:Cornelius Crowley, Michel Naumann, Geetha Ganapathy-Doré, Michel Olinga

SA"I (Soci)t) d*activit)! et de recherche! !ur e +onde indien,Cer-y&$ontoi!e. Mai 0123



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his collected anthology o! essays on the Images of Decolonization !ollows in the !ootstepso! an earlier "A#$ pu%lication on Changing Images of India and Africa &'aris:()*armattan, 2+. $t approaches the idea o! decoloni/ation !rom the point o! 0iew o! the

politics o! representation with articles on the ga/e o! colonial and postcolonial photographers, the !antasi/ed images o! indigenous women &'ocahontas in the 1"A and (aMalinche in Meico and the image o! the soldiers during the 3irst 4orld 4ar in theillustrated 3rench press. Decoloni/ation in the A!rican continent is eplored through theiconic !igure o! the Ghanaian leader N)5rumah, the MA1 MA1 uprising in 5enya andliteratures in the 3rench language, especially in Mauritius and the 'ortuguese language,with a !ocus on Mia Couto in Mo/am%i6ue. he discriminatory caste system in $ndia andclass struggles in $reland 7two countries which were mar8ed %y the story o! partition at the

end o! empire 7are interwo0en through the !ilms o! #itwi8 Ghata8 and 5en (oach. 3inally,9ritain)s uni6ue democratic tradition is re0iewed through the constitutional andinstitutional de0elopments in contemporary $reland.

Ce recueil d)essais sur les Images de la décolonisation se situe dans le sillage d)un ou0rage précédent pu%lié sous l)égide de la "A#$ sur les Images changeantes de l’Inde et del’Afrique &()*armattan, 2+. $l a%orde l)idée de la décolonisation du point de 0ue de la

politi6ue de la représentation a0ec des contri%utions sur le regard des photographescoloniau et postcoloniau, sur les images !antasmées des !emmes indignes &'ocahontasau 1"A et (a Malinche au Mei6ue et sur l)image des soldats durant la 'remire guerremondiale dans la presse illustrée !ran;aise. ()ou0rage eplore la décolonisation ducontinent a!ricain < tra0ers la !igure iconi6ue du leader ghanéen N)5rumah, la ré0olte des

MA1 MA1 au 5enya et les littératures !rancophones, notamment celle de l)$le Mauriceainsi 6ue l)écriture en langue portugaise de Mia Couto au Mo/am%i6ue. (e systmediscriminatoire des castes en $nde et la lutte des classes en $rlande 7 deu pays mar6ués parle récit de la partition < la !in de l)empire - sont entrem=lés gr>ce < l)étude des !ilms de#itwi8 Ghata8 et de 5en (oach. ?n!in, la tradition démocrati6ue propre < la Grande-9retagne est re0ue < tra0ers l)é0olution constitutionnelle et institutionnelle de l)$rlandecontemporaine.

The o4inion! e54re!!ed beon- to the author! o6 di66erent artice!3Le! o4inion! e54ri+)e! !ont cee! de! auteur! de! di66)rent! artice! 4r)!ent)!3



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Dans le monde où je m’achemine, je me crée interminablement »

“ In the world through which I trael, I am endlessl! creating m!self ”

3rant/ 3anon



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Note! on Contributor!/Notice! bio-ra4hi7ue! de! auteur!

8ac7ue! CO9LA"DEA9 holds a 'hD in Germanic (inguistics !rom the1ni0ersity o! (ille $$$. rained in ?"' eaching &1ni0ersity 9ordeau $$,he has taught all types o! ?"', especially ?nglish applied to science,technology and history. *e has done research in the !ields o! ?nglish andAmerican literatures, drama and arts opera, cinema and tele0ision at aglo%al le0el general linguistics with particular emphasis on Germanic,$ndo-?uropean, A!rican and more recently $ndo-Aryan languages, as well asspeci!ic studies o! 'ali and "umerian. *is current research co0ers thelanguage o! Cro-MagnonE and the %irth o! language among *omo sapiens,the phylogenic and psychogenetic emergence o! human language andmythological contacts %etween $ndo-?uropean and ur8ic traditions andcultures. *e has widely pu%lished in many countries in all these !ields andon the internet. *e is currently wor8ing !or the C?G$D at 9oulogne9illancourt &Compagnie ?uropéenne de Gestion par lF$n!ormati6ueDécentralisée, ?uropean Company o! Management %y Distri%utedComputing esta%lished in H@ %elonging to the Groupement des

pro!essionnels de paie et de gestion &Centre !or pay-roll management pro!essionals in Nice, a!ter ha0ing taught in many 'arisian uni0ersities,including the 'anthéon-"or%onne and Assas-'anthéon within the "or%onne

1ni0ersity. http:IIsynopsispaie.academia.eduIJac6uesCoulardeau.8ac7ue! CO9LA"DEA9 a soutenu une thse en linguisti6ue allemande <l)1ni0ersité de (ille @. 3ormé < l)enseignement de (AN"AD < l)1ni0ersitéde 9ordeau $$, il a enseigné l)anglais appli6ué au sciences, < latechnologie et l)histoire. $l a !ait de la recherche dans les domaines de lalittérature, du thé>tre et des arts anglais et américains du cinéma et de latélé0ision sur un plan mondial de la linguisti6ue générale a0ec l)accent missur les langues germani6ues, indo-européennes, a!ricaines et indo-aryennes

plus récemment a0ec des études spéci!i6ues sur le pali et le sumérien. "esrecherches récentes cou0rent la langue de Cro-Magnon et l)émergence de la

langue che/ les homo sapiens, la naissance phylogéni6ue et psychogénéti6ue du langage humain et des contacts mythologi6ues entre lescultures indo-européens et tur6ues. $l a pu%lié de nom%reu articles dans cesdomaines dans plusieurs pays et $nternet. $l tra0aille actuellement pour lecompte de la Compagnie ?uropéenne de Gestion par lF$n!ormati6ueDécentralisée < 9oulogne 9illancourt !aisant partie du Groupement des

pro!essionnels de paie et de gestion < Nice, aprs a0oir enseigné dans



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plusieurs uni0ersités parisiennes dont 'anthéon-"or%onne et Assas-'anthéon. http:IIsynopsispaie.academia.eduIJac6uesCoulardeau.

Corneiu! C"OWLE# is a pro!essor o! 9ritish studies at the 1ni0ersity o!'aris Ouest - Nanterre (a Dé!ense and is the director o! the C#?A &?A @L+Centre !or #esearch into the Anglophone 4orld. *is most recent researchhas !ocused on the 6uestion o! 9ritish ?uroscepticism in relation to thecurrent state o! a 9ritish AnglosphereE post-imperial geopolitics. 3or a

presentation o! the proects o! the Nanterre research group which hecoordinates:

http:IIanglais.u-paris+.!rIspip.phpru%ri6ue2K

Corneiu! Cro:ey est pro!esseur de ci0ilisation %ritanni6ue < l)uni0ersité'aris Ouest Nanterre (a Dé!ense et directeur du C#?A &?A @L+, Centre derecherches anglophones. "a recherche la plus récente porte sur la 6uestionde l)euroscepticisme %ritanni6ue, en0isagé en articulation a0ec l)état actueld)une géopoliti6ue %ritanni6ue et post-impériale de l)une anglosphre .'our une présentation du programme en cours du groupe de recherche 6u)ilcoordonne :http:IIanglais.u-paris+.!rIspip.phpru%ri6ue2K

Sonia DOSO"9T% is (ecturer in 3rench at the 1ni0ersity o! Mauritius."he o%tained a 'hD at the "or%onne in 2++. he title o! her thesis is: herepresentation o! the child in Mauritius)s !rancophone literature: !romJac6ues-*enri 9ernardin de "aint-'ierre to dateE. *er research interestscentre on historical criticism, the child as well as issues o! identity.

?nseignant-chercheur au département de !ran;ais de l)uni0ersité deMaurice, Sonia DOSO"9T% a soutenu une thse en "or%onne en 2++ayant pour titre : (a représentation de l)en!ant dans la littérature

mauricienne !rancophone : de Jac6ues-*enri 9ernardin de "aint-'ierre < nos ours . "es champs de recherche portent sur la littérature mauricienne!rancophone dans son ensem%le : l)aspect historico-littéraire, l)en!ant, ainsi6ue les pro%lémati6ues identitaires.

Geetha GANA$AT%#&DO"; is a #esearch Accredited Associate'ro!essor o! ?nglish at the 3aculty o! (aw, 'olitical and "ocial "ciences,



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1ni0ersity o! 'aris @, "or%onne 'aris Cité. "he is the author of "he #ostcolonial Indian $oel in ?nglish &2+. "he has coedited se0eral %oo8samong which !igure Images changeantes de l’Inde et de l’Afrique &2+ and %n the &oe, "he 'ourne! of (efugees in $ew )iteratures in *nglish&2+2. *er recent research re0ol0es around $ndia ?1 relations in the newworld order. http:[email protected]

Geetha GANA$AT%#&DO"; est MaQtresse de con!érences ha%ilitée <diriger des recherches en poste < la !aculté de Droit, sciences politi6ues etsociales de l)1ni0ersité 'aris @, "or%onne 'aris Cité. ?lle est l)auteur de"he #ostcolonial Indian $oel in *nglish &2+. ?lle a dirigéIcodirigé

plusieurs ou0rages collecti!s dont Images changeantes de l’Inde et del’Afrique &2+ et %n the &oe, "he 'ourne! of (efugees in $ew

)iteratures in *nglish &2+2. "es recherches récentes portent sur lesrelations entre l)$nde et l)1nion européenne. http:[email protected]

$atric< G"IFFIN is a 6uali!ied solicitor in $reland and in ?ngland R4ales. *e completed a doctorate with the 1ni0ersité 'aris 2 in the area o!?uropean 1nion !inancial ser0ices law and has pu%lished widely in the areao! ?uropean 1nion law. *e is currently Associate 'ro!essor o! (egal?nglish at the 1ni0ersité 'aris ?st 7 Créteil Sal de Marne. *e is interestedin the interaction o! regulatory systems in the contet o! the creation o! the?uropean 1nion and in particular the ?uropean 1nion $nternal Mar8et.

$atric< G"IFFIN est un uriste 6uali!ié pour eercer le métier de solicitor en $rlande, en Angleterre et au 'ays de Galle. $l a soutenu unethse de doctorat sur le droit de l)1nion européenne en matire de ser0ices!inanciers < l)1ni0ersité 'aris 2. Auteur de nom%reu articles dans ledomaine du droit communautaire européen, il est actuellement MaQtre de

Con!érences < l)1ni0ersité 'aris ?st 7 Créteil Sal de Marne. "es recherches portent sur l)interaction des systmes régulateurs dans le contete de laconstruction de l)1nion européenne et dans le marché interne européen en

particulier.

#annic< LE =O9LICA9T is 'ro!essor o! ?nglish at the Catholic1ni0ersity o! Angers. 3ormerly Director o! C$#*ill, he is now in charge o!



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the Master)s degree in $ntercultural "tudies and a mem%er o! Centre !or$nterdisciplinary #esearch in ?nglish o! the 1ni0ersity o! Angers &C#$(Aand )a +ociété Conradienne de rance. *e wrote his Doctoral dissertationon Joseph Conrad &H2 and has pu%lished numerous articles on J. Conradin )’*-oque Conradienne, Conradiana, Conrad. *astern and /estern

#ers-ecties and )es Cahiers du CI(0i)). *e is research accredited inConradian and ranslation studies. *e has presented papers at con!erencesin the 1", $taly, the Netherlands, 'oland, "wit/erland on Conrad,

photography, etymology and taonomy. *e is a pro!essional photographerwww.yannic8le%oulicaut.com

'ro!esseur < l)1ni0ersité Catholi6ue de l)Ouest, ancien directeur duC$#*i((, #annic< LE =O9LICA9T est responsa%le du Master

Interculturalité et chercheur au C#$(A &1ni0ersité d)Angers. $l estmem%re de )a +ociété Conradienne de rance1 "a thse de doctorat &H26ui porte sur Joseph Conrad l)a amené < réaliser son *D# en étudesconradiennes et en traductologie. $l est l)auteur de nom%reuses pu%licationsdans des re0ues comme )’*-oque Conradienne, Conradiana, Conrad .

*astern and /estern #ers-ectie, )es Cahiers du CI(0i))1 $l a égalementassuré des con!érences et communications au 1"A, en $talie, "uisse, 'ays-9as, 'ologne sur J. Conrad, la photographie, la taonomie et l)étymologie.'hotographe pro!essionnel &www.yannic8le%oulicaut.com

Miche NA9MANN is 'ro!essor o! ?nglish at the 1ni0ersity o! Cergy-'ontoise and 'resident o! "A#$. *e has taught in the uni0ersities o! Niamey&Niger, 5ano &Nigéria, Met/, ours, 'aris2 and Cergy &3rance. *e is aspecialist in A!rican (iterature and the *istory o! $deas in $ndia. *e has

pu%lished wor8s on the history o! the Commonwealth, A!rican literaturesand 9ritish decoloni/ation.

Miche NA9MANN est pro!esseur < l)1ni0ersité de Cergy-'ontoise. $l

préside la "A#$. $l a enseigné dans di!!érentes uni0ersités en A!ri6ue et en3rance Niamey &Niger, 5ano &Nigeria, Met/, ours et 'aris 2 &3rance.$l est spécialiste de la littérature a!ricaine et de l)histoire des idées en $nde. $la pu%lié des ou0rages sur l)histoire du Commonwealth, les littératuresa!ricaines et la décolonisation %ritanni6ue.



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Miche OLINGA completed his 'hD in Anglophone studies at the1ni0ersity o! 'aris-"or%onne. *is general research interests %ear on 9ritishand Commonwealth cultural studies &!rom 2+th century on, colonial and

postcolonial issues: colonial legacies, post-colonial multiculturalism andinterculturalism. *e is also interested in secession, minority and identityissues, as well as in the 3rancophonie and the Commonwealth. *e teaches?nglish &language and ci0ilisation !or *istory, Archaeology, Art *istoryand Applied (anguages students at the 1ni0ersity (umire (yon 2.

Docteur en Ttudes anglophones de l)1ni0ersité de 'aris-"or%onne, MicheOLINGA enseigne l)anglais &langue et ci0ilisation au étudiants en

histoire, archéologie et histoire de l)art ainsi 6ue dans le département de(angues étrangres appli6uées < l)1ni0ersité (umire (yon 2. $l estspécialiste des ci0ilisations %ritanni6ue et du Commonwealth &< partir du2+me sicle et s)intéresse au 6uestions coloniales et postcoloniales, au6uestions identitaires ainsi 6u)< la 3rancophonie et au Commonwealth.

Caude ;ric OWONO ZAM=O is currently !inishing his doctoral thesis&'hD on the writer Mongo 9eti. Author o! numerous articles ininternational ournals, he is also a mem%er o! the editorial %oard o! the

ournal Arena (omanistica at the 1ni0ersity o! 9ergen in Norway.

Caude ;ric OWONO ZAM=O ach0e actuellement la rédaction de sathse de Doctorat &'hD sur l)écri0ain Mongo 9eti. Auteur de nom%reuarticles dans des re0ues internationales, il est également mem%re du comitééditorial de la re0ue scienti!i6ue Arena (omanistica de l)1ni0ersité de9ergen en Nor0ge.

So6iane TAO9C%IC%ET. A!ter a Master)s thesis on the illustrated pressand colonial con6uest, he is writing a doctoral dissertation on the history o!

contemporary art under the guidance o! "égolne (e Men and odd'orter!ield, on the illustrated satirical press and coloni/ation in 3rance&H@+-+ ointly at the 1ni0ersity o! 'aris Ouest Nanterre De!ense andthe 1ni0ersity o! Montreal. *e is particularly interested in media cultures,genres and images, wor8s on coloni/ation and its representation as well as0isual stereotypes.



So6iane TAO9C%IC%ET, auteur dFune maQtrise sur la presse illustrée et lacon6u=te coloniale, prépare actuellement une thse de doctorat en histoirede lFart contemporain sous la direction de "égolne (e Men et de odd'orter!ield sur la presse satiri6ue illustrée et la colonisation en 3rance&cotutelle opérée entre lFuni0ersité 'aris Ouest Nanterre la Dé!ense etlF1ni0ersité de Montréal.$l sFintéresse particulirement au culturesmédiati6ues, au genres et supports iconographi6ues il tra0aille de m=mesur la colonisation et ses représentations ainsi 6ue sur les stéréotypes0isuels.

Fernanda >ILA" was %orn in HK in 9ra/il. "he recei0ed her (iteraturedegree !rom the Campinas 1ni0ersity &1nicamp in 2++H. "he completedtwo years o! postgraduate studies on Comparati0e (iterature and 'hilosophyat the ?N" &l)Tcole Normale "upérieure de (yon in 2++. $n 2+, shestarted her 'hD at the 1ni0ersité de 'aris Ouest 7 Nanterre (a Dé!enseunder the guidance o! Jean-Marc Moura. *er doctoral proect, which is!unded %y a CA'?" scholarship %y 9ra/il, aims at in0estigating the writingo! 0iolence in the wor8s o! Mia Couto, "ony (a%ou ansi and JM Coet/ee."he also wor8s !or a 3rench literature we%site, )a clé des langues and a9ra/ilian literary ournal (ascunho on a 0oluntary %asis.

Fernanda >ILA" est titulaire d)une (icence en (ettres de l)1ni0ersité deCampinas, 9résil &2++B-+H et d)un Master en (ittérature Comparée &2++H-+ et en 'hilosophie de l)art &2++-+ de l)Tcole Normale "upérieure de(yon. ?lle a enseigné la langue et littérature en langue portugaise < l)Tcole

Normale "upérieure de (yon &2++-2+2. Actuellement chargéed)entretiens a0ec des écri0ains pour le site (a clé des langues , elle

prépare sa thse en (ittérature Comparée de l)A!ri6ue "u%saharienne <l)1ni0ersité de 'aris Ouest 7 Nanterre (a Dé!ense sous la direction de M.Jean-Marc Moura, s)intéressant notamment < l)écriture de la 0iolence che/".(. ansi, J. M. Coet/ee et Mia Couto.



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Content / Tabe de! +ati?re!

Corneiu! C"OWLE#Introduction 333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 1

'A# : he 'olitics o! #epresentation - Colonial and 'ostcolonial $mages

C%A$TE" 1#annic< Le =O9LICA9TThere i! no !uch thin- a! a candid !hot 3333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333

C%A$TE" 8ac7ue! CO9LA"DEA9Cooni@ation and Decooni@ation in the 9S and Me5ico3333333333333333333333333333333

C%A$TE" 2So6iane TAO9C%IC%ETDu 6r?re d*ar+e! B *enne+i inti+e3 $re!!e iu!tr)e. Grande Guerre etTrou4e! cooniae! 33333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 1

'A# 2: $mages o! Decoloni/ation in A!rica

C%A$TE" Miche NA9MANNN<ru+ah %)ro! de *Ind)4endance a6ricaine. I+a-e! et +)+oire! d*un+onu+ent hi!tori7ue 3333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 10

C%A$TE" Miche OLINGAMA9 MA9 I+a-e! and Decooni@ation o6 enyaFro+ =ac< Sava-ery andTriba My!tici!+ to %auntin- Gho!t 33333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 11

'A# @: Decoloni/ation and (iterature in 3rench-spea8ing and 'ortuguese-spea8ing Areas

C%A$TE" Caude ;ric OWONO ZAM=OCooni!ation/d)cooni!ation 4ar a an-ue et a itt)rature 6ranHai!e! * ind)4endance J (ir,r)!oue en A6ri7ue 3333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 12



C%A$TE" KSonia DOSO"9T%La d)cooni!ation de Maurice entre chan-e+ent et a4orie 333333333333333333333 10

C%A$TE" Fernanda >ILA"Le 6a+ant. a ionne et a d)cooni!ation au Mo@a+bi7ue 333333333333333333333333 1

'A# B: Decoloni/ation in $ndiaI$reland

C%A$TE" Geetha GANA$AT%#&DO";Nationai!t ver!u! Socia "evoution & A Co+4arative Study o6 "it:i<Ghata<! Subarnarekha (1, and en Loach! The Wind that Shakes the

Barley (00, 333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 1

C%A$TE" 10$atric< G"IFFINI! one o6 the :ord*! ode!t de+ocracie! under threatA co+4arative oo< atthe con!titutiona or-ani@ation o6 the 9nited in-do+ and Ireand +i-ht teu! :hy 33333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 0K



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Introduction

he title o! Uannic8 (e 9oulicaut)s article o!!ers use!ul counsel to allresearchers who address 6uestions o! empire, coloni/ation, anddecoloni/ation. he counsel is e6ually appropriate !or all those who, asciti/ens o! a particular polity or nation-state who are also, no less, thesharers in a glo%al and cosmopolitan destiny transcending the limits o!the national, must decide what is to %e done, in the now o! collecti0e

political responsi%ility and in a contet resonant with the continuing echo

o! these insepara%le moments o! our modern history: empire,coloni/ation, decoloni/ation, the postcolonial a!termath, whether in theerstwhile colonial possessions or in the erstwhile imperial powers, theri0al metropolitan would-%e hearts o! illumination.

$!, !or Conrad, there were hearts o! dar8ness, there were also, !or his?uropean contemporaries, sym%iotically and dialectically, certain

presumed hearts o! light. (i8e photography, whose in0ention and glo%al proection co0eredE the 2nd phase o! ?uropean imperialism, a!ter the!irst phase o! American decoloni/ation %etween LLP and H2 &throughthe se0erance o! the lin8 %etween the imperial power and the newly-%ornsettler nations, empire is an a!!air o! illumination, supported %y an

ideological discourse o! candour . he declared intentions di0ert attention!rom the less a0owa%le eercise o! e!!ecti0e power, to ends o!appropriation. $! there is no such thing as a candid shotE, theesta%lishment o! what Uannic8 (e 9oulicaut 6uali!ies as a field ofactionE in0ol0ing a di!!erential relation o! contrasting distinction isstandard procedure in %oth photography and in colonial administration.9y candidE, we are to understand a claim to innocence and nai0ety, the6uality o! a gesture, whether in word or deed, that is supposedlyindi!!erent to the matri o! power and domination. here is no such thingas a candid piece o! academic research into the topic addressed in thiscollection o! articles. his o%ser0ation does not in any sense usti!y a

departure !rom the ordinary 4e%erian procedures o! methodologicalneutralityE. $t does howe0er imply an acutely re!lei0e, non-candidawareness on the part o! the researcher that in writing o! the 6uestions o!empire, decoloni/ation, and decoloni/ation, she or he is addressingenterprises o! domination and emancipation in which the in0ocation o!

Da0id 9. A%ernethy, "he D!namics of 2lobal Dominance &New *a0en, C: Uale1ni0ersity 'ress, 2+++.



Cornelius Crowle!

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history and the in0ocation o! the social sciences o! anthropology andethnology, whose in0ention is contemporaneous with the 2nd phase o!?uropean imperial epansion, are a structural component o! thediscourses and action o! coloni/ation and o! the su%se6uent phrase o!decoloni/ation. "he or he thus addresses an agenda o! research, anacademic field of actionE, in which the 0ery discourses practised %y theresearcher ha0e %een constructed out o!, and thus mani!est the mar8s andthe categories o!, this se6uence o! insepara%le moments: em-ire andcolonization, decolonization. 4hat is there!ore e0ident or mani!est to theresearcher today in his or her enterprise o! historical comprehension isthus the e!!ect o! a speci!ic régime d)historicité2E. oday)s researcher

addresses a diachronic field of actionE that is %oth structured anddynamised %y the imperial enterprise o! domination and %y its ine0ita%lytur%ulent wa8e. (i8e the photographer planting a tripod in the !ield, theresearcher addresses his or her corpus, an ensem%le o! discourses andimages, the records o! a neus o! actions !rom a%o0eE and o! responses!rom %elowE. No compositional !raming o! this 0ast neus can %e eithercandidE or complete. he research into this !ield o! action is a !ield thatstretches out %e!ore all o! us, in waiting !or an intermina%le enterprise o!con!rontation and comprehension.

2 3ingti4me +i4cle, (eue d’0istoire, nV L, an0iecccccr-mars 2+@, in particular the!irst two essays, Wuentin Deluermo/, 1ne histoire des historicités est-elle possi%le ,

pp. @-, and (udi0ine 9antigny, *istoricités du 2+e sicle : Wuel6ues alons sur unenotion , pp. @-2K. "ee also the !ollowing essays in the 0olume 56789:858 . les

sciences de l’0omme en débat, sous la direction de Uan 9railow8sy et *er0é $ngle%ert,'resses uni0ersitaires de 'aris Ouest, 2+@ : 3ran;ois Satin, ?conomie ersus"ociologie : du moment mariste au dialogue des disciplines &L+-2++ : le cas de

Nanterre , pp. K-PB, !or a use!ul account o! the th century genesis o! the socialsciences, and (udo0ic ourns, ()histoire et les "*" &L+-2++ : des %eau oursde l)impérialisme au incertitudes de l)interdisciplinarité , pp. P-H@, in particular !orthe !ollowing passage a%out historical research since the H+s : on peut considérer6ue l)a!!irmation actuelle de la posture ré!lei0e est l)un des ac6uis des tra0au menés

depuis cette période. ?lle ne constitue pas un paradigme < proprement parler, mais plussimplement une posture épistémologi6ue dans le6uel de plus en plus d)historiens sereconnaissent naturellement, et 6ui s)appuie sur le constat d)une triple historicité :historicité des o%ets d)études &6ui sont des constructions et non des réalités o%ecti0es < décou0rir historicité des sources, 6ui constituent le matériau m=me de laconnaissance histori6ue &l)historien construit ses sources et les in0ente au gré de ses6uestionnements historicité, en!in, de l)historien lui-m=me, 6ui doit penser sadémarche en 6uestionnant sa propre situation et les catégories d)analyse 6u)il emploie ,

pp. LH-L.





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he literature o! !rancophone A!rica has gone through those same phasesdelineated %y Cha%al in relation to Mo/am%ican literature. OwonoXam%o states that, in the colonial cultural %eginning, l)écri0ain a!ricaindéploie son acte d)écriture sous la perspecti0e d)un mimétisme 6ui !risel)assimilation littéraire1 Nous l)appellerons ici la littérature ducoloniséE»1 his phase is !ollowed %y what he calls l)re de larupture . Owono Xam%o)s intention is to discern the etent to which aliterature whose conditions o! possi%ility and whose e!!ecti0e practice areinscri%ed in the contet inaugurated %y such a ru-ture mightconstitute peut-=tre un déclencheur, peut-=tre sym%oli6ue, maisdéclencheur 6uand meme, d)une independence culturelle proposée au

A!ricains . Owona /am%o is cautious in the statement o! his hypothesisand o! his hopes.

he !act that there is a recognisa%le !amily resem%lanceE %etween all0ersions o! competing ?uropean empire and colonisation does nothowe0er imply that there is a general one-si/eE model o! empire,coloni/ation and decoloni/ation. here is, to %egin with, a crucialdi!!erence %etween a process o! decoloni/ation leading to theindependence o! a new settler nation and a decolonisation in0ol0ingeither the reappropriation o! so0ereignty %y the indigenous nation or theappropriation o! national so0ereignty %y a nation that is constructed orYin0entedY through the political dialectics o! collecti0e sel!-a!!irmation,in reaction to the eperience o! colonial go0ernment. Jac6ues Coulardeauenlarges the scope o! the reader)s appraisal o! the imperial !ield o!actionE %y eamining the 0arying de!initions and coding o! racialdi!!erence, and the di!!erences in legal status !or which the structure o!racial di!!erentiation is the !oundation, as e0ident in the pro0isions !or thestatus o! the ?uropean population o! settler stoc8, !or the indigenousAmerican population, !or the A!rican sla0e population, and !or those whowere o! mied %loodE. *e in!orms us that *istorically, the only part o!the 1nited "tates that operated under the three-tiered system was(ouisiana, since it was coloni/ed and settled !irst %y the 3rench and

"panish. Z[\ 9ecause (ouisiana was coloni/ed %y the 3rench, aYtripartite legal distinction emergedY whites, A!rican sla0es, and !ree people o! color, or gens de couleur libres.@ his practice is opposed to theone-drop rule o! the ?nglish, !or whom one single drop o! %lac8 %loodmade you %lac8E. *is analysis pro0ides ample warrant !or his lapidaryconclusion that coloni/ation is generally a %rutal enterpriseE. $n the



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contet o! American societies which ha0e esta%lished their sense o!nationhood largely on the %asis o! the !oundational declaration o!independence %y the !ounding !athers o! the settler nation, Coulardeau)scomple argument addresses the 6uestion o! decoloniali/ationE inrelation to the contemporary culture and politics o! America, %oth northand south o! the %order o! the #io Grande. *e points to certain 6uestionso! gender and !iliation yet to %e !aced, 6uestions o! hy%ridity and, to usethe 3aul8nerian term, 6uestions o! miscegenation, which are addressedand su%limated %y way o! the Disney treatment o! 'ocahontas, dealt within a more elegiac manner in erence Malic8)s !ilm "he $ew /orld, andwhich, in the culture and politics o! Meico, !ocus on the seminal !igure

o! )a &alinche, ostraci/ed and repressed in the Meican construction o!its collecti0e sel!-image, an ostracism compounded, argues Coulardeau,

%y the !urther ostracism as a chigada o! ?lena Garro, the one-time wi!eo! Octa0io 'a/, who, in her writings, dared 6uestion the heroic masculineappropriation o! an ideali/ed image o! the nation, %y way o! act o!ideali/ation in0ol0ing the proection on the %ody o! a woman o! theuna0owa%le -art maudite o! mestizo !iliation.

he %rutality o! coloni/ation mentioned %y Coulardeau is theine0ita%le corollary o! colonial settlement and appropriation o! land.Michael Olinga eamines the struggle !or independence in K+s 5enya,a 9ritish colony which did ha0e a white settler class o! !armers, andwhere the colonial administration was !aced with the oint challenge set

%y Jomo 5enyatta)s 5A1 party and %y the MA1 MA1, a !orce which atthe time was gothicised in the 9ritish media and which ga0e rise to asustained 9ritish campaign o! counter-insurgencyE. Olinga draws on therecent renewal o! the historiography o! pre-independence 5enya. *isconclusion goes %eyond the e6uation %etween the MA1 MA1 and theagitation o! a class o! displaced, landless peasants: much o! the agitation

%ehind MA1 MA1 was not really %y peasants 7%asically people whoowned modest pieces o! land7 %ut mostly %y people who were landless,li0ing as s6uatters on estates owned %y ?uropeans, %y ur%an o%less and

gangsters in Nairo%i, and %y e-ser0icemen o! the "econd 4orld 4ar.All these people who had 6uite no source o! re0enue and mostly relied onland eploitation could see large tracts o! land 7sometimes uneploited,sometimes richly culti0ated, %ut ?uropean-owned7 all %eyond theircapacity to ac6uireE.

Gi0en the magnitude o! the socio-economic and the cultural ruptureswhich the dialectics o! coloni/ation %rings a%out, the initial programmeo! independent sel!-rule will ine0ita%ly in0ol0e the searching a!ter a sel!-



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image o! dignity, to %e sought out %y way o! the reappropriation o! anindigenous past: this aiom holds true !or the programmes o! culturalnationalism in $ndia or in $reland as it does !or the Ghana o! 5wame

NF5rumah. (et me 6uote !rom Michael Naumann)s a%stract to his article:4hen 5wame N)5rumah and his ministers went to meet the Ghanaiansat the dawn o! independence dressed in togas made o! 8ente, they werereconnecting to an A!rican past that many had still %een denying. hisimage constitutes an essential picture o! independence and the Ghanian

preoccupation with lin8ing the past to the present, !or the past is a shortcut to the !uture, as "oyin8a puts it. 4hat N)5rumah resuscitated andwhat he thus honoured was not the history o! great empires %ut the

economic dynamism o! A!rica, its aesthetic sense, a ci0ili/ation wherethe good goes hand in hand with the %eauti!ul permeating the most so%ermoments o! li!e as well as the most solemn onesE. his cultural politicso! reappropriation would appear to %e, on the %asis o! the e0idence !romall postcolonial societies where the indigenous population has esta%lished!ull-!ledged nation-stateE status, an ine0ita%le phenomenon. $t may, %utit does not necessarily, in0ol0e the in0ention o! a pre-colonial past, to %eimagined as an unde!iled state o! permanence. *owe0er the in0ention o!a !antasied pre-colonial past is not the sole or eclusi0e cultural response.#eappropriation is increasingly coming to in0ol0e the comprehensi0ehistorical in6uiry into the comple networ8s o! echange, into thedynamics o! the material economy o! the social world prior tocoloni/ation. 4hat Naumann says a%out N)5rumah, a%out the necessaryconnection %etween past, present and the !uture o! a society 7o! an! society7 pro0ides an important perspecti0e on the current moment in our

post-colonial world.'atric8 Gri!!in ta8es us %ac8 to the singular case o! $reland, John

9ull)s other islandE, !ully incorporated into the 1nited 5ingdomthrough the Act o! 1nion o! H++, its status anomalous %etween H++ and2 inso!ar as it was represented in the 4estminster parliament whileretaining in Du%lin Castle the o!!ice o! a (ord-(ieutenant or Siceroy

ha%itually associated with colonial administrationB

. *e eamines thechanges which ha0e come a%out in the relations %etween the 15 and the

B "tephen *owe, Ireland and *m-ire. Colonial )egacies in Irish 0istor! and Culture &O!ord: O!ord 1ni0ersity 'ress, 2+++. *owe complicates the usual picture. *ea0oids any simplistic casting o! $reland as the politically disa!!ected territory o! imperialdomination, !ocusing nota%ly on the role played %y $reland in the 9ritish imperial order,in particular in $ndia and in A!rica.



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independent #epu%lic o! $reland in the contemporary contet that ismar8ed %y their common mem%ership o! the ?uropean 1nion and %y theemergence o! a degree o! oint responsi%ility !or the a!!airs o! Northern$reland. 'erhaps the most remar8a%le shi!t, o0er the last two decades, hasin0ol0ed the complicit incorporation o! $reland within the wider glo%alsociety o! the anglosphereEK, with the result that whate0er con!licts maystill arise, there is a common agenda that seems to %e implicitly anglo-glo%alE with regards to the politics o! production and echange and inrelation to the politics o! in!ormation and cultural consumption.

Geetha Ganapathy-Doré returns to the 6uestion o! the analogies anddi!!erences %etween the pre-independence and post-independence status

o! $reland and $ndia through her consideration o! two !ilms, #itwi8Ghata8)s PK 9engali !ilm "u%arnare8ha and 5en (oach)s "he /indthat +ha;es the <arle! &2++P. "he lin8s the two !ilms %y way o! theirtreatment o! the relation %etween the national struggle, the !ight !orindependence and !or admission to the world community o! nation-states

7the essential and o0erriding aim o! the anti-colonial struggle7 and aseries o! other issues le!t pending, en sus-ens, to %e addressedsu%se6uently. *er title posits an ad0ersarial or eclusi0e relation:National 0ersus "ocial #e0olutionE. his would appear to suggest thatthe national struggle preempts or trumps the social re0olution and that itmost certainly trumps issues o! gendered discrimination. he historicale0idence on this point is massi0e and indisputa%le. Mo0ements o! anti-colonial national li%eration, e0en when they enlisted the support o! either

K http:IIwww.lr%.co.u8I0@KIn+PIames-mee8Ishort-cuts. James Mee8 writes thus in the )ondon (eiew of <oo;s, 2 March 2+@ o! the Anglophere: 9ritain, Canada,Australia and New Xealand are on e0ery Anglospheroid)s list. he status o! the world)slargest collection o! nati0e ?nglish spea8ers, the 1nited "tates, is less certain. A!ter*arper won his third election 0ictory in 2+, the !irst to gi0e him an a%solute maorityin Canada)s !ederal parliament, 9ritain)s most energetic Anglospherite, the ory M?'Daniel *annan, hailed him in his "elegra-h %log as ]the e!!ecti0e leader o! theAnglosphere). Although 9arac8 O%ama is leader o! a one-time 9ritish colony with morenati0e ?nglish-spea8ers than all the others put together, *annan doesn)t !or some reason

consider him a candidate !or the 7 !antasy 7 position o! Anglosphere leadership,implying, con!usingly, that a country)s place in the Anglosphere is dependent on itsleaders ma8ing their interest in the concept eplicit, rather than there %eing somethingessentially Anglospheric a%out the country itsel!.

here)s a certain honesty in this. he 1nited "tates didn)t win a war !orindependence against a tyrannical 9ritish 8ing ust so that two centuries later it couldcommune with the spirits o! Cecil #hodes and John 9uchan in neo-imperialist seancesalongside the set o! countries %earing the 6ueen)s head on their coins. 9ut this hasn)tstopped certain Anglosphericals !ormulating a new mythology o! Anglo onenessE.



Cornelius Crowle!

the 1""# or o! Communist China, or o! Cu%a, were primarily oreclusi0ely !ocused on the 6uestion o! national li%eration, understood asthe o0ercoming o! the colonial administration and the su%mission o! thenation to the imperial authority. #eading Geetha Ganapathy-Doré, one istempted to imagine an entirely counter!actual modern world history, inwhich the colonial shoc8 treatment o! the eisting structure o! etra-?uropean societies had not %een enacted and endured, had not led to theesta%lishment o! a structure o! colonial administration which wouldine0ita%ly esta%lish the 6uestion o! the nation-state as the horizonindé-assable o! politics. Wuestions o! gender, o! social rights, 6uestionso! ecological sustaina%ility must now %e addressed in a contet still

mar8ed %y the haunting spectre o! the colonial order. Colonial Ghosts arenot the tutelary !igures under which it is easy to imagine the sharedresponsi%ilities o! a cosmopolitan !uture.

"onia Dosoruth)s article a%out Mauritius presents a paradigmatic caseo! the 0icissitudes o! the imperial glo%al order. ?n e!!et, l)Qle Maurice,décou0erte par le 'ortugais en BH - 6ui la %aptisent Cirne -, connaQtrasuccessi0ement la colonisation hollandaise, !ran;aise puis %ritanni6ue .As !urther e0idence o! the %rutality and ironic unpredicta%ility o! theimperial and colonial order, $ shall 6uote what she says a%out the Chagosarchipelago: ()archipel des Chagos est composé de L atolls 6uicomprennent plus de P+ Qles. (e plus grand des atolls est Diego Garcia.()archipel des Chagos !ut cédé par la 3rance au Anglais par le raité de'aris de HB et us6u)en PK, cet archipel !ut gou0erné comme !aisant

partie de la colonie de l)Qle MauriceP. ?n L@, 22 escla0es de Maurice,trs pro%a%lement d)origine malgache et a!ricaine, ainsi 6ue 'ierre Marie(e Normand, créent une plantation sur Diego Garcia. (e H no0em%rePK, l)Angleterre prend ar%itrairement l)archipel pour créer la <ritish

Indian %cean "erritor! =<I%">. Cela est rendu possi%le par ordre de "aMaesté, la reine d)Angleterre, par le <I%" %rder L. "ince L DiegoGarcia is a 1" military %ase, leased !rom the 9ritish and !rom which the

population has %een deported.

"onia Dosoruth !ocuses on the speci!ic case o! Mauritius and on theChagos archipelago in her presentation o! the colonial and the post-

P (indsey Collen and #agini, 5istnasamy, 0ow Diego 2arcia was De-o-ulated and+tolen? in Diego 2arcia was de-o-ulated and +tolen &'ort-(ouis: (edi8asyon 'ura0ayer, 2++2, p. 2P.L #egina 0. "ecretary o! "tate o! the 3oreign and Commonwealth o!!ice, *@ -arte9ancoult, +LP.



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colonial moment. *er argument is howe0er eemplary, e0idence not o!the nightmare o! historyE, to 6uote Joyce)s "tephen Dedalus, %ut o! the

pragmatic %rutalism o! the historical eercise o! power. hat there is amoment or epoch during which the dogmatic romance o! identity politics,o! in0ented traditions and imagined pre-colonial conditions, is almost!atally inscri%ed into the dialectics o! anti-colonial nationalism, as thelatter was !orged through its eperience o! and through the resistance tocolonial domination. $n the early decades o! post-colonial nationhood, acultural nationalism and a politics o! preser0ed national identity wouldappear to %e una0oida%le, collecti0ely irresisti%le. As Geetha Ganapathy-Doré suggests, such a dialectics has in0ol0ed the prolonged repression, in

the 3reudian sense, o! any !ield o! actionE opening onto a shared,cosmopolitan politics, where 6uestions o! gender and o! social solidaritymight %e ta8en up anew.

Corneiu! C"OWLE#1ni0ersité 'aris Ouest Nanterre (a Dé!ense



2

$A"T 1

T%E $OLITICS OF "E$"ESENTATION COLONIAL AND $OSTCOLONIAL IMAGES



annic; )e <oulicaut

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C%A$TE" 1

There i! no !uch thin- a! a candid !hot

Ab!tract: Contrary to popular %elie!, photography is neither an o%ecti0e mediumnor an accurate way o! representation. $t is, on the contrary, a highly su%ecti0e artas it is %ased on interpretation and staging. $llustrated %y a num%er o! imagesdating !rom colonial and post-colonial times, this article !ocuses on the %asic?urocentric grammar o! any photographic image: choice o! lens, !raming,structuring lines and the use o! arte!acts.

")!u+) : Contrairement < l)idée populaire répandue, la photographie n)est pas unsimple médium au ser0ice d)une représentation 6ui serait !orcément précise eto%ecti0e. C)est au contraire un art hautement su%ecti! %asé sur l)interprétation etla mise en scne. Gr>ce < des illustrations datant de l)épo6ue coloniale ou post-coloniale, cet article s)intéresse < 6uel6ues points appartenant < ce 6u)il estcon0enu d)appeler la grammaire de l’image, en l)occurrence ici une grammairenettement eurocentri6ue : choi des o%ecti!s, cadrage, structuration des lignes etusage des arte!acts.

"he co-!right of the illustrations used in this article belongs to their rightful owners1

2rateful ac;nowledgement is made to them1 "he! are re-roduced here as quotations for -urel! academic and non9commercial -ur-oses in accordance with the Bfair use B andBfair dealing? clauses of a--licable co-!right law1

4riting, photography and 0isual arts in general share common 0isual andsocial codes, at least in a gi0en ci0ili/ation. 4riters, painters or

photographers deal with similar pro%lems as !ar as representation isconcerned: how to create perspecti0e, how to master di!!erent planes o!!ocus, how to suggest mo0ement and a%o0e all how to treat ]reality). hestarting-point o! this re!lection on photography is to consider a %lan8 sheet

o! photographic paper as a field of action more than a simple recorded s-ace. *ence, the contention o! this article is to try and show how photographers -and this !rom the origin in the H@+)s with calotypes- ha0edealt with cultural models, namely a strong ?urocentric model. 4esterncoloni/ers, missionaries, merchants, tra0ellers, eplorers, artists, doctorsha0e lugged their hea0y !ield cameras all o0er the world, telling stories,

$n HB 3o A(9O patented the negati0e-photograph 8nown as CA(OU'?.



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either duplicating western eperiences, genuinely documenting thewilderness and the otherness or relaying crude propaganda. As witnesses o!turning-points in history, did they 6uestion the relationship %etween realityand its rendering, trying to !ind some %alance %etween !aith!ulness andtruth 4ere they simply trying to duplicate the eternal world or ratherstri0ing to create an illusi0e response o! the omnipresent spectator'hotography -%e it at the time o! coloni/ation or o! decolonisation- !ollowsa hand!ul o! %asic rules and canons. he grammar o! a photograph is

%asically how graphic elements such as lines, cur0es, light, patterns andshadows are organi/ed into an e!!ecti0e composition, e!!ecti0e meaningauthentic, in!ormati0e, compelling or suggesti0e. 1sing a series o!

photographs !rom di!!erent epochs, our purpose will %e to %etter understandhow images are created, how that 0isual grammar !unctions hence howgenuine reportage and %latant propaganda can %e decoded. At the turn o! the2+th century maga/ines such as 0armsworth &agazine, Illustrations ofChina and Its #eo-le, *m-ire (eiew, "he ield , )a (eue des "rou-esColoniales %oth captured in!ormation and implemented authority, powerand control. $n )’il naf , #egis De%ray2 recalls that, $n the 2+th century,the photo industry was a means o! possessing and cele%rating the territoryE.

(i8e a writer, a photographer has an authorial 0oice. 4riters and photographers &reshape reality, with words, grammar and tropes !or the!irst ones and light and linear structures !or the others. $! the personality

%ehind a camera is less apparent than the one %ehind a pen, in all cases therelation to reality is highly precarious and one has to %e aware o! thatdiscrepancy. $s the photographer eager to use reality !or aesthetic purposesor !or some less artistic criteria "ruth now re!ers not to accuraterepresentation o! the artist)s response to the o%ect or 0iew, "ruth nowmeans !idelity to the su%ecti0e eperience o! the artist.E@ hat statement %yJerry (. homson concerning photography as a medium %ased on selectionand interpretation relies on the importance o! su%ecti0ity despite the !actthat photography is most o! the time used to denote ultimate truthB. (i8e a

2 ()industrie photographi6ue !ut au ^$ê sicle un moyen de prise de possession et decélé%ration du territoire , p. H+.@ "ruth and #hotogra-h!, p. 22.B $n HK@ Al%ert 9is%ee wrote, One o! the greatest ad0antages o! the Daguerreotype is thatit acts with certainty and etent, to which the powers o! human !aculties are per!ectlyincompetent. hus many scenes o! the deepest interest can %e transcri%ed and con0eyed to

posterity, not as they appear to the imagination o! the poet or painter, %ut as they actuallyareE. Wuoted %y . 'atti in <iogra-h! of the #ictorial #rint . 'hotographic "ociety o!America, L-K &2++K: @K.



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story, a photograph is meant to ma8e the 0iewer respond to the presentedthing in its setting 7the o-sis- and not to the manner o! its representation.homson here meets Joseph Conrad who, in the pre!ace to the ]Nigger o!the $arcissus) un0eiled his aesthetic credo, 3iction 7 i! it at all aspires to

%e art- appeals to temperament. And in truth it must %e, li8e painting, li8emusic, li8e all art, the appeal o! one temperament to all the otherinnumera%le temperaments whose su%tle and resistless power endows

passing e0ents with true meaning, and creates the moral, the emotionalatmosphere o! the place and timeE.K Art is ne0er neutral, e0en i! !or decades

photography had a tendency to thin8 o! itsel! as neutral. "usan "ontagP contends that in ?urope, photography was largely guided %y notions o! the

pictures6ue, the important, and the %eauti!ulE. "trangely enough, the ideathat photography is o%ecti0e and non predatory is still widely shared todayin a world o0erwhelmed %y images. $t should %e added too that the !irst

photographers were mostly e-painters, no wonder then that the 0isual toolswhich were implemented !rom the 0ery %eginning were deri0ed !rom therules which had %een used in painting since the early #enaissance.

Our !irst statement, relaying the title o! this article, is that an image is -er se staged. 'hotos do not ]ta8e themsel0es), someone ine0ita%ly ma;es a photo, %y choosing his e6uipment, %y deciding to settle his gear in such a place, %y using such !oreground, such %ac8drop, such light, such aperture,such shutter speed and !inally %y deciding to press the shutter release at one

particular moment. A great num%er o! usually o0erloo8ed !actors, inherentto technical !actors, in!luence the !inal results and we propose to point outthe most rele0ant ones: choice o! lens, point o! 0iew, rules o! composition,!raming. 4e ha0e chosen to reproduce images %oth !rom the coloni/ationand the de-coloni/ation periods. 'hotography as a medium has in !act not!ollowed the e0olution o! cultures. A clear ?urocentric way o! approachingreality still pre0ails 2+th century ?uropean tra0ellers as well as 2st centurynati0e A!rican, $ndian or "outh American reporters use a similar grammare0en i! the way they inter!ere with the world they loo8 at is di!!erent.'hotography is a humanist approach and we lea0e it to scholars dedicated to

sociology and history to dig !urther into those images and analyse them asways o! appropriation or tools !or propaganda. Our approach will %e mainlyaesthetic.

K ]he Nigger o! the $arcissus), p. 2.P %n #hotogra-h!, p. P@.



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Co+4o!itionhe rules o! composition used in photography date %ac8 to the early

#enaissance and ha0e not e0ol0ed since. Giotto was the !irst painter to use perspecti0e as a 8ey to composition. (eonardo da Sinci addeddra!tsmanship to achie0e more sophisticated compositions. 4ith Sermeer,who wor8ed etensi0ely on perspecti0es and ad0ocated the imitation o!reality, we ha0e the western %lueprint !or what we call the ]rules) o!composition.

Choice o6 en!"taging starts with the choice o! an angle o! 0iew. o use a wide angle

lens encompassing HBV -such as a 2Bmm in @Kmm photography- is to o!!erthe 0iewer a more glo%al reading o! a situation than his standard 0isionwould allow. he o%ect is shown in its relation with its en0ironment. he0iew includes a lot o! data. o use a longer lens 7 a telephoto such as a2++mm o!!ering a 2V angle o! 0iew- isolates the o%ect or rather, ecludesin!ormation. he %inocular 0ision o! a human %eing corresponds to a !ocallength o! K+mm &it corresponds to an angle o! BPV.

'hoto_ Andrea 9ruce, $ra8, 2+. A 2Bmm wide angle lens adds a sense o! place.



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'hoto _ John Garrett, &asai /arriors, "anzania. A @Kmm lens encompasses theen0ironment it remains the !a0ourite tool o! reporters.

elephotos reduce the angle o! 0ision and help !ocus o! the !ace the %ac8ground is not0isi%le as shown is the two photographs ta8en a century apart. Jer`nimo photographed %y?dward ". Curtis in +K &with a P in H inch !ield camera and the !irst telephoto

a0aila%le at that time and M!aho !rom "he <lac; )ight /arriors photographed %y Julius$se &2+2 with an HKmm lens. he results are similar: there is no sense o! place and hardlyo! time.

Contrary to popular %elie!, the perspecti0e does not change i! one uses a2+mm lens or a 2++mm !rom the same 0iewpoint. Sarious !ocal lengthlenses merely alter magni!ication, in other words the su%ect appears smalleri! shot with a wide-angle lens than with a telephoto lens. he !act remains



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that a particular lens is a tool selecting the portion o! space to %e photographed. 9y selecting some spaces to %e descri%ed, the artist cuts hissu%ect !rom its en0ironment or gi0es to the chosen en0ironment more0alue a close-up on eyes, on hands, on a piece o! clothing re0eals a certainemotion, a type o! wor8, a social status. ". "ontag &+P spea8s o!]!ragments) scattered %y mo0ement and time, collected %y a particular eyeusing a particular lens, ?ach photograph is a !ragment, its moral and emotional weight depends on where it is inserted[ A photograph changesaccording to the contet in which it is seenE. A slice o! space %ecomes aslice o! li!e.

$oint o6 vie:he choice o! the point o! 0iew is e6ually important %y mo0ing the

camera le!t or right, a%o0e or %elow, the photographer tells a di!!erent story 7he already stages- since he decides to place his su%ect in relation 7or not-with the contet. 9y !ocusing on a particular detail, %y adopting a singular

point o! 0iew or %y cropping the situation that interests him, the artistine0ita%ly distorts the reality he might thin8 he is rendering !aith!ully: !rom

%elow gi0ing more power to his su%ect and !rom a%o0e %elittling itsimportance. his 8ind o! manipulation is usually unseen %ut the slightestshi!ting o! point o! 0iew modi!ies the perception o! the 0iewer. he

photograph ta8en %y Michael (ipchit/ presented %elow is a 0ery simpleeample o! standard staging. he photographer has aligned two elementswhich %ecome rele0ant when put into a single !rame: the %la/ing derric8 inthe %ac8ground and the praying Muslim in the !oreground. he 8nelt manand his shoes create a triangle which responds as a sym%olic echo to thein0erted triangle o! the !ire structure in the %ac8ground. he low point o!0iew emphasi/es the importance o! the man his concealed !ace gi0es him auni0ersal 0alue. 4hat is shown here as apparent in!ormation could well %e atypical case o! misin!ormation or e0en disin!ormation.



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'hoto_ Michael (ipchit/, Euwait, .

he standard point o! 0iew when photographing human %eings which has %een imposed on us %y painting is eye-le0el, the lens !ocuses on the eye o!the su%ect. he pre!erence !or shooting portraits slightly !rom %elow is

%ecause this point o! 0iew gi0es more importance to the !ace.

'hoto _ C. A. 4ooley, "rucanini woman HHP.?ye-le0el shot: standard point o! 0iew !or this portrait.



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'hoto _ ?dward ". Curtis, &ohae Indian, FGniHi;a, ++."lightly !rom %elow. the su%ect is gi0en more importance.

Line! ' co+4o!itiono compose an image is to organi/e graphic elements into e!!ecti0e,

compelling compositions composition has always %een one o! the 8ey s8illsin ma8ing photographs.

The "ue&o6&Third! or the Goden rue

One o! the %asic rules o! composition is named the #ule-o!-thirds or]split !ocus,) %ecause you split your image into three e6ual sections and

place your su%ect on one o! these di0iding lines. his is where the eye o!the spectator will e0entually rest a!ter ha0ing eplored the whole image.his elementary composition deri0es !rom painting. (ines, called leadinglines, gi0e structure to our li0es they allow a photograph to %ecome a li0ingspace into which the eye o! the 0iewer is as8ed to wander. 'hotographersma8e their 0iewers !ollow ri0ers, masts, tree-trun8s, hori/ons, !ences,whar!s, railroads, s8yscrapers guns and swords. hose lines generate

patterns 7ascending or descending, 0ertical or hori/ontal- and those patternsgi0e structure to the ]story) told %y the image. (ines !orm the elementarystructuring o! space, they constitute another manipulation.



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he composition o! %oth images !ollows similar patterns. he head o! the nati0e drin8ing!rom a cree8 &_ *arry *. Johnston, Andorobo drin;ing , ++ and that o! Wueen Sictoriaha0e %een placed near the #ule-o!-hirds grid line. $n the photograph %y #o%ert *ills,Fueen 3ictoria wor;ing at her dis-atch bo@es at rogmore, attended b! +hei; Chidda ,H@, an implied line is created %etween the standing "hei8 and the Wueen.

$er!4ectiveA photograph is a !lat sur!ace which is meant to e0o8e a three

dimensional 0ision. o achie0e that 0isual impression, the easiest way is to

create a !ictional depth than8s to con0erging lines. Again, we should stressthe !act that using perspecti0e to generate an impression o! depth is highlycultural and that !or westerners the natural way o! tra0elling into an image is!rom le!t to right, starting at the %ottom le!t and mo0ing to the top right.Com%ined with a great depth o! !ield, con0erging lines -also called0anishing lines- create natural 0isual paths.



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'hoto _ C. (amotte, "e@tile mill , 9elgian Congo, KK. A 0ery strong composition isgenerated %y the con0erging lines and a great depth o! !ield.

'hoto_ John Moss, $igerian /oman, PP. he 0anishing point is close to the right side o!the !rame.



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Dia-ona!Diagonal lines draw the eye o! the 0iewer through the photograph they

usually add a sense o! action, o! dynamism. A diagonal helps reach thesu%ect. A cle0er repetition o! diagonals creates interesting 0isual patterns.A diagonal can %e 0isi%le under the !orm o! a real line such as a sword, aroad or a spear or more su%tly induced %y a sha!t o! light as shown %y M.3reeman.

'hoto_ Michael 3reeman, 2++.

$n the case o! the photograph presented %elow, a short %ut nonethelessstrong line is created %y the eyes o! the nati0e loo8ing at the cut handdisplayed %y his partner.



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'hoto_ Alice *arris, circa +K. his is one o! numerous photographs showing se0eredhands. Mar8 wain, in a pamphlet entitled Eing )eo-old’s +oliloqu! &New Uor8:$nternational 'u%lishers, P, pp.L@-LB, writes: he 5oda8 has %een a sore calamity tous. he most power!ul enemy indeed[ the only witness that $ ha0e encountered in my longeperience that $ couldn)t %ri%eE.

he !ollowing diptych presented in the %rochure esterda! and "oda! shows A!rican nati0es %e!ore and a!ter coloni/ation. he line o! the dug-out

ser0es as a !orce!ul diagonal, starting !rom the upper le!t and going to the %ottom right corner, it epresses a mo0ement towards something positi0e,which could %e ci0ilisation when simple canoes will %e replaced %y steam-

%oats and when standing nati0es would !inally wear the western uni!orm o! power.



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'hoto _ 1n8nown photographer, K+.

Trian-eAs the simplest o! all the polygons, the triangle has the minimum o! lines

re6uired to close a su%ect or to connect di!!erent o%ects in the !rame.'ainters ha0e worshipped triangles %ecause they are simple structures which

en!orce order and sta%ility. riangles can %e straight, in0erted, hori/ontaland 0ertical. riangles in western cultures are implicitly related to %asicsym%olisms such as the Christian *oly rinity the point-up trianglerepresents ascension to the spiritual world whereas a point-down trianglerepresents a descent into the physical world.





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'hoto_ C.*. "tigand, #oyal Geographical "ociety Archi0es, +L.

Cur0es easily lead to circles. Circles ha0e %een associated with !emininity!or centuries. As geometrical !inished !orms they also sym%olise per!ection

%ut may represent imprisonment.



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'hoto_ 4. Douglas 9urden, <ali, 2L. he cur0e o! the %ac8 is enhanced %y the so!tcur0es o! the %are %reasts.

'hoto_. Michael 3reeman. Dith 'ran, the main actor o! the mo0ie "he Eilling ields is posing in the !oreground a wide-angle lens allows the 0iewer to constantly mo0e !rom the



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li0ing character to the sym%ols o! dead ones heaped on the ta%le o! a !ormer school whichhad %een trans!ormed into a prison.

Fra+in-3raming one)s su%ect right in the middle o! the !rame is %oth a

%eginner)s error and a %asic winner. A winner, %ecause the 0iewer will not %e distracted %y other elements and an error %ecause its repetition has atendency to wea8en its original power!ul 0alue. A 0ery common ande!!icient structure is a !rame-within-the-!rame, when a second !rame insidethe image helps !ocus on the main o%ect.

'hoto_ Graciela ur%ide /omen in #ower , <attered /omen, HH. he !rame o! the

window constitutes a second !rame, it helps !ocus on the woman.





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'hoto_ 'hilippe 9ordas, )’Afrique des hérauts &K. 'osing %e!ore the open door o! ashac8, the !ighter stands out than8s to the %lac8 negati0e space.

'hoto_ #o%ert Maes, )uba coiffure, @L. he photographer)s assistants use a white sheetas a negati0e space.





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'hoto_ (eopold Ga%riel, /oman, Eatanga, @+. he depth o! !ield is 0ery shallow, the %ac8drop is %lurred creating a pleasing bo;eh a wide open aperture and a telephoto ha0e %een used.



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'hoto_ Anonymous photographer, "raailleurs la carri4re &circa ++. o show thoseminers, the photographer has used a small aperture to allow all men to %e sharp despite the!act they neither stand on the same line nor the same plane.

he photographic techni6ue o! depth o! !ield was hardly e0er used in the

early days o! photography, !or technical reasons. he !irst photographiclandscapes loo8 desperately !lat to the eye o! a 2st century 0iewer o0er!ed %y maga/ines and posters displaying wide panoramas with sharp!oregrounds and e0en sharper %ac8drops.

Li-ht3 Puantity and 7uaity$t always pays to repeat that -hotogra-h! means ]to write with light) and

that heliogra-h! means ]to write with the sun), as !or calot!-e de0ised %y4illiam *enry 3O^ A(9OL in H@, it means ]%eauti!ul) &Gr. ;alos.(ight shows and re0eals, colours eist than8s to light. (ight with a

particular 6uality is o!ten at the 0ery core o! descriptions. (ight can %e so!t

or harsh, strong or su%dued. $t has a 6uality it may %e !lattering or dramatic.*ard light increases contrast, and there!ore drama, whereas so!t light altersappearances and ma8es things loo8 smoother. 3or portraits, photographers

pre!er a so!t dim light ecept i! they want to enhance a wrin8led !ace with aharsh side light or a %rutal !ront light. A !lat light creates no shadow it is

L 4. 3o al%ot pu%lished the !irst %oo8 illustrated %y photographs, "he #encil of $ature,in HBB.



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sometimes lin8ed to notan, the Japanese graphic style o! representation.9ac8 lighting &when the %rightest source o! light comes !rom %ehindgenerates an under-eposition o! the su%ect. he rendition is thus more orless %lac8, %ecoming a silhouette. he chiaroscuro techni6ue -deri0ed !rom

painting- is o!ten used to enhance a gloomy atmosphere.

'hoto_ ?ugene "mith, "omo;o Jemura is bathed b! her mother, &inamata, L. helight %ounces on the na8ed ailing %ody and is su!!used in the steam. his 8ind o! image hasthe 6uality o! light typical o! Cara0aggio or #em%randt.

'hoto_ "téphanie Guillaume, 2+2. he digital sensor is meant to pose !or grey areas. 9yincluding the sun in her image, the photographer has lost all details in the !igure and createda silhouette.



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I+a-e! te !torie!"ince the !irst photographers were painters, the use o! an arti!icial

%ac8drop has always %een a tradition !or studio photography. his techni6ueis still in use today, %e it a cur0ed white wall, a hung carpet or a paintedcan0as. "uch %ac8grounds ser0e di!!erent purposes: when %lan8 theyenhance the main su%ect, when painted they are meant to re-create a

possi%le natural situation &the use o! layers under b'hotoshop is a similarapproach.

'hoto_ Martin Cham%i, )e fr4re curé, Cuzco, #érou, @@.

'hoto_ Anonymous photographer, &ont Athos, s;ite +aint9André, HPB.



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$ortrait!he rhetoric o! the portrait is highly em%lematic o! the 0isual ha%its o!

the late th century: the su%ect !aces the lens at eye le0el, an attitudewhich was designed and thought to epress solemnity andIor !ran8ness.3rontal paintings and photos were imposed as standards a standard is to %eunderstood as the result o! a social, cultural accepted 0ision. "tandardse0entually %ecome stereotypes. he portrait o! one o! the !irst Americanwriters, Cotton Mather %y 'eter 'elham,H &circa L2L is highly similar tothe portraits o! $ndian chie!s such as Jer`nimo or *lala8m photographed

%y ?dward ".Curtis, more than K+ years later, or those o! John homson,who photographed the people o! China and Mongolia in the HL+s. hese

images are all %uilt on the same %asic pattern: the su%ect is shown at eye-le0el, slightly !rom %elow. Modern photographers such as Miguel Gandertin the series Chicano $arratie #hotogra-h! ta;en in K almost onecentury later draw on these same 0isual codes and techni6ues &shallow deptho! !ield, !ocusing on the eyes, neutral %ac8drop.

'hoto _ ?dward Curtis, $aaho &circa ++.

H A me//otint %elonging to the &assachussets 0istorical +ociet! in 9oston.



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(aura Aguilera, New Meico, K (uis Marcos Gir`n, New Meico, K 'hotos _ Miguel Gandert.

Arte6act! in i+a-e!An arte!act is an o%ect re!lecting contemporary society or popular

culture, its presence in photographs is highly rele0ant. o introduce ano%ect thought to %elong to a ritual, a cultural ha%it, such as a piece o!clothing or ewellery, a 0eil or loin cloth, a weapon or a tool, has always

%een crucial in photography. he typical case is the o!!icial portrait that is

meant to %e a statement: 9ritish or 3rench %ourgeois !amilies happy to poseand ha0e their !amily portrait ta8en wearing their %est clothes, %ut also thegallery o! $ndians photographed %y Curtis at the turn o! the 2+th century, allwearing head%ands, %eads, holding weapons or tools they no longer used ona daily %asis, %ut which represent an already 0anished culture that thetycoon John 'ierpoint Morgan wanted to document. his tradition has ne0erwaned. $n the 1"A today parents pay great amounts o! money to ha0erenowned artists photograph their children !or the senior photo al%umE.he high-school students pose wearing their !oot%all or %as8et%all uni!orm,the instrument they play, the %all gowns that will %e worn at their prom. A!oot%all, a 0iolin, a nec8lace: these arte!acts endorse a more or less

accepted idea that cle0er staging is the way to record an image o! what theirchildren loo8 li8e &or should loo8 li8e at the end o! their high-school years.he way colonies were 7and still are- shown &and, a%o0e all, the way thecoloni/ers relayed their 0ision o! the colonies was largely con0eyedthrough the use o! arte!acts, mainly pieces o! clothing. he "inger sewingmachines so care!ully displayed in the images %elow encapsulate !ar morethan a treatise on coloni/ation. he standing nuns represent so-called



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ci0ili/ed 8nowledge and authority, while the !emale nati0es sit in !ront o!the machines, grinning %e!ore the lens.

'hoto_ Anonymous photographer, &ission des filles de la charité $sona9&bata1 )a )eKon de couture &circa +.

'hoto_ Jean Audema, Congo franKais1 Jn tailleur )oango &circa +.

he ri!le held %y the $ndian, or the 8ni!e held %y another $ndian a century %e!ore, the !eathers displayed on the head o! these Meicans, the calliper



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used %y a 4estern ethnologist to measure the s8ull o! a nati0e, the elephantstus8s !raming the not too happy nati0e hunters or trac8ers: these o%ectsincluded in images are added 0alue, they are meant to saturate the 0isualeperience.

'hoto_ 5aupo 5i88as, 'onn!, a #eruian hunter , 2+2 'hoto_ ?. Curtis, Cowichan /arrior , circa ++.

'hoto_ *arry *. Johnston, Doggett and &uamba, circa ++. 'hoto_ #o%ert Sisser, Caraan with ior!

offered for sale, rench Congo, postcard, circa +K

'hotographers may introduce clear implicit elements o! the en0ironmentin order to tell their stories: a young Meican woman waiting !or her train



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with her luggage in the @+)s, postcards showing 0eiled or un0eiled NorthA!rican women as was the tradition o! popular Orientalism.

'hoto_ Christina 3ernande/, 2oing bac; to &erelia, 56:7 . 4ith an implied perspecti0egenerated %y the railway trac8s, the luggage, a %unch o! papers in her hand, this Meicanwoman is literally ready to lea0e, %ut the caption re0eals she is heading %ac8 home.



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_ Collection M. Com%ier, emmes mauresques. _ Collection M. Com%ier,+c4nes et t!-es . danseuse.

Why are !hot! never candidhe rendition o! what surrounds us -the pictorial world, what %ecomes

]pictures6ue) !or an artist- is highly su%ecti0e. Any 0iewer is conditioned %y a cultural en0ironment. "ome elements are connected to him, others are!orgotten. he eperience o! any artist is always chaotic, !ragmentary andhis wor8 is to put some order into 0isual chaos, !illing the ]!rame) withmeaning andIor emotion. Order uses codes and codes rely on the a%o0e-mentioned techni6ues, such as the use o! !oreground and %ac8ground, theuse o! sharp or %lurred elements, o! lighted or shadowed ones, all o! whichcontri%ute to the creation o! an impression o! space, or its negation. o theeye o! a western spectator, what is set in the !oreground always seems closerthan what is seen in the %ac8ground. he eye usually does not linger on a

%lurred detail. $t tends rather to dwell on a sharp one, howe0er minute itmay %e. A diagonal gi0es energy to an image, a mo0ement !rom le!t to rightis considered positi0e, while a mo0ement !rom right to le!t is analysed as

negati0e 7one is retracing one)s steps or loo8ing %ac8- all this %ecausewestern ci0ilisations su%scri%e to a linear conception o! time. (anguage de!orms eperience the way photography trans!orms reality

the desire to record an eperience !aith!ully does not necessarily amount toan accurate way to reach truth. *owe0er this is pro%a%ly what attractsartists: to eplore those crac8s, gaps, spaces -or e0en rifts to paraphrase?dward "aid- %etween eperience and !iction, to capture the discontinuity or



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the mismatch %etween things, thoughts, memories, raw impressions, %etween eperience and a type o! language -%e it written or graphic- whosecompleity, through the eperience o! reading, could help the reader stepinside the !rame and %e part o! the !iction. 4ords and photographs are waysto reach a reality that is recalcitrant, sometimes inaccessi%le. 4ords %ecometales and photographs images, %oth o!!ered to spectators whose tas8 should

%e to go %eyond mere consumption.

#annic< Le =O9LICA9TC#$(A, 1ni0ersité d)Angers

_ 'hoto (. Nilsson, +tanle!ille, Congo, BH. _ Collection M. Com%ier, emme fumant la -i-e.

$n digital photography, a raw file is a !ile containing all the in!ormation %ut thisin!ormation has to %e reealed than8s to dedicated so!tware.



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Wor<! Cited

C1#$", ?dward ". )es Indiens d’Amérique du $ord1 )es -ortfolioscom-lets. Cologne: aschen, 2++@.

9?(M?NO1A#, "a!ia. COM9$?#, Marc, <ons baisers des colonies.'aris: ?ditions Alternati0es, 2++L.

CON#AD, Joseph. ]he Nigger o! the Narcissus), ]yphoon) and otherstories. *armondsworth: 'enguin Modern Classics, L.

D?9#AU, #égis. )’Lil naf . 'aris: "euil, B.

3#??MAN, Michael. )’Lil du -hotogra-he et l’art de la com-osition.'aris: 'earson ?ducation, 2++L.

GA##?, John. "he Art of <lac; and /hite #hotogra-h!. New Uor8:"terling 'u%lishing Co. 2++@.

G?A#U, Christaud M. In and %ut of ocus. Images from Central Africa5MMN956O8. 4ashington: he "mithonian Museum o! A!rican Arts, '.

4ilson 'u%lishers, [email protected]$D(?U, Mic8. /riting with )ight . 9ern: 'eter (ang, 2++.

*$((U?# S.M. R *1?U ?. G. oung #eo-le’s +tor! of %ur 0eritage. New Uor8: Meredith 'ress, PP.

(? 9O1($CA1, Uannic8. De la trace éphémre < la trace pérenne. $n &émoire, "races, récits, )es Cahiers du CI(0i)) @+ &2++H: BL-PB.

(O1S?(, (iliane. )e tiers -ictural . #ennes: Collection ]$nter!érences),

'resses 1ni0ersitaires de #ennes, 2++.

NO#$?GA, Chon A. rom the /est, Chicano $arratie #hotogra-h!. "an3rancisco: he Meican Museum, P.

#O9$N"ON, #ichard. "raellers in "ime. (ondon: Wueen Ann 'ress, HP.

"ONAG, "usan. %n #hotogra-h!. New Uor8: 'icador, LL.



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"?'AN, 'eter. #hotos that Changed the /orld . New Uor8: 'restel, 2+++.

#UAN, James #. #icturing *m-ire. (ondon: #ea8ton 9oo8s, L.

*OM"ON, Jerry (. "ruth and #hotogra-h!. Chicago: $0an #. Dee, 2++@.

Ma-a@ine!

Camera International , No 2H, 'aris, .

Chasseur d’images, No @BP, "enillé, 2+2.

$ational 2eogra-hic 2reatest #hotogra-hs. 4ashington: NationalGeographic "ociety.

$i;on #ro, 'aris, 2+2.

+aoir "out aire en #hoto, 'aris, No0em%er 2+2.



KK

C%A$TE"

Colonization and Decolonization in the US and Mexico

Ab!tract: his article ma8es an attempt at comparing the processes o! coloni/ationin Meico and the 1"A per!ormed %y "pain, ?ngland and 3rance with di!!erentaims and highlights the conse6uent emergence o! two social and cultural models,the three-tiered model &3rance and "pain and the one-drop theory &?ngland and1"A. Decoloni/ation was achie0ed through independence %etween LLP andH2, %ut the nati0e $ndian populations and the 9lac8 A!rican sla0es were !ar !rom

%eing truly decoloni/ed. oday the o%ecti0e is not decoloni/ation %utdecoloniali/ation -the li%eration o! the mind, culture and heritage o! the American$ndians and the descendants o! 9lac8 A!rican sla0es- which is reaching a crucial

phase in the 1"A and is still to %e reached in Meico. $n that mo0ement, a seconddeculturation through eile, i.e., mo0ing out o! their reser0ations as nati0es, ormo0ing out o! their homes as women, is necessary !or the search !or original rootsto %ecome a 0ital o%ecti0e. he article particularly !ocuses on the representationso! two $ndian 4omen in Meican and 1" literatures and arts, 'ocahontas and

Malinche, with a 0iew to demonstrating that the decoloniali/ation o! the minds is alot more comple than the simple decoloni/ation o! territories.

")!u+) : Cet article essaie de comparer trois colonisations au Mei6ue et au1"A menées par l)?spagne, l)Angleterre et la 3rance a0ec des o%ecti!s di!!érents6ui epli6uent l)émergence de deu modles sociau et culturels, la société < troisétages &3rance et ?spagne et la théorie de la goutte de sang uni6ue &Angleterre et1"A. (a décolonisation a été atteinte par l)indépendance entre LLP et H2 maisles $ndiens autochtones et les escla0es a!ricains noirs étaient loin d)=tredécolonisés. Auourd)hui l)o%ecti! n)est plus la décolonisation mais ladécolonialisation, la li%ération de l)esprit, de la culture et du patrimoine des $ndiensd)Améri6ues et des descendants des escla0es a!ricains noirs, mou0ement 6ui

a%orde une phase cruciale au 1"A mais 6ui n)a pas encore atteint cette phase auMei6ue. Dans ce mou0ement une seconde déculturation par l)eil, par la sortiedes réser0es ou en tant 6ue !emme sortant du !oyer !amilial est nécessaire pour 6ueles racines originelles de0iennent un o%ecti! 0ital. ()article !ocalise sur lesreprésentations de deu !emmes indiennes dans la littérature et les arts meicains etétatsuniens, 'ocahontas et Malinche, conscients 6ue la décolonialisation des espritsest %ien plus complee 6ue la simple décolonisation des territoires.



'acques Coulardeau

KP

$n the 2st century, we are con!ronted with a 0ast de%ate on the heritageo! colonial empires and the decoloni/ation that started on August K, BLwith the independence o! $ndia. $n this article we are going to center ourattention on Mesoamerica and the 1"A.

$n America, apart !rom some areas in (atin America and some 4est$ndian islands &Canada has a special status as an independent mem%er o! theCommonwealth still attached to 3rance or Great 9ritain &'orto #ico isattached to the 1"A, all countries o! the region gained independence a longtime ago: the 1"A on July B, LLP &the 1" Constitution was dra!ted

%etween LHP-LH, Meico on "eptem%er P, H+ &recogni/ed on"eptem%er 2L, H2. 3rench (ouisiana, with a sur!ace area o! 2,B+,+++

s6uare 8ilometers, was sold &he (ouisiana 'urchase to the 1"A %y Napoleon in H+@ !or a total sum o! 1" K,+++,+++, less than @ cents peracre, and was integrated into the 1nited "tates.

9y H2 the 0ast /one co0ering Meico and the 1"A had largely %eendecoloni/ed, or to %e con6uered &4est and 3ar 4est, or was to changehands !rom "pain, #ussia, Meico to the 1"A.

9ut what a%out the nati0e populations that were coloni/ed %y the?uropeans: American $ndians, A/tecs, Mayas, %ut also 9lac8 A!ricans whowere coloni/ed into sla0ery *ow can such populations %e decoloni/ed,within the legal and constitutional !ramewor8 o! the !ree countries thatemerged !rom the decoloni/ation o! the continent Did the decoloni/ation o!the territories amount to decoloniali/ation &CNN, No0em%er 2L, 2+2 o!the pre0iously coloniali/ed people

4e are going to eamine the situation o! American $ndians, A/tecs andMayas. *a0e these Nati0e populations o! Mesoamerica and NorthernAmerica %een reprie0ed !rom their ancient colonial status Decoloni/ationmeans the loss o! the colony-status !or a territory, whereas the neologicalterm decolonialization means the permanent reprie0e o! the colonial statuso! a people.

Me5ico and S4ain1

he "panish arri0ed in the Uucatan 'eninsula in Meico in KL.Malinche, an important $ndian woman in this period, helped Cortés, the

1 Thi! !ection :a! re!earched and co+4o!ed by $aua OSO"IO. a >ene@uean-raduate !tudent in $ari! 1 $anth)on&Sorbonne in %i!tory and $oitica Science.:ithin an editoria 4roQect :ith Dr 8ac7ue! CO9LA"DEA9 on the roe o6 Indian:o+en in the cooni@ation/cooniai@ation. hence decooni@ation/ decooniai@ation o6Me!oa+erica and Northern A+erica. due 6or 4ubication in an internationa revie:ater in 0123



'acques Coulardeau

KL

"panish conquistador . "he played a maor role during the con6uest, actingas interpreter to Cortes in A/tec and Nahuatl. "he was also his concu%ineand the mother o! his son, Martn Cortés &el Mesti/o, the mied-%lood. "hewas also Cortes) main strategic, though 0ery contro0ersial, asset !or thecon6uest and has only timidly %een re-e0aluated, mostly %y Chicanaintellectuals in the 1nited "tates.

Many thin8 the "panish con6uest o! Meico succeeded due to the"panish military tradition, esta%lished since Classical Anti6uity. $n the#oman ?mpire *ispania resisted !or centuries and "panish colonialepansion into Meico grew out o! "pain)s earlier success in epelling theMoors !rom the $%erian 'eninsula.E2 On April 2, K *ernfn Cortes

entered Seracru/ with P++ men@. *e !ought against the A/tec ?mpire whichruled a population o! se0eral million people, stretching !rom eas toGuatemala and which succeeded in imposing the domination o! the 5ing o!"pain. he $ndian populations) lac8 o! integration in the ?mpire was a greathelp. he ?mpire le0ied taes on the tri%es, too8 teenage and adult men assoldiers and women as sla0es.

$n Uucatan many ci0ilisations and ?mpires had emerged and !allen o0era period o! more than three thousand years prior to the "panish con6uest.he arri0al o! the "paniards caused rising tensions which ended in a %rutalwar and casualties. Many $ndians died !rom diseases, especially smallpo,or !rom torture. he total num%er o! $ndian casualties is still de%ated.3rancis J. 9roo8sB considers the $ndian population collapsed !rom around 2Kmillion in K to only one million in P++, a P drop: one o! the worstslaughters in human history. 9ut how did so !ew "panish manage to con6uerso many $ndians his remains a still unanswered 6uestion, one that isacti0ely eplored. $! we go %eyond the ine0ita%le emotion charge o! the6uestion o! the eradication o! the indigenous population, what are theconse6uences on the Meican collecti0e mind today As seen through theinterpretation o! one woman: Malinche.

he A/tecs regarded the war as the only way to !eed the sunE withhuman o!!erings to the gods. his !ate re6uired the epansion o! the ?mpire.

his may %e why the A/tec did not understand the "panish attac8, %ecausethey always attac8ed !irst. 4hen the "panish arri0ed in Seracru/, where the

2 #oss *assig, &e@ico and the +-anish Conquest &Norman, O5: 1ni0ersity o! O8lahoma

'ress, 2++P.@ "andra Cohen, *ow the A/tecs appraised Monte/umaE in "he 0istor! "eacher , "ociety!or *istory ?ducation, K-@ &L2: 2-@+.B 3rancis 9roo8s, #e0ising the Con6uest o! Meico: "mallpo, "ources, and 'opulationsE,"he 'ournal of Interdisci-linar! 0istor! 2B- &@: -2



'acques Coulardeau

KH

"otonacs go0erned under the ?mperor)s authority, they were o!!ered 0astamounts o! gold and gems, which surprised them. his was the $ndians)worst mista8e. $ndeed it rein!orced the "paniards) %elie! in the myth o! ?lDorado. No matter how welcomingE the $ndians were, Cortes only thoughto! con6uering this country where gold was so easyE to !ind. he $ndiansassumed the "paniards resem%led their gods in loo8 and dress. Could theyactually %e their returning gods as they %elie0ed Uet !rom the 0ery

%eginning, ?mperor Mocte/uma was clear with the otonacs: Cortes wasnot to reach enochtitlan.

he religious dimension o! the con6uest was !undamental !or the 0ariousactors, though it is hard to 8now today what really happened. wo main

theories are ad0anced to eplain Mocte/uma)s %eha0ior. 3irst Mocte/umawas con0inced the con6uistadores and Cortes were gods. 3or him Corteswas pro%a%ly Fuetzalcoatl , a di0inity represented as a 'lumed "erpentK whowas to come %ac8 !or re0enge a!ter his de!eat %y the war god

0uitzilo-ochtli1 he ?mperor)s %elie!s must undou%tedly ha0e carried someweight, since Mocte/uma did not !ight. "econdly Mocte/uma)s responsewas %ased on an ancient A/tec tradition, the ?mperor)s docile and !riendly

%eha0ior showed his superiority o0er his enemiesE. Mocte/uma tried to8eep the "panish away with gold and treasures. his had eactly theopposite e!!ect and Cortes imposed himsel! as the legitimate master o!Meico than8s to Christiani/ation, which strengthened the "panishcon6uest, while Cortes almost came to %e regarded as a Messiah.

Mocte/uma was descri%ed %y contemporary chroniclers, mainly priests,as a cruel tyrant &e.g. 3ray Diego DuranP, an argument which amounts to

usti!ying the "panish in0asion as the sal0ation o! $ndians. he CatholicChurch instructed the "panish to con0ertE pagans %y all means. he$ndians were, there!ore, tortured, murdered, though at times some !ought

%ac8 resisted ensla0ement. Cholula is one $ndian town that !ought to thedeath. he decision-ma8ing process in the New 4orld led to many irregularactions. 'olitical and military strategies had to %e appro0ed %y the 5ing,causing a crippling long delay. o a0oid delay, the "panish demonstrated

K D.*. (awrence, Fuetzalcoatl , 2@, !irst dra!t o! "he #lumed +er-ent , 2K, D.*.(awrence and the ]'lumed "erpent),E a0aila%le athttp:IIwww.meicolore.co.u8Iinde.phponea/tRtwoaaaRid2LRtypreg, accessedJanuary @, [email protected] 3ray Diego Durfn Zca. K@L-KHH\, "he 0istor! of Indies of $ew +-ain, KH. 3ray DiegoDurfn, %rought to Meico as a child, grew up in the A/tec capital city ecoco, learned tospea8 Nahuatl, the A/tec language, oined the Dominican Order in KKP and spent his li!echronicling the religion and customs o! the local people.



'acques Coulardeau

K

%rutal e!!iciency in the name o! the Christian !aith. hey had strategicsuperiority through their horses, !ire guns and canons. Mocte/uma)s policyalso had a high human cost: human o!!erings were regularly per!ormed

usti!ying war and epansion. *owe0er, could not this dimension %e seen as %eing compati%le with the "panish god)s son Jesus, who was tortured andthen cruci!ied he 0iolent rituals o! the A/tecs were easily replaced %y thesimultaneously lo0ingE and %rutal sacri!ice o! Jesus, so that the sur0i0ing$ndians accepted to %e %apti/ed, ta8ing "panish names and dressing li8e?uropeans: no nudity, !eathers, %ody paint, and earrings. hey also imposed"panish, which led to the nearly total disappearance o! $ndian languages intoday)s Meico.

"imon 9oli0ar, (atin America)s independence !ounding !ather, saida%out the continent)s inha%itants in the !irst phase o! decoloni/ation: 4eare not ?uropeans, we are not $ndians, %ut we)re what is in %etween, anintermediary species %etween A%origines and the "panish.EL 9oli0ar dreamto! a united America !rom Alas8a to "ierra de uego &Argentina, %ut this

proect was !ar too am%itious !or such a 0ast territory o! so many identities,so di!!erent cultures, languages and heritages. 4e must not !orget theAmericas eperienced di!!erent colonial encounters and interpreted theirroots and past in di!!erent ways.

Malinche, who was a 0ery talented woman, learned "panish in a !ewmonths and opportunely %ecame Cortes) interpreter. hough she was asla0e, Cortes must ha0e really lo0ed her. *er Christian name was Marinaand she was also addressed as DoaE Marina, a respect!ul way to addressladies in "panish. "he ga0e Cortes his !irst son, Martn. Cortes could notmarry Malinche %ecause he was married in "pain and considered himsel! to

%e strictly %ound %y the o%ligations o! Catholic marriage. Martn isconsidered the !irst Meican, though not the !irst mesti/o.E Octa0io 'a/)s0ision o! MalincheH is 0ery negati0e, since he %elie0es all Meicans are thesons o! Malinche and (a culpa es de la Malinche,E &%lame it on Malincheimplying they are the descendents o! a chingadaE &a prostitute. hisnegati0e 0ision started a!ter independence &H2, it diminished during the

re0olution &+ and reappeared stronger in the 2+th

century, directlygenerated %y the Meicans) 0irile nationalism 0is-a-0is the 1"A. hey e0encall Chicanos Malinchistas, those who a%andoned their people li8eMalinche.

L "im`n de 9oli0fr, Message to the Congress o! Angostura, H.http:IIwww.!ordham.eduIhalsallImodIH%oli0ar.asp, accessed January 2, [email protected] Octa0io 'a/, *l laberinto de la soledad, Madrid: Cftedra, K+-LK.





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he re-e0aluation o! Malinche, and conse6uently $ndians, can only come!rom eiled women, mostly in the 1"A. his means that the renewedacculturation o! $ndians can only come !rom Meicans when they arecon!ronted with a second deculturation, either !rom eile, mainly to the1"A, or !rom %eing a woman, or %oth. Altogether, in Meico itsel!, $ndians,their culture and their heritage, ha0e not yet %een decoloniali/ed.

The En-i!h Coonie! and the 9SAhe !irst ?nglish colony, the (ost #oano8e Colony, was esta%lished on

the island o! #oano8e o!! the coast o! North Carolina in K+ %y "ir 4alter#aleigh. All the colonists were supposedly 8illed %y local $ndians generally,

lea0ing no trace %ehind them ecept the word C#OAOAN car0ed on atree, thus designating the mem%ers or allies o! the #oano8e tri%e.

he !irst success!ul settlement was James) 3ort, later Jamestown, on anisland o!! the coast o! Sirginia under the authority, though neither at the

%eginning nor !or long, o! James "mith, who was supposedly sa0ed !romeecution in P+L %y 'ocahontas, !irst mentioned %y "mith in PP andagain in P2B@. 'ocahontas, %y her own e!!orts, !ed the colonists. his short

period &P+L-P+ was turned into a legend in the 1"A, starting with JohnDa0is and a romantic rewriting in H2B %ut whose %est-8nownrepresentation is !ound in 4alt Disney)s two !ilms in K and H.

his coloni/ation was done under two authorities. 5ing James $ granted acharter to a pri0ate company, the (ondon Company o! Sirginia which hadto collect !unds, !ind ships, hire sailors and captains and recruit settlers, thentransport them to Sirginia &so named %y "ir 4alter #aleigh in honor o! theSirgin Wueen ?li/a%eth $ and support them to create a colony that had to %e

pro!ita%le %y PP when the Charter was to %e renewed, only i! the colonyhad %ecome sel!-su!!icient and pro!ita%le.

Neither the company nor the settlers had the ownership o! the land. heirlegal title was only to its use since the land remained the 5ing)s. John "mithtried to get some land !rom the $ndians to escape the company %e!ore he wassent %ac8 to ?ngland a!ter a pathetic and opportune accident. John #ol!e,

the !irst ?nglishman to start a plantation !or the culti0ation o! to%acco,ac6uired his land !rom the $ndians %y marrying 'ocahontas. *is son homas#ol!e inherited the land since it was his mother)s.

@ John "mith, "he 2enerall 0istorie of 3irginia, $ew9*ngland, and the +ummer Isles,

http:IIdocsouth.unc.eduIsouthlitIsmithIsmith.html, accessed January 2, [email protected]

John Da0is, Ca-tain +mith and #rincess #ocahontas, An Indian "ale, H+K, Gale, "a%inAmericana, 2+2, http:IIwww.gale.comIworld, #eprint !or sale in %oo8stores.



'acques Coulardeau

P2

he o%ecti0e was to ma8e a sustaina%le pro!it within ten years. he goal,since there was no gold or sil0er, was to culti0ate a pro!ita%le crop. John#ol!e arri0ed in P+H with stealthily appropriated &%y means o! the!t, %lac8mar8et and smuggling seeds o! the to%acco grown %y the "panish in theircolonies. he "panish had the de facto monopoly o! to%acco in ?urope,which ga0e them a much higher pro!it &!rom the nascent semi-!ree mar8eteconomy than did gold and sil0er &!rom minting coins. o%acco was *?golden crop.

John #ol!e)s marrying 'ocahontas in PB, a!ter her a%duction %yCaptain Argall in P2 and her christening into the Anglican religion soona!ter, pro0ided him with the land %elonging to his wi!e whom the ?nglish

assumed, though their assumption is 6uestiona%le, to %e the daughter o!4ahunsenaca, the leader o! the 'owhatan con!ederation, wrongly identi!iedas 'owhatan. "he also used connections with !amily mem%ers &according tothe common American 0ersion o! the story or male priests in the tri%e&6uia8ros, the only people controlling the culti0ation and curing o! to%acco

%ecause she was hersel! an initiated priestess &according to the modern$ndian 0ersion o! the story, to pro0ide John #ol!e with the 8now-how to

properly culti0ate and cure the to%acco seeds he had. *is !irst har0est was poor, his second in PK promising and his third in PP a tremendoussuccess. $n P, when the !irst %lac8 sla0es were %rought in %y the Dutch,Sirginia eported + tons o! to%acco. $n P@, they eported LK+ tons, aL,B++ increase.

John #ol!e, 'ocahontas and homas #ol!e went to (ondon in PP withtheir third har0est to 0isit the 5ing and Wueen to renew the Charter. hecolony pro0ed it had a sustaina%le !uture and got the charter !rom the 5ingand !inances !rom pri0ate sources to de0elop. he trip was a great success,though 'ocahontas died on the day she was to lea0e. "he was %uried inGra0esend, as con!irmed %y the Gra0esend "t. George composite parishregister which records the %urial o! 'rincess 'ocahontas on 2 MarchPPE &the year should %e PL due to the !act ?ngland did not !ollow#ome)s calendar corrections: (ebecca /roth w!ffe of "homas /rothP gent

a 3irginia )ad! borne was buriedP in the Chauncell1E he con!usion onJohn #ol!e)s identity might ha0e many eplanations.he coloni/ing method in Sirginia was simple: 0iolence to ma8e the

$ndians !eed the colonists in echange !or trin8ets or some simple hardware&aes and 8ni0es. 'aula Gunn Allen gi0es one eample:

hey de%ar8ed 6uic8ly and turned their !ury on the 0illage, %urning a%out !ortyhouses they also 8illed and inured se0eral 0illagers, and looted and destroyed the



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P@

canoes that were on the %an8 near%y. he ?nglish had threatened such action i! theirdemands were not speedily met, and they pro0ed as good as their word.K

John "mith in P2BP is %lunt a%out the method and the o%ecti0e:

*ow to deal with the "al0ages . . . o epress all our 6uarrels, treacheries andencounters amongst those "al0ages $ should %e too tedious: %ut in %rie!, at all timeswe so encountered them, and cur%ed their insolencies, that they concluded with

presents to purchase peace yet we lost not a man: at our !irst meeting our Captaine0er o%ser0ed this order to demand their %ows and arrows, swords, mantels and !urs,with some childe or two !or hostage, where%y we could 6uic8ly percei0e, when theyintended any 0illainy.L

$n P+HH he clearly stated that there had %een no menace on his li!ewhen he was a prisoner. *e had %een proposed some 8ind o! alliance, whichhe did not seem to understand. *e was proposed to %e the weroance &chie!o! the ?nglish tri%eE thus allied to the 'owhatan con!ederation. *e reportedone o! 4ahunsenaca)s speeches saying:

. . . he Z'owhatan\ proclaimed me ZJohn "mith\ Awerowanes o! 'owhatan . . . andthat the Corn, women and Country, should %e to us as to his own people. his

pro!!ered 8indness !or many reasons we contemned not, %ut with the %est (anguagesand signs o! than8s $ could epress, $ too8 my lea0e.E

he colonists were rough &as John "mith admits in P2B, maleseclusi0ely or nearly, at least at the %eginning, using 0iolence to get !ood,land and women.

Doctor (inwood (ittle 9earE Custalow recounts to us what theMattaponi sacred oral history has transmitted o0er the centuries. he !irstelement is the contempt 4ahunsenaca epressed to John "mith:

K 'aula Gunn Allen, #ocahontas, &edicine /oman, +-!, *ntre-reneur, Di-lomat &"an3rancisco: *arper "an 3rancisco, 2++B, .P John "mith, "he 2enerall 0istorie of 3irginia, $ew9*ngland, and the +ummer Isles1

http:IIdocsouth.unc.eduIsouthlitIsmithIsmith.html, accessed January 2, [email protected] John "mith, A rue #elation %y Captain John "mith, P+HE, in yler, (yon Gardiner&ed, $arraties of *arl! 3irginia, 5O8O95O:N &New Uor8: Charles "cri%nerFs "ons, +L,2L-L.H John "mith, A rue #elation %y Captain John "mith, P+HE, in yler, (yon Gardiner&ed, $arraties of *arl! 3irginia, 5O8O95O:N &New Uor8: Charles "cri%nerFs "ons, +L,2L-L. Dr (inwood (ittle 9ear Custalow R Angela (. DAN$?( "il0er "tarE, "he "rue+tor! of #ocahontas, "he other side of histor! &Golden Colorado : 3ulcrum 'u%lishing,2++L.



'acques Coulardeau

PB

Many do in!orm me, your coming hither is not !or trade, %ut to in0ade my people,and possess my country, who dare not come to %ring you come, seeing you thusarmed with your men . . . 9ut this %ruit !rom Nandsamund, that you are come todestroy my Country, so much a!!righteth all my people as they dare not 0isit you.4hat will it a0ail you to ta8e that %y !orce you may 6uic8ly ha0e %y lo0e, or todestroy them that pro0ide you !ood. 4hat can you get %y war, when we can hide our

pro0isions and !ly to the woods 4here%y you must !amish %y wronging us your!riends. And why are you thus ealous o! our lo0es seeing us unarmed, and %oth do,and are willing still to !eed you, with that you cannot get %ut %y our la%orsE2+

Dr (inwood Custalow then recounts how the colonists stole !ood, 8illing

those who resisted, ensla0ing and raping children and women. Dr (inwoodCustalow reports that 'ocahontas would ha0e pro%a%ly told her sister, whenthe latter was permitted to 0isit 'ocahontas a!ter her a%duction, she had %een8ept in Jamestown under the uncontrolled authority, use and a%use o! localo!!icials, including the go0ernor homas Dale and that she had %een raped.Dr (inwood Custalow clearly states the child was concei0ed and e0en %ornout o! wedloc8. he go0ernor, pro%a%ly the !ather, was called homas ustli8e the son &c!. John #ol!e)s unclear name in Gra0esend. he son was notregistered in the colony)s %oo8s, though Dr (inwood Custalow wronglysays John #ol!e was the secretary o! the colony since he only %ecame thesecretary a!ter his return !rom ?ngland in PL.

he 'ocahontas myth that states that she supposedly sa0ed John "mith)sli!e spectacularly 0oluntarily %ecame a Christian &c!. J.G. Chapman)s "he

<a-tism of #ocahontas in the rotunda o! the Capitol, 4ashington DC,H@L, as well as a wi!e and mother, is today called into 6uestion. he oraltradition argues that 'ocahontas was too young to ha0e %een part o! theceremony in which John "mith was made a weroance, and !ar too youngand too wea8 to go to Jamestown on her own, crossing se0eral ri0ers andmo0ing dugout canoes &in complete contradiction with 'ocahontas) ease andagility in 4alt Disney)s !ilms. A!ter her a%duction she accepted her lot

%ecause it was the only way to sur0i0e and a0oid reprisals against her people. Many 0oices insist that 'ocahontas was married to 5o8um at age

@, had a son !rom him, and that her hus%and was eecuted %y the ?nglishwhen 'ocahontas was a%ducted while the child escaped. Many 6uestion thesupposed treachery o! the 'otowomac chie!, Japa/aw, 5o8um)s older

%rother, %ecause Argall)s ship in !ront o! the tri%e)s main city meant possi%le hea0y retaliations.

2+ John "mith, P2B, 'art $$$, LP.



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*anay Geiogamah2 in the early L+s insisted on the treachery o! the?nglish, their spoiling and 8illing, the deculturation and eradication o! allthat is $ndian, the maiming and reduction o! their physical, social, cultural%odiesE into total dependence. *e called !or $ndian awa8ening and a!orce!ul yet non-0iolent re%ellion. *e supported the occupation o! Alcatra/$sland &P-L, the 3ederal 9ureau o! $ndian A!!airs, 4ashington DC&L2, 4ounded 5nee &L@. *e ad0ocated deep introspecti0e meditationin order to recollect, reconstruct and redeem the $ndian soul $ndians ha0e inthem and thus to !orce respect and acceptance %y way o! spiritual eco-cultural charisma.

$n LL, the 1" Catholic Church pu%lished their !irst statement on

American $ndians, calling !or remem%rance, reconciliation andrecommitment, later reasserted se0eral times, including a con!erence o!American Catholic 9ishops in lin8ing A!rican, Nati0e and *ispanicAmericans in remem%rance, reconciliation and recommitment. Otherchurches !ollowed the trend in the years a!ter 4alt Disney)s glamori/ed0ersion o! 'ocahontas) myth in K and H.

$n 2++B 'aula Gunn Allen ree0aluated 'ocahontas !rom an $ndian pointo! 0iew, reecting unspeci!ied re0olutionaryE approaches. "he considers'ocahontas was an initiated and !ully recogni/ed priestess at + or &whenJohn "mith was ta8en prisoner. "he could %e granted admission to specialceremonies as a priestess, with the right o! li!e and death o0er prisoners. "heused that right !or John "mith, though his li!e was not menaced %utremadeE, i.e. ritualistically terminated and re%orn as the $ndian weroance o!his ?nglish tri%e. Gunn Allen seems to thin8, li8e Dr (inwood, that John"mith did not understand what was happening.

9ut then she usti!ies what ?uropeans did to $ndians %y identi!ying the period as the Great Change in $ndian mythology that ended with the "e0enthGeneration in the early +s. "he thus minimali/es the genocide ando0erloo8s the H@+ $ndian #emo0al Act and su%se6uent $ndian wars. "heclaims that the $ndians ha0e actually had the upper hand, since to%acco, oneo! their sacred plants &along with mai/e, %eans and s6uash, note the a%sence

o! Apios Americana and the potato, has ta8en o0er the whole world.(ater Dr (inwood Custalow in 2++L highlighted the crimes and 0iolenceo! the ?uropeans against $ndians, who today are con!ronted to a di!!icultrenewal and re%irth to which we can testi!y %y way o! two eamples.

2 *anay Geiogamh, $ew $atie American Drama, "hree #la!s, <od! Indian =567:>, orghorn =567Q>, R6 =567N>, &Norman, O5: 1ni0ersity o! O8lahoma 'ress, H+.



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he Cra/y *orse Memorial, he American $ndian 1ni0ersity andMedical raining Center, and he $ndian Museum o! North American*istory opened in BH under the sole control and !inancing o! the "iouannation.

#ichard (. Dieterle)s *nc!clo-edia of 0oca; =/innebago> &!tholog!,1ni0ersity o! Minnesota at Minneapolis was copyrighted in 2++K.

"uch 0entures are %uilding a dynamic renascence o! $ndian culture andheritage, as CNN reported on No0em%er 2L, 2+2, three wee8s a!ter the2+2 presidential election:

4e are right now li0ing through the last act o! this long decoloniali/ation o!

$ndians with the !inal appro0al o! the settlement o! $ndian grie0ances %y Congressand 'resident O%ama.E22

he 6uestion o! the amount o! $ndian %lood in the white population seenas 4hite $ndians, or in the %lac8 population called 9lac8 $ndians, remainsunsol0ed. 9ut the present e0olution should %ring American $ndians to thecommon American han8sgi0ing ta%le to share han8sgi0ing dinner,!orgi0ing the descendants o! the colonists and the later Americans who

per!ormed the $ndian *olocaust.

Y$ DonFt Cele%rate han8sgi0ing. $tFs A "tory o! Murder.Y Angelina Jolie2@

$n P@L near present day Groton, Connecticut, o0er L++ men, women and childreno! the 'e6uot ri%e had gathered !or their annual Green Corn 3esti0al which is ourhan8sgi0ing cele%ration. $n the predawn hours the sleeping $ndians weresurrounded %y ?nglish and Dutch mercenaries who ordered them to come outside.Z[\E2B

he site gi0es a lot o! historical details a%out the %rutality o! thecoloni/ation that stand in sharp contrast to 4alt Disney)s mythical !airytale, whose main moti0ations are ma8ing a pro!it !rom children and their!amilies while %om%arding them with an ideological stance.

22 1.". !inali/es @.B %illion settlement with American $ndians,E CNN 4ire "ta!!,http:IIedition.cnn.comI accessed Decem%er , 2+2. 2@ http:IIwww.whitewol!pac8.comI2+2I+Iangelina-olie-re!uses-to-cele%rate.html,accessed Decem%er , 2+2.2B "usan 9ates, !rom Manata8a &]'lace o! 'eace), American $ndian Council,http:IIwww.manata8a.orgI, accessed No0em%er @+, 2+2.



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La Loui!iane and the French3rench (ouisiane originally stretched !rom Wué%ec down the Mississippi

0alley to present time (ouisiana, Mississippi and Ala%ama. he main citieswere Mo%ile and 9aton #ouge, %e!ore (a Nou0elle Orléans.

he 3rench arri0ed as indi0iduals and esta%lished trading posts to tradewith $ndians. hese trading posts were open to $ndians who came to %artertheir goods against 3rench hardware, !a%ric and trin8ets, mostly %eads. $nWué%ec colonists were !armers and traded their land !rom $ndians. hat wasthe model !or !urther 0entures down the Mississippi 0alley.

3rench (ouisiane co0ered a 0ast area east o! "panish eas andetending as !ar as "aint (ouis, Missouri &5ing (ouis $^, "aint 'aul,

Minnesota, or Detroit, Michigan.he 3rench 5ing was scarcely in0ol0ed in the proect, either !inancially

or militarily. During the American 4ar o! $ndependence, (a!ayette sailed to(ouisiane with weapons smuggled %y 9eaumarchais onto his ship %e!ore(ouis ^S$ o!!icially sent Admiral d)?staing with 3rench troops. *ere weshould emphasi/e one real strategic handicap o! such coloni/ation: the greattime gap %etween colonies and their authorities, leading to local decisionsand a widening distance %etween the two.

he main actors were trading companies which pro0ided 3rench goodson credit and then %ought the $ndian goods which the traders had managedto echange. One such trading post in (ouisiane was Natchitoches.2K he!irst traders arri0ed in P and the trading post o!!icially opened in LB,on the #ed #i0er !lowing down to the Mississippi. (ouisiane remainedunder 3rench control up to LP@ when a secret treaty ga0e its control to"pain.

A trader was a man who le!t the trading post in the !all and came %ac8 inspring or early summer. *e le!t with a load o! 3rench goods on a %oat,leading up ri0er with a crew to sail the %oat, to load and unload andtransport the goods with mules. he crew consisted essentially o! male

%lac8 sla0es, some male $ndians, whether sla0es, employees or !reeassociates, and one or two ?uropean helpers, generally younger or

apprentices.he traders li0ed !or si to nine months with the $ndians who pro0idedthem with !ood, women and entertainment li8e to%acco. hese traders andtheir personnel, most o! the latter sla0es, had seual partners in all the0illages. $ndians were easy-going. 4omen were !ree to eperiment, e0en

2K 5athleen M. 9yrd, Colonial $atchitoches, %ut-ost of *m-ires, ^li%ris Corporation,www.^li%ris.com 2++H.



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%e!ore marriage. Children %elonged to the tri%e and were ta8en care o!collecti0ely i! necessary. "ome traders %rought %ac8 concu%ines whom theCatholic Church christened. Children were systematically christened at

%irth. he Church started o!!icial records in L2+ !or marriages and L2 !or %aptism. 9ut the children %orn in $ndian 0illages were not registered. heserecords ha0e recently %een released online. Apparently these seualarrangements ga0e %irth to a 0ast 4hite $ndianE and 9lac8 $ndianE

population. he proportion o! 9lac8 $ndians among 9lac8s is estimated to %e around +. Natchitoches was a multi-ethnic three-tiered community inwhich $ndians and 0arious mied-%loods were the dynamic o! social

promotion, as de!ined and eplained %y Denise Oli0er-Sele/, a 'ro!essor o!

Anthropology and 4omen)s "tudies at the "tate 1ni0ersity o! New Uor8 at New 'alt/:

*istorically, the only part o! the 1nited "tates that operated under the three-tieredsystem was (ouisiana, since it was coloni/ed and settled !irst %y the 3rench and"panish. Z[\ 9ecause (ouisiana was coloni/ed %y the 3rench, a Ytripartite legaldistinction emergedY whites, A!rican sla0es, and !ree people o! color, or gens decouleur li%res.2P

his practice is opposed to the one-drop rule o! the ?nglish, !or whichone single drop o! %lac8 %lood made you %lac8.

he second important !eature is the nature o! the trade per!ormed %y the3rench. hey were mostly interested in getting !ood !or the colony, land !orthe colonists to %e sel!-su!!icient !armers, and !urs !or 3rance and ?urope.9ut 3rench traders were opportunistic: they accepted !urs, hides, %ear !at oroil, and three other productsE either stolen !rom the "panish missions ineas or raided !rom the hostile Apaches west and south west: horses,women and children. he traders accepted horses to transport the goods

%ac8 to the %oat and sell them later. hey accepted Apache women andchildren with the widely adopted intention o! 8eeping the women as home-ser0ants or concu%ines, e0en wi0es &the children were the !ather)s, %apti/edand 3rench, while children were entrusted to the Catholic Church, were

%apti/ed and sent to some school !or education and training to %ecome !ull!ree mem%ers o! the community.4ar!are was endemic %etween some tri%es and the rules o! such wars

were 0ery strict. A 0ictorious war-leader was held responsi%le !or the

2P Color, Caste and Class,E on A!riGeneas 4orld #esearch 3orum at

http:IIwww.a!rigeneas.comI!orum-worldIinde.cgiImdIreadIidIK, accessed Decem%er 2,2+2



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casualties: the o%ecti0e was !or there to %e no casualties. 4hen de!eatedwarriors were to die on the %attle !ield or %e ta8en prisoners !or ritualisticeecution in the !orm o! o!!erings to 0arious di0inities. hey were made toplay with !ire,E which means to %e tortured and !inally thrown into an open!ire. 9ut they could also %e dismem%ered !or their legs and !or their scalps,which could %e !ull heads, and so that other parts o! their %odies could %eeposed on poles during these ritualistic o!!erings. A warrior was to endureit without uttering a sound. 4omen and children were ta8en to %e treated assla0es %y the 0ictorious tri%e. hey changed names and were gi0en to the!amilies o! the 0ictorious warriors. Children were o!ten gi0en to isolatedwomen who could not ta8e care o! themsel0es.

Denise Oli0er-Sele/ did not consider $ndians, only 9lac8s. $! you add$ndians to her description, $ndian women were natural mates !or the %lac8sla0es as well as !or the indentured or !ree white men. he children grew up!ree and integrated at all social le0els. he 3rench had !ew pro%lems with$ndians, ecept the Natche/ in the North %ecause o! the land ta8en %y3rench !armers to start plantations.

$n the Natche/ area, there were B@+ 3rench colonists, 2H+ A!rican sla0es,and a%out ,2++ Natche/ $n L2.2L "uch a colonist-sla0e distri%ution is !ar!rom normal. American sla0e plantations counted a 0ast maority o! A!ricansla0es. $n the present situation, the sla0es were only o! A!rican origin. he3rench non-sla0es could %e o! any racial or ethnic origin, pure or mied.hat also pro0es the 0ast proportion o! mied-%loods in this three-tieredsociety.

During the L2 war the Natche/ were de!eated. he plantationscontinued, !irst growing to%acco, %e!ore %eing hampered %ecause o! the"panish control on the mar8et. "o the settlers shi!ted to cotton.

4hen the 3rench crown decided to gi0e up their support o! (ouisianeand entrust the territory to the "panish !or some decades, nothing waschanged, since the "panish Catholic Church had no authority on the 3renchCatholic Church which was Gallican and thus had a large degree o!autonomy !rom #ome, which was not the case on the "panish side.

Decoloni/ation came a!ter the (ouisiana 'urchase in H+@. (ouisiana %ecame a state on April @+, H2. he Code Noir and the Code Napoleonremained in o!!icial use in (ouisiana a!ter statehood and the Code Napoleonis still o!!icially re!erred to today. 9ut the one-drop rule little %y little

%ecame the o!!icial rule o! the state, which was a sla0e state. $t seceded !rom

2L 'atricia Dillon 4oods, rench9Indian (elations on the +outhern rontier , P-LP2&Ann Ar%or: 1M$ #esearch 'ress, L, L@-LB.



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the 1nion on January 2P, HP, %ut was reclaimed %y !ederal troops onApril 2K, HP2 and was re-instated into the 1nion. 4e must 8eep in mindthat BL o! the population was ensla0ed, though the !ree A!rican populationwas the largest in the 1"A in HP+, which helps eplain the 0ast sympathyo! the population towards the 1nion.

4e ha0e to insist on the impact o! the LL Catholic Church "tatementon $ndians in (ouisiana, since 2H o! the population is Catholic in(ouisiana. *owe0er the !igure is @P !or the archdiocese o! New Orleansand 2.H !or the metropolitan New Orleans area, which shows a higher

proportion in the south and the highest in rural Caun and Creole southernareas. he Catholic Church)s etreme dynamism in opening their archi0es

pro0es the 0ery positi0e role they played, one which should not %eo0erloo8ed.

$n the old (ouisiane /one, a lot o! research has %een carried out in0arious higher education institutions on the historical role and present

position o! ethnic minorities. 3rancis J. 'owell)s dissertation is such aresearch endea0or.2H o set this study in a comparati0e perspecti0e, it isuse!ul to ta8e into account Juliana 9arr)s study on a related su%ect.2

$n the American contet, one drop o! %lac8 %lood ma8es one 9lac8.*owe0er, this is not so with $ndian %lood. he challenge today is the multi-ethnic heritage o! many Americans, i! not most. 9y ethnic, we shouldunderstand racial, ethnic and national origins. 3rancis J. 'owell 6uotesdu%ious ournalistic sources saying that . o! the genetic heritage o!

people in general is the same. Uet no matter how !ew little di!!erences theremay %e among people, these di!!erences are meaning!ul, i! they are attachedto personal, cultural and historical data. Most Americans are mied-%loodso! one sort or another and this spectrum o! genetic miture has not %eenseriously tac8led.

2H "u%mitted to the Graduate 3aculty o! the (ouisiana "tate 1ni0ersity and Agricultural andMechanical College in partial !ul!illment o! the Doctor o! 'hilosophy Degree in he "choolo! "ocial 4or8, Assessing the Identit! of <lac; Indians in )ouisiana. A quantitatie andFualitatie Anal!sis, May 2++B, a0aila%le at http:IIetd.lsu.eduIdocsIa0aila%leIetd-+L2++B-@@L+KIunrestrictedI'owelljdis.pd!.2 3rom Capti0es to "la0es: Commodi!ying $ndian 4omen in the 9orderlands,E "he

'ournal of American 0istor! 2- &2++K, a0aila%le at:http:II!aculty.utep.eduI(in8Clic8.asplin89arr2.pd!Rta%idK+@PRmid+HBH,accessed on Decem%er @, 2+2.



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%i!torica Decooniai@ation9lac8 sla0es under 1" rule systematically tried to escape sla0ery. Juliana

9arr)s study gi0es us some hypotheses concerning 3lorida, which,ne0ertheless, can %e etended to all states and territories where the $ndian

presence was important, particularly (ouisiana, which had inherited !romthe 3rench and "panish, a systematic miing o! 9lac8s and $ndians.

9lac8 escapees !ound easy re!uge among the $ndians who were 8een ongetting them %ecause o! their numerous trades and 0ast 8now-how. 9othsides %ene!ited: the 9lac8s were !ree and the $ndians impro0ed their ownlot. his eplains the !act that $ndians in /ones where they were in contactwith the sla0e colonies de0eloped !ast, e0en mo0ed towards sel!-

go0ernment with constitutions %ased on the model o! the 1" Constitution.4e can mention the eamples o! the !i0e di!!erent nations in the $ro6uoisCon!ederacy: the "eneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Mohaw8 tri%es. ?achnation 8ept its own territory, language and culture. hey had roots whichwent %ac8 to a history long %e!ore the arri0al o! ?uropeans and theCon!ederacy was o!!icially set up %y the prophet Deganawidah and hisdisciple *iawatha ca. KL+.

he so-called 3i0e Ci0ili/ed Nations, a name gi0en to them %y?uropeans -the Cree8, Chic8asaw, Choctaw, "eminole, and Chero8ee tri%esin the "outheast- were ne0er mem%ers o! an alliance and they con0ertedearly to Christianity. hey were sedentary and ur%anised !armers, with asophisticated go0ernment system. he !irst $ndian writing system wasin0ented !or Chero8ees %y "e6uoyah, who was %orn around LL+ in as8igiin western North Carolina, today part o! ennessee. *is mother was $ndianand his !ather was white. *e was raised in the tri%al ways o! the Chero8eeand learned to hunt and trap animals. 4hen he grew up, he wor8ed as ahunter and !ur trader. *e also %ecame a s8illed sil0er cra!tsman. *issylla%ary was created %etween H+ and H2. $t was 6uic8ly adopted andtaught to many people in addition to %eing adopted %y the Chero8ee tri%e. $n3e%ruary H2H, the !irst newspaper in an American $ndian language, theChero;ee #hoeni@, was launched.

9lac8 sla0es, on the other hand, gradually came to learn ?nglish, how toread and write it. his de0elopment was rather delayed when compared tothe impact o! 3rench and "panish coloni/ation. he 3rench and the "panishsettlers taught the language and how to read and write rather 6uic8ly inorder to spread Christianity. Concerning $ndians it is %eing disco0ered todaythat many tri%es le!t %ehind drawings on roc8s &pictographs and in somecases engra0ings &petroglyphs. A signi!icant process o! decoloni/ation iscurrently under way regarding the de0elopment and reappropriation o! such





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9aptist Church !or the 9lac8s in the Deep "outh o! ?nglish tradition, slowly oined %y other clerical and cultural organi/ations, has slowly lead to a policy %ased on three o%ecti0es. o remem%er &ne0er !orget the past, toreconcile the 0arious segments o! society &!orgi0e the present descendents!or the crimes o! their ancestors and to recommit onesel! to the !ullcolla%oration o! ethnic groups in society &re6uiring acculturation %ased onechange and integration o! heritage and patrimony in all domains.

Concu!ionColoni/ation is generally a %rutal eperience, one which is coupled with

an enterprise that e!!ects the deculturation o! the coloni/ed populations and

their !orced acculturation into the culture o! the colonial power.Decoloni/ation was purely !ormal in America. $t resulted in the

independence o! the ancient colonies. he three coloni/ing methods produced two social models though: the three-tier model and the one-droptwo-tier theory and model. he !irst o! these created a 0ast middle stratumo! !ree and mostly mied-%lood people, which energi/es the lower stratumand pulls them up the social ladder. he latter model cuts the society intotwo groups, with the top group supposedly the only dynamic one, and thelower group %eing seen as entirely dependent, %oth una%le and unwilling toimpro0e their position.

he concept o! decoloni/ation must then %e considered. $n spite o! all %loc8ing resistance on the part o! the top layer o! the society, the deepestlayers o! coloni/ed identity are coming %ac8, most o! the time, when asecond shoc8 wea8ens the post-colonial acculturation, thus causing a seconddeculturation that demands a recapturing o! the older roots and cultures thathad %een deculturali/ed %y the initial coloniali/ation.

he 1"A is li0ing this phase today and is coming to the end o! thedecoloniali/ation process. 3or $ndians and A!ricans, this means arecapturing o! their original cultures that were not lost, %ut had %eenintegratedE into the mainstream American or ?uropean culture in 0ariousalienating ways: !or eample, through the apprehension o! $ndian culture as

anthropological !ol8lore, and the integration o! polyrhythmic A!rican musicinto ?uropean music in order to produce pure entertainment. 4hat had pre0iously %een regarded as !ol8loreE is slowly %eing reintegrated as ahumanistic cosmic philosophy into the American culture, while the

polyrhythmic music produced %y A!ricans &gospel, a//, %lues, roc8 androll, etc is more and more %ecoming an authentic !orm o! decoloniali/edAmerican culture &that has in !act spread to the world. On the Meicanside, it is the second shoc8 o! emigration to the 1"A that is producing the



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return to ancient A/tec and Mayan roots among Chicanos, in particularChicana intellectuals who ha0e %egun to ree0aluate Malinche.

his can !inally lead to the hypothesis that the second shoc8 o!deculturation can %e either through emigration, where, !or eample,Meicans %ecome Chicanos in the 1"A, or gender deculturation !or women,who are mo0ing !rom containment at home to sociali/ation througheducation and wor8, thus %ecoming the main agents o! the mo0ement %ac8to $ndian roots. $t is a%solutely signi!icant that two women are at the 0erycenter o! this decoloniali/ation: 'ocahontas and Malinche. $t is 6uitesigni!icant that the !inal congressional settlement o! the $ndian reser0ationchallenge is named a!ter a woman, ?louise '. Co%ell,@2 thus pro0iding a

!inal support !or our hypothesis. $t is also signi!icant that it is a 9lac8'resident who declared: Y$ welcome the !inal appro0al o! the Co%ellsettlement agreement, clearing the way !or reconciliation %etween the trust

%ene!iciaries and the !ederal go0ernment.Y@@ A%o0e all, we ha0e to 8eep inmind that it is a woman, #osa 'ar8s,@B who started the Ci0il #ightsmo0ement that produced Martin (uther 5ing)s dream.@K

8ac7ue! CO9LA"DEA9"UNO'"$"-'A$? 7 Nice

C?G$D &Compagnie ?uropéenne de Gestion par l)$n!ormati6ueDécentralisée 7

9oulogne-9illancourt

@2 ?louise 'epion Co%ell, Uellow 9ird 4oman &BK-2+, a $iitsSta-i &9lac8!ootCon!ederacy elder and acti0ist, %an8er, rancher, and lead plainti!! in the ground%rea8inglitigation Cobell 1 +alazar, which challenged the 1nited "tatesF mismanagement o! trust!unds %elonging to more than K++,+++ indi0idual Nati0e Americans.@@ 1.". !inali/es @.B %illion settlement with American $ndians,E http:IIedition.cnn.comIaccessed on Decem%er @, 2+2. @B #osa (ouise McCauley 'ar8s, @-2++K, %oarded the Cle0eland A0enue %us around P

p.m. on Decem%er , KK in downtown Montgomery a!ter a !ull day o! wor8, and re!usedto yield her seat to a white passenger, thus starting the Montgomery %us %oycott, the !irst!ield 0ictory on the Ci0il #ights 3rontE. he 1.". Congress called her Ythe !irst lady o!ci0il rightsY and Ythe mother o! the !reedom mo0ement.Y@K Martin (uther 5ing Jr., I hae a dream, speech deli0ered on August 2H, P@, at the(incoln Memorial, 4ashington D.C.



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nuea *s-aTa. Meico: O!icina tipogra!ica de la secretaria de !omento,+K.

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[email protected], accessed January 2, 2+@

D1#AN, 3ray Diego. "he 0istor! of Indies of $ew +-ain, KH. Norman,



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LL

O5: 1ni0ersity o! O8lahoma 'ress, 2++.

3?##$", (eon Gerome. "he Abduction of #ocahontas, +.http:IIwww.0ahistorical.orgIs0a2++@Ia%duction.htm, accessed January 2,2+@.

31?N?", Carlos. *l es-ejo enterrado. Meico: aurus, L.

G?$OGAMA*, *anay. $ew $atie American Drama, "hree #la!s, <od! Indian &L2 , orghorn &L@ , R6 &LK. Norman, O5: 1ni0ersity o!O8lahoma 'ress, H+.

GOOD $M?" ?ntertainment. #ocahontas "he legend . Canyon (a8e,Cali!ornia, K-2++K.

G1NN A((?N, 'aula. #ocahontas, &edicine /oman, +-!, *ntre-reneur, Di-lomat . "an 3rancisco: *arper "an 3rancisco, 2++B.

*A""$G, #oss. &e@ico and the +-anish Conquest . Norman, O5: 1ni0ersityo! O8lahoma 'ress, 2++P.

*?#NAND?X GONXA(?X, Cristina. DoTa &arina =)a &alinche> ! la formaciUn de la identidad me@icana1 Madrid : ?diciones ?ncuentro,2++2.

JON"ON, 9en. "he 3ision of Delight, A &asque for Christmas, PP.http:IIwww.o!ordscholarlyeditions.comI0iewI+.+@IactradeILH+H@PB.%oo8.Iactrade-LH+H@PB-di0-@L, accessed January 2,2+@

(?S?"W1?, #odrigue. )a &alinche. "he &istress of 0ernan Cortés, from+lae to 2oddess. A "rue +tor! based on historical documents with 68

illustrations . Gatineau, Wué%ec: (e0es6ue pu%lications, 2++H.

Mc(1*AN, .C. "ouch "he *arth. A%acus: (ondon, L.

M?D$NA, Cuauhtemoc. )a imHgen -olStica. Meico: 1NAM, 2++P.

M?""$NG?# CU'?"", "andra. Jnciil wars. *lena 2arro, %ctaio #azand the battle for cultural memor!. Austin: 1ni0ersity o! eas 'ress,



'acques Coulardeau

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2+2.

M?""$NG?# CU'?"", "andra. )a &alinche in &e@ican literature fromhistor! to m!th . Austin. 1ni0ersity o! eas 'ress, .

O($S?#-S?(?X, Denise.Color, Caste and Class,E 2++@, on A!riGeneas4orld #esearch 3orum at http:IIwww.a!rigeneas.comI!orum-worldIinde.cgiImdIreadIidIK, accessed Decem%er 2, 2+2.

O4?N #o%ert Dale, #ocahontas, A 0istorical Drama. C*A#(?"ON,"C: Na%u 'ress, 2+2.http:II%oo8s.google.!rI%oo8sIreaderidO(je--

BUL!WCRhl!rRprintsec!rontco0erRoutputreaderRsourceg%sjat%jho0erRpgG9".''2, accessed January 2, 2+@

'AX, Octa0io. *l laberinto de la soledad1 Madrid: Cftedra, @.

'O4?((, 3rancis J. Dissertation "u%mitted to the Graduate 3aculty o! the(ouisiana "tate 1ni0ersity and Agricultural and Mechanical College in

partial !ul!illment o! the Doctor o! 'hilosophy Degree in he "chool o!"ocial 4or8, Assessing the Identit! of <lac; Indians in )ouisiana. Aquantitatie and Fualitatie Anal!sis, May 2++B, a0aila%le athttp:IIetd.lsu.eduIdocsIa0aila%leIetd-+L2++B-@@L+KIunrestrictedI'owelljdis.pd!.

#OM?#O, #olando R Amanda NO(AC?A *A##$". eminism, nationand m!th. )a &alinche . *ouston, ^ : Arte pu%lico 'ress, 2++K.

"A(A", ?li/a%eth. +oldaderas in the &e@ican &ilitar!. &!th and 0istor!.Austin: 1ni0ersity o! eas 'ress, +.

"$MON, "herry. 2ender in "ranslation. Cultural Identit! and the #olitics of"ransmission. (ondon and New Uor8: #outledge, P.

"M$*, John. A "rue (elation of 3irginia, [email protected]:IIwww.americanourneys.orgIpd!IAJ-+LB.pd!, accessed January 2,2+@.

"M$*, John. "he 2enerall 0istorie of 3irginia, $ew9*ngland, and the+ummer Isles. /ith the $ames of the Adenturers, #lanters, and2oernours from "heir irst <eginning, Ano. 5NMR1 "o "his #resent



'acques Coulardeau

L

5O:R1 /ith the #rocedings of "hose +eerall Colonies and the Accidents"hat <efell "hem in All "heir 'ourn!es and Discoeries1 Also the &a-sand Descri-tions of All "hose Countr!es, "heir Commodities, #eo-le,2oernment, Customes, and (eligion et Enowne1 Diided into +i@e

<oo;es. P2B.http:IIdocsouth.unc.eduIsouthlitIsmithIsmith.html, accessed January 2,2+@.

"M$*"ON$AN National Museum o! American *istory 5enneth ?.9ehring Center, http:IIamericanhistory.si.eduI%u!!aloI, accessedDecem%er @, 2+2.

"#AC*?U, 4illiam. "he 0istorie of "raaile into 3irginia <ritannia,P2-HB.http:II%oo8s.google.!rI%oo8sIreaderid!UUMAAAA$AAJRhl!rRprintsec!rontco0erRoutputreaderRsourceg%sjat%jho0erRpgG9".''K,accessed January 2, 2+@.

1" CA*O($C CON3?#?NC?, "tatement o! 1.". Catholic 9ishops onAmerican $ndians, LL, 4ashington DC.

1" NA$ONA( CON3?#?NC? o! Catholic 9ishops on Nati0e Americans, No0em%er , A "ime for (emembering, (eocncilingand(ecommitting %urseles as a #eo-le, 2.http:IIwww.uscc%.orgIissues-and-actionIcultural-di0ersityInati0e-americanIresourcesIuploadINA-Catholics-Millennium.pd!, accessedJanuary 2, 2+@.

SOG?(, Dan. Indian %rigins and the <oo; of &ormon. "alt (a8e City,1tah: "ignature 9oo8s, HP.

SO((MANN, 4illiam . +een Dreams, 3olume "hree, Argall, "he "rue

+tor! of #ocahontas and Ca-tain 'ohn +mith. (ondon: 'enguin 9oo8s,2++.

4OOD", 'atricia Dillon. rench9Indian (elations on the +outhern rontier , P-LP2. Ann Ar%or: 1M$ #esearch 'ress, L.



'acques Coulardeau

H+

Fi+o-ra4hy

GA9#$?(, Mi8e R ?ric GO(D9?#G. #ocahontas. *ollywood, (osAngeles, CA: 4alt Disney 'ictures, K.

?((?#U, om R 9radley #AUMOND. #ocahontas :. *ollywood, (osAngeles, CA: 4alt Disney 'ictures, H.



H

C%A$TE" 2

Du frère dar!es " lenne!i inti!e

#resse illustr$e% &rande &uerre et Trou'es coloniales

Ab!tract: $n addition to the numerous pu%lications on A!rican and Asian colonialsoldiers, the topic o! the image o! colonial soldiers has !ound an important place incolonial historiography, %ut a true history o! the image o! colonial soldiers has notyet %een written. he su%ect remains hampered %y preudices against the colonial

past, due pro%a%ly to the emergence o! postcolonial studies and war memories. $n!act, studies on the iconography o! colonial troops ine0ita%ly lin8 imperialistideology and colonial soldiers. he colonial troops supported the idea o! 'lusgrande 3rance which was used !or propaganda during the 3irst 4orld 4aragainst the Germans as well as during the war e!!ort a!terwards. *owe0er, eachimage has a material, cultural and historical reality. he new orientation o! colonialresearch -colonial studies- insists on the historicity o! the o%ects and su%ects o!studies. he analysis o! the iconography o! the colonial troops has to ta8e intoaccount, there!ore, the characteristics o! the iconographic corpus, such as

postcards, posters, mo0ies or illustrated press which !orm the o%ect o! ourscrutiny. A!ter placing the illustrated newspapers - )’illustration journal unierseland )e 'ournal des o!ages des aentures de terre et de mer 7 in their media

contet, the article retraces the iconography o! colonial soldiers, %e!ore, during anda!ter the 3irst 4orld 4ar. he %rie! study also raises the 6uestion o! therelationship %etween the iconography o! colonial troops and the !irst images o!decoloni/ation.

")!u+) : (e L octo%re B, le ournal illustrée généraliste )VIllustration journaluniersel pu%lie une caricature dF*enriot sur lFentrée en guerre des troupescoloniales. 1n o!!icier !ran;ais !ait les présentations entre les di!!érents corpsdFarmée. (a légende raconte : Cipaye, permets moi de présenter un !ils de9ouddha < un !ils de Mahomet... On ne se connaQt pas, mais on est tous des!rres . (a !in de la Grande Guerre amorce une réorganisation de la géopoliti6uemondiale. Dans le monde colonial, les luttes, pour lFégalité ou lFindépendance,

commencent < résonner sur le continent européen. Or, la 'remire GuerreMondiale, par lFappel au colonies, a éta%li de nou0eau rapports iconographi6uesentre colonisateurs et colonisés. ?n partant dFune interrogation : 6uels lienssFéta%lissent entre lFimage de (Fautre, 6ui cesse pour un temps dF=tre un colonisé

pour de0enir un !rre dFarme, et les premires luttes nationalistes , l)articlesouhaite re0enir sur lFiconographie des colonisés lors de la Grande Guerre en seconcentrant sur la presse illustrée !ran;aise. 9ien 6ue source maeure de la culture0isuelle au ^$ê sicle, elle demeure encore a%ordée super!iciellement. Cependant,





+ofiane "aouchichet

H@

$l ne s)agit é0idemment pas de re!aire l)histoire des troupes coloniales,6ui par ailleurs ouit d)un relati! succs dans l)historiographie coloniale. (ethme est !écond et régulirement remoti0é par des approches histori6ues,anthropologi6ues, sociologi6ues ou encore iconographi6ues. "i les tra0ausur la mise en images des troupes coloniales restent moins prolies, lesécrits %rossent toute!ois < grands traits les caractéristi6ues du suet.Cependant, < l)instar des tra0au sur l)image coloniale , a0ec toutes les

am%igités autour du terme, les études iconographi6ues prennent rarementen compte les spéci!icités médiati6ues et les e!!iciences des sources sur lemessage. ?n dé!inissant l)image du soldat noir 2, Marc Michel m=lecaricature, presse en!antine !éminine, presse illustrée ou encore peinture.Cependant, lors6u)il a0ance l)in!antilisation des soldats noirs, commed)autres@, a0ec des illustrations de la presse en!antine & )a semaine de+uzette>, on peut se demander si le lectorat ci%lé et les spéci!icités du genrene transcri0ent pas le suet selon des modalités internes. ()in!antilisationrépondrait donc en premier lieu au prati6ues iconographi6ues, < la logi6ue

3OGA#U, #ichard. (ace and /ar in rance . colonial subjects in the rench arm!,

565R9565M. 9altimore : Johns *op8ins 1n0ersity 'ress, 2++H 3#TM?A1^, Jac6ues. )escolonies dans la 2rande 2uerre . combats et é-reues des -eu-les d’outre9mer . "aint-Cloud : ?ditions B -H, 2++P.2 M$C*?(, Marc. ()image du soldat noir in Images et colonies . -ro-agande coloniale

sur l’Afrique franKaise 5MM8 56O:. 'aris : 9D$CIAC*AC, @.@ ("?9#$N5, *ans-Jrgen. (es troupes coloniales dans la guerre : présences,imaginaires, et représentations in Image et colonies . -ro-agande coloniale sur l’Afrique

franKaise 5MM8 56O:, p. LH : ()image du soldat colonial grand en!ant allait alors de pair a0ec l)intention de !aire de lui non seulement un soldat apte < mener une guerre moderne , mais également, < long terme, un !ran;ais de langue et de culture .

)VIllustration, L octo%re B,*enriot, (es cro6uis de lasemaine . _ )VIllustration



+ofiane "aouchichet

HB

sérielle et en!in < la matrice du support. Notre propos n)est pas ici de reeterdes tra0au antérieurs, mais %ien de proposer une lecture serrée d)unesource distincte, la presse illustrée. Marc Michel a aussi eposé les dé%ats,0i!s, entourant les soldats a!ricainsB. Outre, la 0olonté de reconstituer lagénéalogie des images de la décolonisation, notre propos participe < une!!ort similaire de compréhension.

$re!!e iu!tr)e et i+a-e! cooniae!Aupara0ant, il est utile de rappeler 6ue le maga/ine illustré est un média

distinct, o les relations entre l)iconographie et l)écrit sont multiples. "ansrentrer dans une analyse historiographi6ue poussée de l)iconographie

coloniale, le périodi6ue illustré, en tant 6u)o%et matériel, a0ec uneeistence propre, une identité éditoriale distincte ou encore un lectorat et deshori/ons d)attentes dé!inis, est rarement pris en compte. Jean-'ierre 9acot

précise :

Z...\ Dans tous les cas ou pres6ue, ce 6ui est proposé < une post-réception est trslargement décontetualisé. ?n e!!et, les conditions techni6ues de !a%rication et dedi!!usion des gra0ures, comme la nature de leur lectorat originel, ne sont 6ue trseceptionnellement précisées. 'lus encore, le support dont l)image est issue estsou0ent omis de citation, comme l)est la date de parution, si %ien 6u)il est di!!icile,sau! < connaQtre l)entier corpus des gra0ures de presse, de déterminer l)ampleur deleur seconde 0ie, 0oire de s)assurer 6u)il s)agit %ien < l)origine d)une gra0ure de

maga/ine ou de supplément illustré et non pas d)un tirage < part, ou, encore, d)uneillustration spéci!i6uement créée pour un li0re.Z...\K

(a presse illustrée est généralement cantonnée < mani!ester la mise en placede la domination, de la propagande et de l)idéologie coloniale. Ainsi, pour'ascal 9lanchard et Nicolas 9ancel, Cette idée d)une hiérarchie des racesest di!!usée dans l)opinion pu%li6ue par la grande presse 9 )’Illustration ou

)e #etit 'ournal -, les ournau de 0ulgarisation scienti!i6ue - )a $ature ou )a +cience -o-ulaire 9 P. 3acturant LK centimes le numéro, )’Illustrationci%le une %ourgeoisie politisée, a0ec une édition luueuse. "ans préciser s)ils)agit de la 0ersion illustrée he%domadaire ou de la 0ersion non illustrée

6uotidienne, )e #etit 'ournal est un ournal populaire < grand tirage, au cotde K centimes. 'lus pro%lémati6ue, les illustrations issues de la presse

B M$C*?( Marc, "oldats a!ricains de l)armée !ran;aise : mémoires et dé%ats in )V*uro-e face son -assé colonial . 'aris : #i0eneu0e éditions, 2++H.K 9ACO Jean-'ierre, )a -resse illustrée au WIWe si4cle, une histoire oubliée. (imoges :'1($M, 2++K, p. LK.P 9ANC?( Nicolas et 9(ANC*A#D 'ascal, De l’indig4ne l’immigré. 'aris : Gallimard,H, p. 2+.



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illustrée tiennent %ien sou0ent un rle idéologi6ue considéra%le !ace aueneu mo%ilisés par les lecteurs : (es illustrations du dé%ut de la périodeont pour %ut de usti!ier les prises de possession territoriales. (es indignessont donc présentés comme des %ar%ares au murs sanguinaires puis6uecette 0ision des populations locales permet de con!orter l)idée d)unecon6u=te e!!ectuée au %éné!ice des autochtones, la 3rance leur apportantci0ilisations et %ien!aitsE, pour les !aire sortir de l)o%scurantisme L. ?néta%lissant une relation 0erticale et coerciti0e des images a0ec le lectorat, endélaissant la réception, la thse de Jean-Christophe Ma%ire !ait des illustrésles 0assau de l)u0re colonisatrice. Or, en passant sous silence lesstructures médiati6ues des illustrés, on se pri0e d)actants 6ui composent, en

partie, le message et ouent aussi sur la réception. (es maga/ines illustrésont des impérati!s économi6ues et éditoriau 6ui ne peu0ent =tre négligés.'our reconstituer !inement l)iconographie des troupes coloniales, attardons-nous sur )’Illustration et )e 'ournal des o!ages.

(Illustration% )ournal des *oya+es

(e choi apparait sans doute restricti!. ?ntre HH+ et @, les titresillustrés sont nom%reu et 0ariés. "ans connaQtre toute!ois précisément les!onds, le ris6ue d)échantillonnage maladroit est grand. $l !audrait réaliser untra0ail similaire sur les troupes coloniales a0ec la presse illustrée coloniale,militaire, satiri6ue, !éminine, u0énile, monarchi6ue, gri0oise et étrangre.

?n 3rance, la presse illustrée commence a0ec un titre satiri6ue )a+ilhouette &H2-H@+ 6ui, nou0eauté, périodise l)iconographie. ?n H@@,

)e &agasin #ittoresque du saint-simonien Tdouard Charton s)oriente lui0ers une presse illustrée culturelle et pédagogi6ue, en cal6uant l)illustréanglais #enn! &agazine &H@2. )’Illustration commence la di!!usion enHB@ et s)ach0e en BB. (e modle est également d)origine insulaire, "he

Illustrated )ondons $ews &HB2, 6ui se caractérise par un dou%le proet, <la !ois illustré pédagogi6ue et d)in0estigation. ?n reprenant la !ormuleanglaise, )’Illustration introduit une nou0eauté dans le paysage médiati6ue!ran;ais. 'our répondre < son proet éditorial, le ournal in0estit

consé6uemment et a!!iche en retour un pri de 0ente dispendieu &LKcentimes au ^$ê sicle, la presse illustrée oscille entre K et B+ centimes.Donc, pour un a%onnement annuel de @P !rancs, l)a%onné re;oit cha6ue !inde semaine un numéro de sei/e pages, a0ec des ru%ri6ues relati0ement

L MA9$#? Jean-Christophe, )a re-résentation iconogra-hique des colonies franKaises traers les -ériodiques franKais illustrés =5MM5956Q6>. hse de doctorat, 'aris : $?', L,

p. @+K.



+ofiane "aouchichet

HP

!ies : actualités internationales, nationales, culturelles, mondaines. (e ournal intgre, dans une édition standard, une 0ingtaine de gra0ures,essentiellement des lithographies sur le mode naturaliste. (ithographies,cro6uis, gra0ures, les dessins collectés pro0iennent d)un réseau national etinternational. (e lectorat 0isé est prioritairement une %ourgeoisie aisée,instruite, politisée précisons 6ue les prati6ues de lecture et la circulationdes gra0ures entre les périodi6ues nationau et internationau élargissent ladi!!usion. 9re!, )’Illustration est un ournal d)actualité généraliste couplé <des 0isées éducati0es.

()illustré comme support pédagogi6ue est aussi au cur du proet du 'ournal des o!ages et des aentures de terre et de mer , de Georges

Decau. A0ec un cot de K centimes le numéro et un a%onnement de H!rancs, le ournal est composé de sei/e pages, contenant moins d)une di/ainede gra0ures. (e périodi6ue am%itionne de 0ulgariser les connaissancesgéographi6ues < destination des eunes lecteurs, dont les supposés man6uesont entrainé la dé!aite de HL+H. Or, l)am%ition éditoriale se trou0e

progressi0ement réinterprétée par l)epansion coloniale, 6ui résonne etampli!ie le proet de Decau, mais selon des modalités internes. ?n e!!et, )e

'ournal des o!ages m=le astucieusement 0ulgarisation géographi6ue,roman-!euilleton, tetes documentaires et tetes de !iction l)iconographie,sensationnaliste ou romanes6ue, oscille aussi entre les genres. Comme ledémontre Matthieu (etourneu, spécialiste de la littérature populaire,l)illustré est am%igu : il n)y a pas seulement contiguqté, mais am%igité etcontagion des !ormes, et surtout contagion des pactes de lecture . ?ntre!iction ou réalité, lFillustré %rouille la réception. #etenons 6ue )e 'ournaldes o!ages est un illustré géographi6ue romanes6ue.

Au5iiaire! dan! a con7uRteA0ant B, les troupes coloniales !ont l)o%et d)une attention

particulire du 'ournal des o!ages1 ()illustré leur consacre en e!!et uneru%ri6ue mensuelle intitulée : Nos troupes coloniales . (a mise en imagesdes troupes s)inscrit dans le cadre des con6u=tes coloniales, 6ui prennent

généralement un ton a0entureu et romanes6ue : structure dynami6ue,

H )e 'ournal des o!ages, nV, uillet HLL, A0is de l)éditeur : Z[\ des é0nementsrécents ont démontré le danger 6u)il y a0ait < s)isoler des autres peuples et < en ignorer lesmurs, les coutumes et les tendances Z...\ . (?O1#N?1^, Matthieu. (a colonisation comme un roman #écits de !iction,récits documentaires et idéologie dans le Journal des 0oyages , $n Idéologie et

stratégies argumentaties dans les récits im-rimés de grande diffusion, 9elphégor,$^, , 2++, p : 2.



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0alorisation de l)e!!ort physi6ue et du courage, héroqsation des militaires, pathos des morts, con6u=te sym%oli6ue. (es troupes indignes sont présentes, mais elles restent reléguées < des rles d)auiliaires, au pro!it deso!!iciers métropolitains. $l !audrait interroger une périodicité longue, mais lahiérarchie correspondrait < plusieurs éléments. (es troupes coloniales,rompues au con6u=tes, sont encadrées par des o!!iciers métropolitains.M=me s)il eiste des indignes gradés, la mise en images insiste d)a%ord surles o!!iciers en lieu et place des soldats, 6u)ils soient indignes oueuropéens. De plus, dans une relation catharti6ue et pédagogi6ue, le eunelecteur trou0erait dans l)o!!icier %lanc un modle. 'ar contrecoup, lessoldats indignes de0iennent donc les signes de la 0raisem%lance des récits.

"oulignons 6ue lFiconographie s)oriente 0ers le spectaculaire, au détrimentd)une approche documentaire ou histori6ue l)etraordinaire rel0edirectement des prati6ues de l)illustré+. 1n article a%orde cependant lestroupes coloniales.

$l Ztirailleur annamite\ montre une tendance nette < la dissimulation. Z...\ ilssem%lent aussi un peu indisciplinés, et, si un sous-o!!icier nou0eau, ner0eu et sansautorité, leur est donné, < son nou0eau commandement tout 0a de tra0ers lamoitié de la section part < gauche et l)autre tiers < droite et cependant le malheureusous-o!!icier s)arrache les che0eu et reste la risée de ces nha6ués 6ui se mo6uent <son ne/ et < sa %ar%e.

?t tout ceci serait asse/ attristant si le lieutenant ne nous disait 6u)il s)agit

seulement des Cochinchinois et s)il aoutait ceci 6ui éclaire tout. C)est l)action personnelle du che! 6ui se !ait sentir ici. "a !ermeté, - non pas sa %rutalité, - sonattitude, son entrain, sa 0igueur, son esprit de ustice, 0oil< les parcelles 6uicomposent son prestige et 6ui l)imposent au tirailleurs, < la manire d)un dompteur6ui dominent ses !au0es. (e tirailleur se sent-il tenu, se sent-il surmonté, il o%éitsans %roncher et pas un muscle de sa !ace n)accuse la mau0aise humeur alorsdemande/ tel e!!ort 6ue 0ous 0ous 0oudre/, eige/ une marche péni%le, impose/ lacorrection des mou0ements, la rectitude des allures, 0ous l)o%tiendre/ sans aucundoute . C)est donc la 0aleur du che! 6ui !ait la discipline et la !orce de la troupe.

?t ce n)est pas seulement che/ nos auiliaires cochinchinois 6ue cette !ormuleest uste (es tirailleurs algériens et sénégalais se distinguent, eu aussi par leurdé0ouement < leurs che! s. $ls 0alent ce 6ue 0aut l)o!!icier 6ui les commande. Jamais,

ils ne l)a%andonnent Z...\.

+ Ibid1, o-1 cit ., p : @ : le ournal ne s)a0enture gure sur le terrain de la politi6ue. 9ien plus, il donne généralement une place asse/ restreinte au tetes discursi!s et <l)argumentation. On peut m=me aller plus loin en constatant 6ue les modalités du descripti!sont elles-m=mes négligées au pro!it du narrati!. 'aradoalement, dans ce ournal degéographie, peu de descriptions sa0antes de la !aune et de la !lore, peu d)eposition desspéci!icités d)un pays, encore moins d)analyse de la position !ran;aise < l)étranger . )e 'ournal des o!ages, K a0ril B, (e tirailleur annamite .



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?mpreint de paternalisme et de pathos, l)article réa!!irme le statutd)auiliaire des troupes, < 6uel6ues mois de l)entrée en guerre.

Dans son am%ition in!ormati0e et pédagogi6ue, )’illustration a traité lestroupes coloniales eclusi0ement dans le cadre des con6u=tes. (e discoursillustré implicite demeure similaire au 'ournal des o!ages. (es indignessont certes indispensa%les, mais en tant 6u)eécutants. )’Illustration !ournittoute!ois da0antage d)éléments mettant en perspecti0e le corps d)armée. (a0ision su%alterne persiste, mais les identi!ications géographi6ues,culturelles, nominales donnent une représentation moins stéréotypée dessoldats.

Le! trou4e! cooniae! dan! a Grande Guerre(e H aot B, )’Illustration entre sym%oli6uement en guerre, a0ec

On ne passe pas de Georges "cott. ?n prenant pour suet &héroq6ue, non plus l)o!!icier, mais le soldat d)in!anterie, la une epose la nou0elleorientation du ournal 6uant au é0énements. (es premires semainess)orientent 0ers la mise en place d)un discours illustré optimiste, glorieu etcon!iant 6ui est in0ersement proportionnel au images péorati0es,dé0alorisantes et dé!aitistes accolées < l)Allemagne2. C)est dans ce

2 )’Illustration, 22 aot B, Correspondance militaire - ... Nous 0enons de... nousallons <... &il ne !aut pas le dire o ni malade, ni %lessé tout 0a trs %ien... -, 2 aot

)’Illustration, B a0ril HHK, Nos auiliaires indignes auon8in 7 irailleurs ton8inoiset annamites 1 _ )VIllustration



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contete iconographi6ue 6ue les soldats des colonies apparaissent pour la premire !ois le 22 aot B : (a 3rance entire passe . (a gra0uremontre un wagon ou0ert, < l)arr=t, d)o s)entassent des tirailleurs coloniau,ra0itaillés par une !emme. (e tete et lFimage posent eplicitement l)entraideet l)unité, tout en reprenant un ton paternaliste.

Dans un pays en é%ullition, o 0i%rent, con!ondues dans un m=me %elli6ueuenthousiasme, les races de toutes les pro0inces, o la nation armée tout entire se rued)un seul élan 0ers les !rontires Z...\ des 'arisiens r=0eurs 6ui n)ont pas 0oyagé ,des %anlieusards surtout, auront pu, ces ours derniers, saluer au passage descom%attants 6ui 0iennent du plus loin o s)étend le sceptre paternel de la 3rance, etles com%ler de !leurs, et leur 0erser < %oire : les turcos , comme on les appelait

autre!ois, 6ui, dans la précédente guerre !ranco-allemande, a0aient su !ortdéconcerter nos ad0ersaires en maintes rencontres, - les tirailleurs indignes, dansles rangs des6uels marchent coude < coude de %londs !ils de la métropole 6uel)amour des a0entures poussa < 6uel6ue engagement sensationnel, des 9er%res auteint pres6ue aussi clair, des Ara%es au ne/ a6uilin, et us6u)< des noirs du plus %elé%ne, en!ants du torride "oudan.

()éloignement géographi6ue et l)organisation générale orientent les premires images 0ers les soldats du Maghre%. Alors 6ue les soldats noirsarri0ent ds septem%re B, il !aut attendre P pour 6ue l)iconographieconsacre un reportage < la mo%ilisation indochinoise et océanienne@. (amo%ilisation est également l)occasion de présenter l)enrlement dans lescolonies. (e + octo%re B, lFarticle Nos contingents algériens ettunisiens de la 3rance a0ance &eagérément 6ue neu! mille se sont

présentés en une seule ournée . ?n cal6uant la structure de )a $oce juieau &aroc de Delacroi, la photogra0ure souligne lFealtation des troupes enles représentant en marche dynami6ue, tam%our %attant.

(es premires images s)intéressent aussi au troupes dans leurssingularités géographi6ues, physi6ues et culturelles, dans la guerre. (e 2no0em%re B, )’Illustration !ait un reportage sur 1n 0illage de pailloteset de huttes a!ricaines, construit en 6uin/e ours par nos artilleurs de lacin6uime armée . ?n présentant l)ha%itat spéci!i6ue des tirailleurs,

l)article illustré met en é0idence une distinction entre les hommes. (aséparation se retrou0e aussi dans les cro6uis des champs de %ataille de B6ui se concentrent uni6uement sur les métropolitains. Cet état de !ait répond

B, (eur !a;on !aire la guerre . une semaine d)inter0alle, les deu gra0ures serépondent. (a premire présente, dans un cadre champ=tre, l)allant d)un soldat !ran;ais,tandis 6ue la seconde epose un soldat allemand piétinant des cada0res, de0ant une 0ille en!eu.@ )’Illustration, 2 a0ril P , Nos recrues d)Asie, d)A!ri6ue et d)Océanie .



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d)a%ord < une réalité militaire o les troupes mites sont relati0ement rares les disparités langagires o%ligent < regrouper les soldats selon desimpérati!s stratégi6ues.

(es premires mises en images des troupes coloniales restent attachées aucourant général, dominées par l)enthousiasme et la !raternité, mais desdi!!érenciations su%sistent. Wuantitati0ement et thémati6uement, les troupescoloniales ne se trou0ent ni totalement identi!iées au représentations desmétropolitains ni des troupes étrangres, 6ui, %ien 6ue !igurées, restenttraitées super!iciellement. (a dou%le page, )es noueau@ rois mages, de

(ucien Jonas caractérise le traitement iconographi6ue de )VIllustration !aceau troupes des colonies lors des premiers mois.

’Illustration, septem%re B,*enriot, (es cro6uis de lasemaine : Wuand les alliésseront tous réunis : union de cur,con!usion de langues... - Do youspea8 ?nglish... - Macache %ono... -

'arle/ donc %elge, sais-tu... ._ )VIllustration



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Wuelle est cette scne ... Mais oui : cet en!ant... ces présents... ces gestesd)adoration... et la date 6ue 0iennent mar6uer nos calendriers, - Nol l)intention, latrou0aille de l)artiste éclatent < nos yeu. Ce sont %ien les !ils des rois mages, le"énégalais, l)$ndien, l)Ara%e, 6ui o!!rent leurs hum%les richesses < un petit en!ant

%elge, é0eillé dans une !erme de 3landre o les ra0ages de la guerre n)ont laissé

de%out 6ue l)éta%le. ?t %eaucoup d)autres a0ec eu sont accourus 0ers ce coin dumonde o %rillait une étoile plus %elle. (e soldat !ran;ais présente son ouet : unsoldat l)Tcossais oue de la cornemuse... tous les Alliés sont l<, apportant au petiten!ant %elge leur !oi, leur dé0ouement... et la (i%ération, la Déli0rance.

?n reprenant un moti! classi6ue de l)iconographi6ue chrétienne, Jonassym%olise lFespérance pour un a0enir meilleur, a0ec la résurrection, non plusdu sau0eur, mais %ien de l)armée par les troupes coloniales. "igni!ié par lesym%ole des rois mages, l)éloignement géographi6ue 6ui, aupara0antérigeait une !rontire, de0ient l< une !orme de reconnaissance et rappelle enm=me temps lForigine des hommes. *ormis les #usses, la représentation

mar6ue l)unicité de l)armée, a0ec l)inclusion des soldats européens. la di!!érence de )’Illustration, )e journal des o!ages est directementtouché par la guerre. (a pu%lication cesse le aout B, puis reprend du Bmars K au uillet K. Ds la reprise, l)illustré consacre des

photogra0ures < Nos ca0aliers d)A!ri6ue . ()iconographie présente unreportage documentaire sur le campement des spahis, < l)arrire. l)instarde )’Illustration, on note une réelle !ascination pour les soldats des $ndes :

)’Illustration, 2P décem%re B, (ucien Jonas, (es nou0eau rois mages . _ )VIllustration



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(es guerriers hindous en 3rance B puis, < partir du K mai K, Macampagne a0ec l)armée des $ndes . Malgré l)engouement pour les $ndiens,les troupes coloniales !ran;aises sont peu représentées les 6uel6ues moisde parution limitent la production. A0ant l)interruption, le ournal illustre lestroupes coloniales selon la mise en images des con6u=tes &di!!érenciation,héroqsation. Dans les rangs de nos tirailleurs - #ace ara%e et %er%re K,illustré par trois portraits anthropométri6ues, l)article traite des di!!érencesraciales au sein des tirailleurs. $l rappelle aussi l)union de l)armée pourl)o%ecti! commun : Z...\ autour du drapeau tricolore, il n)y aura pas detirailleurs tunisiens, algériens, marocains, sénégalais, il n)y aura pas de9er%res ou d)Ara%es, mais seulement des soldats !ran;ais . (a

glori!ication est mise en images a0ec le !ront camerounais. (ors des6uel6ues mois de parution, l)iconographie du 'ournal des o!ages secaractérise da0antage par une germanopho%ie et un courant russophileP.

B )e 'ournal des o!ages, 2 mars K, Marseille nos soldats se rangeaient sur le passage des *indous pour leur o!!rir des !leurs et leur distri%uer des cadeau sans parler lam=me langue, ces !rres d)armes s)entendaient < mer0eille . K )e 'ournal des o!ages, B a0ril K.P )e 'ournal des o!ages, 2K a0ril K, Comment les cosa6ues sa0ent mourir - "urordre de l)o!!icier, les soldats allemands etrent la terre a pelletées dans la !osse, et lescosa6ues destinés < =tre ense0elis 0i0ants entonnrent l)hymne russe, attendant la mort .



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)e 'ournal des o!ages, B uillet K, (aguerre en A!ri6ue - *éros d)Outre-Mer .

)e 'ournal des 0oyages, K mai K, Ma campagne a0ec l)armée des $ndes .



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Le! trou4e! au 6ront'aradoalement, si les troupes coloniales ne sont pas représentées sur les

champs de %ataille en B, elles !igurent parmi lFiconographie du retour des %lessés. (e an0ier K, le ournal !ait paraitre U)a 9on 5eleti8iraoré 6ui a donné son sang pour la 3rance, re;oit ses étrennes L. "ur unlit-hpital, un tirailleur sénégalais re;oit les %ons soins de deu in!irmires.(Fimage est lourde de sens elle mar6ue lFinclusion des troupes colonialesdans une prati6ue culturelle !ran;aise &étrenne, dans une logi6uedFassimilation puis, elle sym%olise en m=me temps lFimage de la 3rance

protectrice de ses soldats en!in, cFest encore implicitement lFunion deshommes et de la nation 6ue lFimage 0éhicule. ()iconographie des %lessés est

l)occasion de présenter les rites !unéraires des soldats musulmansH. ?na%ordant les prati6ues religieuses des soldats d)A!ri6ue du Nord,

)’Illustration commence < élargir les thmes accolés au soldats coloniau.Certes, le ournal poursuit dans la distinction &mortuaire, mais le rled)auiliaire laisse peu < peu place < celui d)un soldat consacré < part entire.()enlisement du con!lit a%olit plus encore les !rontires. (es troupescoloniales se normalisent. (e H mai K, (e rideau de lourdes 0apeursasphyiantes , de (ucien Jonas, gra0e la mort 6ui !auche sans distinction.(ors6ue le ournal cou0re le nau!rage du )usitania, )’Illustration o!!re une

planche en couleurs, (a Guerre des nations , de Maurice Orange. tra0ers les soldats, o man6uent seulement les Océaniens et $ndochinois,Orange associe tous les corps d)armés. (a %ataille des Dardanelleshomogénéise encore la représentation des troupes coloniales. (es hommesapparaissent < l)arrire ou dans des tranchées de !ortune.

partir de K, la mise en image se di0ise en deu ensem%les. 1n premier segment se caractérise par les troupes coloniales au !ront, sous unmode laudati! et documentaire2+. T0idemment, dans un contete d)e!!ort deguerre, le traitement héroq6ue des troupes coloniales reoint l)image des

poilus et autres soldats alliés. ()héroqsme n)est pas un élémentcaractéristi6ue des troupes coloniales, mais %ien du soldat. (a 0aillancecon!irme l)homogénéisation du traitement iconographi6ue 6ui se poursuit

encore a0ec les représentations artisti6ues caractérisant la seconde

L Nous supposons 6ue la photogra0ure est la matrice de la pu%licité U)a %on %anania .H )’Illustration, @+ an0ier K, (ucien Jonas, 3unérailles musulmanes au cimetire de'antin . )’Illustration, @ uillet K, (a %ataille du B uin, sur mer et sur terre auDardanelles .2+ )’Illustration, an0ier K, Nos héroq6ues soldats noirs - une phase tragi6ue d)unsanglant complot .



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perspecti0e imagée de )VIllustration1 (ucien Jonas, Georges "cott et particulirement 3ran;ois 3lameng !ournissent des u0res artisti6ues 6ui prennent pour suet les hommes des colonies, < l)eemple des #uines del)église de Dompierre . ()arrire-plan est !ormé par des ruines, tracéesner0eusement au premier plan, décentrés sur la gauche, trois soldats assisscrutent l)hori/on. (e plus < gauche nous !ie, au centre, un soldat regardeau loin tandis 6ue le troisime se tourne 0ers le paysage désolé. (es troishommes sont immo%iles. (a peinture sem%le silencieuse. Ni eotisme2, nihéroqsme, la guerre s)eprime ici dans toute sa désolation. On rel0e unsouci de 0raisem%lance, notamment par l)ha%illement, et en m=me tempsune poéti6ue de l)a!!liction, a0ec l)utilisation de tons !roids. 'eut-on

interpréter ces u0res comme une réponse au criti6ues !ormulées parl)Allemagne et certains milieu !ran;ais concernant l)utilisation des troupesindignes 22 ?n partie, sans doute, néanmoins, cette production ne di!!reni sur la !orme ni sur le !ond d)autres reproductions artisti6ues prenant poursuet le soldat.

2 (Feotisme persiste dans lFiconographie des soldats maghré%ins, o lFha%illement et larécurrence de représentations é6uestres ren0oient < une généalogie artisti6ue eoti6ue etorientaliste. Cf1 )Villustration, 2P !é0rier P, Georges "cott, Goumiers dans les3landres )Villustration, 2P mai L, 3ran;ois 3lameng, A%reu0oir des saphis, au "udde la "omme .22 3#TM?A1^ J., o-1 cit1 p. LP.



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Loyai!+e et +otivation! 4oiti7ue!Au milieu des louanges et de l)héroqsme, on rel0e la persistance de

dissonances iconographi6ues, 6ui perpétuent une !rontire entre les soldats.9ien 6ue les cas de dé!ections des soldats colonisés soient relati0ement

%as2@, )’Illustration insiste sur le loyalisme : (e loyalisme musulman <9ondou8ou , @ uin P ou encore, le 2@ octo%re K, lors d)un

reportage sur une eposition !ranco-marocaine, un dessin d)en!ants)appesantit sur le loyalisme marocain. ourné 0ers les opérationseuropéennes militaires, )’Illustration ignore, é0ite ou censure lessoul0ements populaires dans les colonies. (e loyalisme illustré peut alorss)interpréter de di!!érentes !a;ons il apporte une réponse au criti6ues surl)armée coloniale il eprime l)attachement des soldats colonisés < la mre

2@ Ibid ., p. HP-H.

)VIllustration, H mai K, Maurice Orange, (a guerre des nations . _ )VIllustration

)VIllustration, no0em%re P, Ceu 6ui ont repris Douaumont ._ )VIllustration )VIllustration, K mai L, 3ran;ois 3lameng,

#uines de lFéglise de Dompierre . _ )VIllustration



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patrie, dans une période d)insta%ilité dans les colonies c)est peut-=tre aussiune manire de répondre au re0endications li%ertaires des colonisés. ?ntant 6ue ournal d)in0estigation, l)illustré est-il conscient des eneu

politi6ues autour des troupes coloniales $l est di!!icile de trancher. Néanmoins, un reportage sur des soldats musulmans %lessés a%orde lesmoti0ations de l)engagement et constitue une reconnaissance du sacri!ice2B.

- ?t pour6uoi, lui dis-e, es-tu 0enu guerroyer pour nous, toi un homme religieu Cette 6uestion le scandalise. $l rel0e sa t=te en0eloppée d)un grand tur%an %leu et,

etant en a0ant ses %ras s6ueletti6ues : - 'arce 6ue la 3rance est notre mre "i oninsulte une mre, est-ce 6ue ses !ils ne doi0ent accourir pour la dé!endre - ?t 6ue

penses-tu de la guerre C)est une guerre de tom%eau, mais la ustice en estressuscitée pour nous Maintenant les 3ran;ais et les Ara%es sont égau. On ne nousappelle dé< plus des bicots, on nous appelle des sidis. (e sang du 0aincu a coulé unia0ec le sang du 0ain6ueur. Auourd)hui nous sommes 0érita%lement 0os !rres, etc)est pour cela 6ue cette guerre sera une guerre %énie entre toutes parmi les peuplesara%es.

"i l)on accorde du crédit au tete, les soldats musulmans sont conscients deseneu liés < la guerre. 9ien 6ue l)article pose en négati! un ton paternaliste,il montre aussi 6ue la dette du sang doit réorganiser les relations entrecolonisés et colonisateurs.

partir de L, la production d)images sur les troupes coloniales

%aisse, < l)instar de celle des poilus. ()enlisement du con!lit, les mutineries,la dé!ection du !ront est et l)entrée en guerre des T.-1. réorganisent la

politi6ue éditoriale du ournal2K. (es reportages s)é6uili%rent entrel)actualité militaire et les 6uestions de géopoliti6ues notons 6uF< partir deH, les troupes américaines accaparent une grande partie del)iconographie. (a guerre s)ach0e en remettant < l)honneur le soldatmétropolitain, et hormis les Américains, les troupes coloniales et étrangresn)apparaissent dé< plus.

?ntre B et H, l)iconographie des troupes coloniales ré0le un passage du statut d)auiliaire < celui de !rre d)armes. 9ien 6u)< la !in de laguerre, les troupes coloniales disparaissent, il est a%usi! de parler d)ou%li. (e

ournal s)oriente 0ers une célé%ration du dénouement et relgue l)in!anterie,métropolitaine ou coloniale, au pro!it des o!!iciers et personnalités

2B )’Illustration, 2K septem%re K, Myriam *arry, illustré par J. "imont, Noscon0alescent musulmans < #oyan .2K 'our les Ttats-1nis cf1 )’Illustration, @ aot H, 1ne solidité amitié nouée de0antCh>teau-hierry . 'our la #ussie cf . )’Illustration, B septem%re H, 'etrograd sous lacommune .



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politi6ues de la Grande Guerre. ()iconographie des troupes coloniales estsomme toute sta%le et en adé6uation a0ec le contete iconographi6ue du

ournal2P. ()héroqsme est souligné, 0alorisé et eploité. (es /ones som%res,comme les opérations de paci!ication ou les soul0ements dans les colonies,notamment lors des périodes de recrutement !orcé, sont passés sous silence,< l)instar des désertions des soldats métropolitains. 'ar des artistes comme3lameng et "cott, la reconnaissance est mani!este, mais une productionrappelle des di!!érences. 3inalement, la mise en images des troupescoloniales illustre par!aitement le concept dé0eloppé par *annah Arendt, etrepris également che/ Jean-'ierre Do/on, o les colonisés sont 0us < la!ois en !rres et en suets 2L.

Le !odat i+4)ria )e 'ournal des o!ages reprend la pu%lication le 2@ octo%re 2B. 9ien

6u)il continue < pu%lier des romans d)a0entures et des reportagesgéographi6ues, il s)oriente progressi0ement 0ers le tourisme et les nou0eaumoyens de transport < partir de 2H, le ournal prend comme sous-titre ."ourisme9+cience9+-orts. (a réorientation éditoriale touche l)espacecoloniale. *ormis la guerre du #i!!, 6ui reprend la mise en images descon6u=tes, les colonies de0iennent des lieu de passages et d)a0entures pourles raids motorisés2H. A0ant la guerre, le ournal s)est peu préoccupé de la

paci!ication et de la mise en 0aleur. Aprs, l)iconographie propose desreportages descripti!s sur la 0ie au colonies, o les réalisations !ran;aisessont mises < l)honneur 2. Alors 6ue des contestations apparaissent < demultiples endroits dans l)espace colonial, le lecteur du 'ournal des o!agesreste < l)écart. "eule, l)$nde a le droit < un reportage. (e 2K !é0rier 2P, Wuand l)$nde s)agite portraiture les opposants le ton est mo6ueur etl)auteur ridiculise l)opposition indienne.

)’Illustration dé0eloppe aussi une iconographie sur le tourisme. (a période de deuil et la reconstruction de la 3rance e!!acent peu < peu les

2P 1ne seule image oue ironi6uement sur le thme de la sau0agerie du soldat colonial. i

0iens 0oir le sau0age , 2L an0ier K, de Jonas, présente un enclos de soldats allemands,gardé par un tirailleur. ?n demandant i 0iens 0oir le sau0age , en désignant lesAllemands, lFimage in0erse et déplace dé!initi0ement un signe récurrent des représentationsaccolées au con6u=tes coloniales au nou0el ennemi.2L A#?ND, *annah. )’im-érialisme. 'aris : 3ayard, H2 DOXON, Jean-'ierre. r4reset sujets1 )a rance et l’Afrique en -ers-ectie. 'aris : 3lammarion, [email protected] )e 'ournal des o!ages, 2 no0em%re 2K, tra0ers le continent noir - le raidCitron .2 partir de 2P le ournal cou0re régulirement lF?mpire a0ec la ru%ri6ue : Notre?mpire colonial .



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soldats d)in!anterie les inaugurations de monuments au morts rappellenttoute!ois l)apport des troupes coloniales@+. la di!!érence du 'ournal deso!ages, )’Illustration s)intéresse au trou%les dans les colonies. (e com%atde Gandhi recueille une cou0erture médiati6ue importante. Wuant au luttesdes colonisés !ran;ais, elles sont rarement dé0eloppées et restent

pau0rement illustrées. Dans le Nord-Annam trou%lé par la propagandecommuniste , l)article et les photogra0ures représentent < la !ois les dég>tsoccasionnés par les communistes & (égionnaires réparant un pont détruit

par la !orce et la !orce coloniale & Arrestation de 6uatre communistessaisis a0ec des drapeau so0iéti6ues . On le per;oit, les trou%les 0iennentd)a%ord de l)etérieur dans la série d)articles Wue se passe-t-il en A!ri6ue

du Nord @, l)élément pertur%ateur 0ient aussi de l)etérieur. oute!ois,aucun des articles ne dé0eloppe une iconographie distincte les

photogra0ures restent rares. l)instar du 'ournal des o!ages, )’Illustrations)attarde da0antage sur la mise en 0aleur de l)?mpire, notamment lors ducentenaire de l)Algérie et de l)eposition coloniale de @, 6ui sontrichement illustrés. ?!!acées depuis la !in de la guerre, les troupes colonialesnFapparaissent plus un article dénonce cependant 0igoureusement la honte noire . Or, la disparition ne signi!ie pas la li6uidation du suet. On

peut m=me a0ancer 6ue l)iconographie de la mise en 0aleur de l)?mpire prend comme sou%assement le soldat indigne. 'ar eemple, lors de lacou0erture médiati6ue de l)eposition coloniale de @, l)auteur rappelleen introduction l)apport des troupes : 3aut-il rappeler 6uel a été, durant laguerre, le puissant secours 6ue nous ont apporté nos colonies - alors m=me6ue leur outillage était des plus insu!!isants Outre les 2+.+++ de leursen!ants 6ui sont 0enus généreusement 0erser leur sang sur nos champs de

%ataille ou contri%uer comme tra0ailleurs < la dé!ense nationale, elles nousont !ourni leur ri/, leur maqs, leur sucre, leur ca!é, leur huile et leurrhum @2. ?t us6u)< la "econde Guerre mondiale, la maorité des articlesdé%utent, citent ou con0o6uent le soldat indigne, non en tant 6ue suet,mais comme signe implicite glorieu de lF?mpire. (a presse illustrée!onctionne dans une logi6ue sérielle intertetuelleIintericoni6ue. C)est-<-

dire, au sein de )’Illustration et, spéci!i6uement dans l)iconographiecoloniale, des !igures centrales permettent de construire des relationseistantes &par!ois schémati6ues parmi les actualités coloniales. (ors des

@+ )’Illustration, 2 !é0rier 2B, ()inauguration du monument au morts de l)Arméed)A!ri6ue Ibid1, L an0ier 2H, la mémoire des soldats musulmans morts pour la3rance .@ Articles parus du H au 2 aot @P, puis du an0ier @L au 2+ !é0rier @L.@2 )’Illustration, aot @, ()eposition coloniale de @ .





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#eproduction a0ec lFaima%le autorisation de )VIllustration

So6iane TAO9C%IC%ET1ni0ersité 'aris Ouest Nanterre la Dé!ense, 1ni0ersité de Montréal

)VIllustration, 5Q aoXt 56:5, Y #ro-agandeallemande Z )a 0onte noire » : (a !iction

7 1ne prise de 0ues %ien réglée : commentdes noirs, recrutés par lFentreprisecinématographi6ue ilm <rGfstelle deMunich, et costumés en %leu hori/on,surprennent et enl0ent une %londe artiste6ui oue le rle de la eune #hénane 6uFunche0aleres6ue Allemand essaie en 0ain de

protéger . _ )VIllustration

)VIllustration, @ aot 2, 'ropagande

allemande 7 (a *onte noire : (a réalité 7 1n tirailleur sénégalais authenti6ue, photographié < Mayence en , a0ec deude ses 0ictimes . _ )VIllustration



+ofiane "aouchichet

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Ouvra-e! cit)!

A#?ND, *annah. )’im-érialisme. 'aris : 3ayard, H2.

9ACO, Jean-'ierre. )a -resse illustrée au WIWe si4cle . une histoire

oubliée1 (imoges : '1($M, 2++K.

9ACO, Jean-'ierre. (e rle des maga/ines illustrés dans la construction

du nationalisme au ^$ê sicle et au dé%ut du ^ê sicle . (éseau@

nV+L, *erms "ciences pu%lications, 2++, pp.2PK-2@. Zen ligne\

consulté !é0rier 2+@. 1#( :

http:IIwww.cairn.in!oIarticle.php$DjA#$C(?#?"j+Lj+2PK

9ANC?(, Nicolas, 9(ANC*A#D, 'ascal, G?#S?#?A1, (aurent. &dirs.

Images et colonies . -ro-agande coloniale sur lVAfrique franKaise de

5MM8 56O:1 'aris : 9D$CIAC*AC, @.

9(ANC*A#D, 'ascal, D?#OO, Tric. Du "au0age au 9on Noir. (e sens

de l)image dans si représentations du tirailleur sénégalaises . ictionsde lVétranger , Wuasimodo, nV P, printemps 2+++, pp. PL-L.

DOXON, Jean-'ierre. r4res et sujets1 )a rance et l’Afrique en -ers-ectie. 'aris : 3lammarion, 2++@.

3OGA#U, #ichard. (ace and /ar in rance . colonial subjects in the

rench arm!, 565R9565M. 9altimore : Johns *op8ins 1n0ersity 'ress,

2++H.

MA9$#?, Jean-Christophe. )a re-résentation iconogra-hique des colonies

franKaises traers les -ériodiques franKais illustrés =5MM5956Q6>. hse

de doctorat, 'aris : $?', L.

M?UN$?#, Gil%ert et *O9$?, Jac6ues. 0istoire de la rance coloniale II

)VA-ogée . 5M75956Q51 'aris : Armand Colin, P.



+ofiane "aouchichet

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M$C*?(, Marc. "oldats a!ricains de l)armée !ran;aise : mémoires etdé%ats . )V*uro-e face son -assé colonial . 'aris : #i0eneu0e éditions,2++H..

3#TM?A1^, Jac6ues. )es colonies dans la 2rande 2uerre . combats et

é-reues des -eu-les d’outre9mer . "aint-Cloud : ?ditions B-H, 2++P.

G$#A#D?, #aoul. )Vidée coloniale en rance . de 5M75 56O:1 'aris :

*achette, 2++K.

(?O1#N?1^, Matthieu. (a colonisation comme un roman #écits de

!iction, récits documentaires et idéologie dans le Journal des 0oyages .

Idéologie et stratégies argumentaties dans les récits im-rimés de grande

diffusion, 9elphégor, $^, , 2++. Zen ligne\ consulté an0ier 2+@.

http:IIetc.dal.caI%elphegorI0oljnoIarticlesI+j+jlettoujcolonij!r.html

MA#C*AND$A1, Jean-Nol. )’Illustration journal uniersel, ie et mort

d’un journal, 5MRQ956RR. oulouse : 'ri0at, HH.



+B

$A"T

IMAGES OF DECOLONIZATION IN AF"ICA







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colonialistes en P mais dont le nom soule0a maintes !ois les peuples duCongo.

()image de N8rumah en0eloppé dans une toge est peut-=tre une des plusmar6uantes. Cette apparition pu%li6ue du héros ghanéen et de ses ministres!it date. Ces 0=tements a0aient en outre une no%lesse toute romaine. 'ourmoi 6ui 0écus ces années en A!ri6ue, re0oir ces images sans émotion estimpossi%le.

I L*o+bre et a u+i?re dan! *id)oo-ie cooniae (es peuples etés dans les tén%res par l)idéologie coloniale,

manichéenne et 0iolente, tentaient alors de sortir de l)om%re. ()espoir était

immense de recommencer une histoire de l)homme. 'our cela il !allait partirdes damnés de la terre a!ricains, ceu dont on disait 6u)ils n)étaient ni suetsde l)histoire, ni ci0ilisés, ni m=me compltement humains, ceu 6ui necomptaient pas, les bo!s, les porteurs, les indig4nes &le terme indi6ue unecatégorie uridi6ue in!érieure. $ls étaient les millions sacri!iés au progrsd)une autre race : nul ne sa0ait ou ne 0oulait sa0oir 6ue le %assin du Congoa0ait perdu la moitié de ses ha%itants ni 6ue les colonnes sanglantes deSoulet et Chanoine massacraient des 0illages entiers, nul ne s)interrogeaitsur l)ampleur des !amines d)un continent eportateur de céréales a0antl)épo6ue coloniale.

(es 0=tements traditionnels a!!ichés en cette occasion o!!icielle par lesacteurs les plus importants de l)actualité ghanéenne du moment ren0ersaientl)ordre du monde. Durant la colonisation en e!!et, les durbars montraientdes A!ricains en costumes traditionnels paradant de0ant les responsa%lesterritoriau %lancs 0=tus < l)européenne. (e décor de la cérémonie coloniale!aisait donc %rus6uement irruption sur le de0ant de la scne. (es hommes del)om%re apparaissent en pleine lumire, < la tri%une principale, sur lesmarches d)un escalier prestigieu, et récusaient les tén%res o ils !urentlongtemps con!inés.

II Ind)4endance et r)de+4tion

'our signi!ier encore plus clairement 6ue les hommes en toge étaient lesmaQtres du eu, ils s)étaient munis de %>tons de che!. Nous ne pou0ons < ce suet 6ue rappeler l)importance du %>ton de Moqse.

Or N8rumah a0ait lu la 9i%le et il sa0ait 6ue les peuples opprimés a0ec lacomplicité de certains missionnaires naq!s et mal !ormés politi6uement,a0aient retenu la charge su%0ersi0e de l)histoire de l)?ode. Ghanéens et

Nigérians lisaient assidument la 9i%le et le #ilgrim’s #rogress. (es annéesentre les deu guerres mondiales a0aient 0u se le0er des prophtes



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a!ricains : Matchoua au Congo-9ra//a0ille, 5im%angou au Congo-5inshasa, les pr=cheurs to8oq de l)Angola, *arry hu8u au 5enya, leséglises sionistes et éthiopiennes d)A!ri6ue du "ud[ $ls !urent les premiersmem%res des élites !ormées par l)étranger et ils surent se montrer de dignes!ils de l)A!ri6ue. $ls prononcrent contre tous les dangers une parole de

ustice < la !ois chrétienne et a!ricaine. 'ersécutés, martyrisés, ils semrentde %onnes graines pour ceu 6ui les sui0irent. N8rumah n)est-il pas leursuccesseur de par son titre : l)osag!efo, le rédempteur

out nationaliste de haut 0ol est, depuis ces anc=tres de l)a0enir, un prophte.

III Sen! et 4ui!!ance du !y+boi7ue 'remire o%ection : l)ha%it ne !ait pas le moine, le 0=tement est un

déguisement, une illusion (a !ausse indépendance se %erce de spectacles.(a maQtrise est touours entre les mains des armées et des compagniesoccidentales.

(a parade < la6uelle se pr=tent N8rumah et ses ministres a en réalité plusieurs %uts stratégi6ues.

9alandier :

Il ! a un -oint que nous aons négligé dans nos ra--orts aec l’Afrique1 Ces

ciilisations qui n’ont recours ni l’écriture =ou si -eu> ni au lire ont -rooqué desdémarches intellectuelles et des e@-ressions l!riques que nous sommes mal -ré-arés com-rendre1 =Q87>

$ncluons parmi ces gestes celui de s)ha%iller d)une certaine !a;on etcontinuons < sui0re Georges 9alandier.

(a parole et le geste y prennent une importance 6ue nous sous-estimons, yconser0ent un caractre de sérieu pres6ue sacré. Wuel6ues écoles et 6uel6uesmissions n)y ont pas changé cet état de choses. (ors6ue nous pri0ons le Noir desmoyens d)epression 6ui lui appartiennent en propre, nous lui !aisons su%ir la pluslourde des contraintes[ Mais cela n)est pas seul en cause. Au moment m=me o

l)A!ricain se trou0e culturellement dépossédé, on l)introduisait dans le systmed)une économie compta%le, < la6uelle rien ne le préparait on le proetait dans desentreprises o il de0enait une !orce de tra0ail anonyme. Cet e!!acement de la mar6ue

personnelle, dans les relations de la 0ie 6uotidienne et les rapports a0ec les choses, aren!orcé en l)aggra0ant notre atta6ue contre les ci0ilisations ngres. &@+

Ainsi la ré0olution anticolonialiste est-elle autant une ré0olution contrel)impersonnalité créée par la domination du 6uantitati! sur le 6ualitati!, de



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l)indi0idu a%strait sur l)homme concret, c)est-<-dire un com%at contre lese!!ets du capitalisme, 6u)une protestation contre la misre et la dépossession

politi6ue. ()ou0rier 0end sa !orce de tra0ail comme s)il était une simplemarchandise puis se met au ser0ice d)une machine comme s)il en était unsimple rouage. (a dimension de lutte pour la dignité est incontourna%le. (esGhanéens sa0ent en outre 6u)< la dépossession de l)ou0rier s)oppose le

prestige et le sa0oir-!aire incompara%le de l)artisan. Or les tissus utilisés parles che!s de la nou0elle nation en cette occasion ont un nom, le ;ente,résultat d)un tra0ail 6ui nécessite une eceptionnelle adresse dont !irent

preu0e les ghanéens du passé : ces pagnes super%es sont !aits en dé!ilant des pices de coton et de soie pour en mélanger les !ils. Ce passé méprisé, reeté

hors de l)histoire par l)ordre capitaliste et le racisme impérialiste, y re0ientdonc par la grande porte.

()apparition en costume traditionnel est un choc salutaire 6ue 9alandierne surestime pas plus 6u)il ne le nie lors6u)il décrit les attentes populaires.

Wuant au masses, 6ui donnent au parti gou0ernemental sa puissance, elles sontlittéralement séduites. ?lles scandent a0ec i0resse le slogan (i%erté (i%erté (i%erté Ce 6ui signi!ie pour elles d)une manire immédiate : li%erté d)=treA!ricain et sans honte. ?lles sont liées par des serments 6ui ont toute la 0aleur desanciens engagements. ?lles idéalisent leur che!, lui décou0rant tous les attri%uts d)unmessie et d)un !aiseur de miracles, 0oyant en lui un rédempteur, un Mahatmaa!ricain, une porte ou0erte sur l)a0enir de l)A!ri6ue. &@+

")e!!acent alors 2P ans de domination humiliante.

I> Inve!tir *Etat Certes, la mise en scne porte des !ruits 6ue recueille l)élite. Mais ne

nous trompons pas d)épo6ue. ()A!ri6ue se lance < l)assaut de la machine politi6ue coloniale et l)apparition de ces hommes en ;ente illustre cemoment de lutte.

()?tat c)est l)élite, sem%lent-ils nous dire, ou, plus eactement pour N8rumah, l)a0ant-garde. Ce n)est nullement par 0anité ou désir de

manipulation 6u)ils se pr=tent < ce eu, mais pour !aire comprendre l)étape politi6ue 6ue tra0erse le pays. ?n KL le pourcentage de cadres!onctionnaires étranger est de LK . (es uges, les hauts !onctionnaires de

police, les o!!iciers sont %lancs. (a politi6ue du gou0ernement élu peut =tresa%otée par l)administration anglaise locale et par les pou0oirs 6ue conser0e(ondres. $l !aut donc 6ue l)eécuti! a!ricanise les cadres, il !aut in0estirl)?tat, un o%ecti! 6u)illustre !ort ha%ilement l)apparition des ministres et de

N8rumah en toges traditionnelles. ?n P ans N8rumah 0a d)ailleurs in0erser



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les statisti6ues si dé!a0ora%les < l)élite a!ricaine : en P@ les !onctionnairesnon-ghanéens seront +,P . &Xiegler, K

"ans cet e!!ort de !ormation et l)adresse de N8rumah l)indépendancen)aurait rien signi!ié.

> >aincre a 6)odait) 1ne autre dimension stratégi6ue est < rele0er.(a colonisation instrumentalise < son pro!it la !éodalité a!ricaine. (es

che!s se 0oient donner des !onctions importantes 6uant au contrle de laterre et la ustice. ?lle en !ait des consultants et des courroies de

transmission. (ors6ue monte le nationalisme %ourgeois, plus 6ue amais, lacolonisation se tourne 0ers les rois et empereurs du passé. ?lle in0ente desconstitutions o ils tiennent la cham%re haute et o les collges électoraudé!orment le su!!rage uni0ersel. ?lle pré!re aussi les constitutions!édérales. Dans ces con!igurations les che!s de0iennent les dé!enseurs deleurs régions contre les autres régions et ils contri%uent < rétrécir l)hori/on

politi6ue du peuple soudain ramené < des peurs tri%ales.Mais N8rumah a déoué les piges 6ue l)administration coloniale a0ait

semés sur sa route 0ers la li%erté. ?n KH la prati6ue du destooling lui permet d)éliminer du eu institutionnel un certain nom%re de !éodau. (eterme 0ient de stool , le %anc 6ui sym%olise la royauté. ()?mpireAshanti, créé au ^S$$e sicle par Osei outou et le pr=tre Ano8ye, na6uit le

our o descendit du ciel un trne d)or, le +i;a Dwa ou 2olden +tool . Osei outou prit soin de ne pas s)y assoir : il était le !ondateur de la nationmais non la nation. D)ailleurs Ano8ye !ut pour l)?tat aussi important 6ue leroi et un parlement &l)asentemanh!iamu les contrlait. N8rumah et sesministres 0eulent assurément laisser entendre 6u)ils ont repris le %>ton de lamain des che!s traditionnels compromis a0ec l)occupant, 6u)ils sont unenou0elle race de dirigeants, da0antage sem%la%les au grands !ondateurscomme Osei outou 6u)au créatures de l)administration coloniale.

A ces anc=tres 6ui !urent des rois responsa%les de0ant le peuple

assem%lé, l)agora pou0ait déclarer sans crainte :

Dis9luiFue nous ne oulons aucune aidité de sa -art,

$ous ne oulons -as que ses oreilles soient sourdes *t qu’il agisse de son -ro-re chef[ &Da0idson, P



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Ce 6u)es6uissent ces images de l)indépendance ghanéenne est unemodernité a!ricaine en proet et en chemin.

Miche NA9MANN1ni0ersité de Cergy-'ontoise

Ouvra-e! cit)!

9A(AND$?#, Georges. Afrique ambigu\1 'aris : 'lon, KL.

DAS$D"ON, 9asil. "he <lac; &an’s <urden1 (ondres . Currey 2.

X$?G(?#, Jean. +ociologie de la nouelle Afrique1 'aris : Gallimard, P.

Lien! !ur a toie +ondiae

http:IIuep.!r.gdI54AM?-N-h-5rumah.htm, consulté le 2+ a0ril 2+@.

http:[email protected], consulté le @+ a0ril 2+@.

http:IIa!roeuro.orgImaga/ineIpK+BL, consulté le @+ a0ril 2+@.

http:IIn8rumahcon!erence.comIhistory.htm, consulté le @+ a0ril 2+@.



2

C%A$TE"

M/U M/U 0 I!a+es and Decolonization of 1enya2

3ro! Black Sa*a+ery and Tribal Mysticis! to

-auntin+ &host

Ab!tract: he MA1 MA1 uprising has always con0eyed images reminiscent o!sa0agery and mysticism. Actually, images widespread through the o!!icialliterature, representations in newspapers or scenes %roadcast in some mo0ies li8e"im%a &KK, directed %y 9rian Desmond *urst, and "a!ari &KK depicted theMA1 MA1 mo0ement as merely a group o! nati0e A!ricans slitting the throats o!white !armers. One could e0en read on "a!ari)s co0er artwor8 this message: Asne0er %e!ore[ all the awesome spectacle and sa0agery o! dar8est A!rica[ inCinemascope.E 9y the same to8en, some 9ritish o!!icials li8e the Colonial"ecretary, Oli0er (ittleton, e0en saw in MA1 MA1 the per!ect em%odiment o!

%estiality and the de0il. Uet, not any o! those images dares to ac8nowledge any political in!luence o! the MA1 MA1 uprising on the timing o! decoloni/ation in5enya.

his paper !ocuses on the di!!erent images o! this uprising and their politicalimpact on the decoloni/ation process in 5enya. $t actually appears that thewidespread images o! dar8ness, secrecy, slayings, etc.... %rought a%out a ghostimage, once the mo0ement was crushed, that came to haunt and deeply in!luencethe decoloni/ation process in 5enya.

")!u+) : (a ré0olte MA1 MA1 a touours 0éhiculé une image é0o6uant %ar%arie,sau0agerie et mysticisme. Cette image a été largement di!!usée par les colonseuropéens et les autorités coloniales %ritanni6ues de l)épo6ue, par le %iais de la

presse, de pu%lications o!!icielles ou m=me dans des !ilms comme "im%a &KK,

MA1 MA1 a word o! uncertain pro0enance. here is much disagreement amongsources as to whether it is an actual word, while some claim that it is the name o! a range o!hills and others state that it was created %y 9ritish settlers to demean the re%els and ustsimpli!y the intricate organisational structure o! the insurgents.According to some 5enyans $ spo8e to, Mau Mau may also %e an acronym o! sorts:M/ungu Aende 9laya v Mwa!ri8a A pate 9huru.E his "wahili phrase may %e translatedinto ?nglish as: Y(et the white man go %ac8 in ?urope so that the A!rican can get hisindependence.Y



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par 9rian Desmond *urst, et "a!ari &KK. (e mou0ement MA1 MA1 est alorsdépeint comme étant tout simplement un groupe d)indignes A!ricains régressi!ségorgeant de pau0res !ermiers %lancs. Certains o!!iciels %ritanni6ues comme Oli0er(ittleton 0oyaient en ce mou0ement l)incarnation m=me de la %estialité et dudia%le. Cependant, aucune de ces représentations ne reconnaQt au acti0istes MA1MA1 6uel6ue re0endication politi6ue 6ue ce soit. Cet article s)intéresse audi!!érentes images liées < la ré0olte MA1 MA1 ainsi 6u)< son impact politi6ue surla décolonisation du 5enya. $l apparaQt en e!!et 6ue l)image o!!icielle liée au MA1MA1 cache une toute autre image celle relati0e < la !a;on %rutale par la6uelle les9ritanni6ues ont écrasé la ré0olte. ()opération militaire %ritanni6ue !ace ausoul0ement des MA1 MA1 a en e!!et mis en eu l)image m=me du #oyaume-1ni et la ré0olte n)a eu de cesse de hanter les esprits, m=me une !ois la guerre

terminée, autant au 5enya 6u)en Angleterre, mar6uant ainsi de son sceau le processus de décolonisation du 5enya.

5enya was the !irst A!rican territory to %e the site o! a war o!independence, e0en though the 9ritish authorities and settlers 8ept ondespising MA1 MA1 acti0ists and acts, denying them any political claimand e0en pretending that the situation was normal and that e0erything was

ust all right. As late as June K2 !or instance, there were many o!!icials in5enya, including the go0ernor, 'hilip Mitchell, who simply re!used torecognise that the colony was at %ay. 4hen commenting upon the situationin 5enya %e!ore his retirement in K2, the go0ernor stated his %elie! thatthe corner had %een turnedE. $ndeed, 'hilip Mitchell, on the e0e o! hisretirement, could spea8 o! seeing only happy smiling !aces where0er heZwent\ in the colonyE. O%0iously, his discourse epresses a patent and wil!uldismissal o! the then hatching re0olt in the colony. his was pro%a%ly

%ecause "ir Mitchell was not willing to accept discontent in the colony onthe e0e o! his retirement !rom what he considered to ha0e %een an illustriouscareer.

4hate0er the reason !or "ir 'hilip Mitchell)s dismissal o! the situation,what is indisputa%le is that when the new go0ernor, "ir ?0elyn 9aring,

arri0ed in "eptem%er K2 he !ound 5enya seething with discontent, %itterness, sporadic 0iolence, and heightened racial tension. he colonialgo0ernment had done e0erything possi%le to ignore the situation all along,re!using to ac8nowledge the MA1 MA1 mo0ement as a nationalist group.9ut this did not help to impro0e the situation at all and !inally, on 2+ th Octo%er K2 a!ter the assassination o! "enior Chie! 4aruhui, who hadepressed his loyalty toward the colonial authorities and spo8en against theMA1 MA1, "ir ?0elyn 9aring had to declare a state o! emergency. hus,



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5enya)s history entered an unpredicta%le phase o! L years characteri/ed %y0iolence, preudice and propaganda. he sensational colonial campaignagainst the MA1 MA1 generated a %ac8ward-loo8ing image o! themo0ement. Uet, this widespread ata0istic and %loodthirsty image co0ered upanother image, the one relating to the 9ritish military o!!ensi0e, or to whatAshley 'ettus 6uite usti!ia%ly called + Downing "treet)s GulagE2. As aconse6uence o! the military o!!ensi0e, the 9ritish image in general was atsta8e. Once the insurgents were o!!icially 0an6uished, the images relating

%oth to the sensational campaign and to the military o!!ensi0e were patentlyconduci0e to what was another image, a haunting image and a legacy o!terror le!t %ehind %y the con!lict. All the images were then undou%tedly

instrumental in decolonising 5enya.

=ac< Sava-ery and Triba My!tici!+ A Sen!ationa ca+4ai-n3rom K2 , when the colonial authorities in 5enya !inally ac8nowledged

that the situation was not as idyllic as Mitchell had pretended, a strong andcomprehensi0e campaign descri%ing the MA1 MA1 as a sa0age ata0isticmo0ementE was launched %y way o! sensational press reports, army hand-outs and %y the 9ritish authorities in 5enya through its handling o! theCorn!ield Commission, which 5enyatta dismissed in P+ as a pac8 o! liescollected !rom needy in!ormersE. he aim was to ma8e the re%ellion losecredit in the people)s eyes. And to reach this aim, the go0ernment, thecolonial press and the ?uropean settlers would pu%licly claim that MA1MA1 acti0ists were %loodthirsty su%-human sa0ages who were plunging5enya %ac8 into tri%al sa0agery and that its leaders were not politicalleaders, %ut witch-doctors and terrorists. $t may %e o! a prime importance to

point out the !act that the acti0ists ne0er called themesel0es MA1 MA1E.$t was the colonial authorities and the ?uropean settlers who did so. heacti0ists would call themsel0es 3reedom !ightersE, which had a politicalconnotation, unli8e the 6uite sa0age onomatopeia MA1 MA1E, patently

part o! the sensational campaign. "o, instead o! considering the politicalclaims o! the mo0ement, the colonial go0ernment and the white settlers

were more interested in the oaths and in what they considered to %ewitchcra!t and %ac8ward-loo8ing rituals. A case in point is the pu%licationo! pictures displaying the alleged ingredients, sei/ed %y the police, that wereused %y MA1 MA1 during oath-ta8ing ceremonies. he ingredients underscrutiny then included gourds, cattle %rains, goat intestines, s8ulls, %eans,

2 Ashley 'ettus, + Downing "treet)s GulagE, in *ar0ard Maga/ine, March-April 2++K.



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raw !lesh and animal %loodE@. $n !ocusing on such purely !ormal andceremonial characteristics o! the mo0ement, the colonial authorities and its

press agents easily swept away the political dimension o! the uprising andcould demonstrate that A!rican 5enyans were not ready to run a country,that they were still intellectually una%le to run modern political institutions.9esides, the MA1 MA1 organisation was descri%ed as a gang o! terrorists,as one could read on a hoarding at the entrance o! a country chapel at thetime o! the re0olt:

4A#N$NG$ $" MO" DANG?#O1"

O '$CN$C $N *$" A#?A9?CA1"? O3 ?##O#$"GANG"B

According to the hoarding, MA1 MA1, apart !rom %eing anintellectually %ac8ward-loo8ing organisation, was thus a terrorist gangE."uch propaganda contri%uted to the isolation o! the mo0ement, causing it tolose credit e0en among the A!rican community. wo !ilms, +imba directed

%y 9rian Desmond *urst and +afari %y 4arwic8 3ilms, were releasedduring the con!lict. 9oth depicted the uprising as merely a group o! nati0eA!ricans !rom the 5i8uyu tri%e slitting the throats o! white !armers. One

could e0en read on +afari)s co0er artwor8 the message: As ne0er %e!ore[all the awesome spectacle and sa0agery o! dar8est A!rica[ inCinemascope.EK

he propaganda war against MA1 MA1 was also carried out through0arious pu%lications. hese writings were essentially the production o! localwhite settlers, who painted the mo0ement as dar8 and satanic in content andinspiration. J.3. (ipscom%)s /e <uilt a Countr! and (. ". 9. (ea8ey)s

Defeating &au &auO are without any contest, eamples o! the e!!orts %ywhite settlers to eplain and denounce the MA1 MA1 mo0ement asessentially destructi0e and %ar%aric. "ir Michael 9lundell)s +o (ough a/ind is another %iased reading o! the re0olt. As a mem%er o! the 4ar

Council against MA1 MA1, 9lundell wrote o! the detailed plan wor8ed out %y the Council to de!eat MA1 MA1, %ut nowhere were the legitimateaspirations o! the !ighters ac8nowledged. One should %ear in mind that !rom

@ #oy (ewis, 5enyatta 9rings 1huru !or 5enyaE, in "he <ritish *m-ire, NVHP. ime-(i!e$nternational, (ondon, L@, p. 2@B Ibid ., p. 2B.K +afari %y 4arwic8 3ilms, KKP "eymour 9a/ett and (ouis (ea8ey, Defeating &au &au. (ondon: Methuen, KB



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the 0ery !irst days o! the colony, the white settlers had controlled thedominant economic and sociopolitical powers. he powers, howe0er, %oreno relation to the actual num%er o! the ?urpopean settlers. hey werehowe0er a re!lection o! their relati0e economic and agricultural acti0ities,which ena%led them to eert a partial in!luence on e0ery single aspect o! li!ein the colony, ensuring that it operated in their !a0our. his in!luence was soimportant that no colonial o!!icial would e0er !orce a row with them. hecolonial state !elt compelled to eplain the uprising in the country and this

pro0ed to %e another way o! campaigning against MA1 MA1.wo studies were there!ore commissioned. he !irst one, entitled he

#s!cholog! of &au &au %y J. C. Carothers, pu%lished in KK, eplained

MA1 MA1 in terms o! psychology. Actually, J. C. Carothers, an ethno- psychiatrist, diagnosed the mem%ers o! the mo0ement to %e a!!licted withmass psychosisE arising !rom a crisis o! transition %etween primiti0e andmodern worldsEL. As such they pro0ided a case study o! a people whosewea8 tri%al cohesion and world0iew, i! not culture, had %een %ro8en downin the !ace o! a superior and more pro!ita%le cultureEM 7 the 4estern cultureassuredly. Carothers would recommend con!ession as the sole remedy. he

%oo8)s claim was there!ore that the acti0ists had to con!ess and renouncetheir oaths so as to em%ar8 on their re-education under 9ritish tutelage.Con!ession as remedy %rought a%out !orced con!ession and interrogation !orthose who resisted and who were then administered %eatings. hesensational 9ritish campaign thus pro0ed to %e a psychological war. heemphasis was placed on the psychology o! MA1 MA1, %ut ne0er on

politics or economics and the smell o! ?thnocentrism and state 0iolence wasactually sti!ling.

he Cornfield (e-ort written %y 3. C. Corn!ield is the other study whichwas commissioned %y the colonial go0ernment. $t emphasised the recourseto oaths and also the 5enyatta !actor. 4hat accounted !or the trou%les,according to the report, were the oaths. $t is howe0er important to point tothe !unction o! oaths in A!rican culture in general, to their role in theepression o! solidarity, commitment, loyalty, e0en honesty, 6ualities

which some ?uropeans patently pre!erred to associate eclusi0ely withmysticism and %ac8wardness. According to this report, 5enyatta was thechie! architect o! MA1 MA1, whose intention was to direct it as a weaponaimed against 4estern ci0ilisation and technology and, in particular,

L J. C. Carothers, "he #s!cholog! of &au &au. Nairo%i, 5enya: Go0ernment 'rinter, KB.H Ibid .





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guilty o! managing MA1 MA1E and sentenced to se0en years) hard la%ourto %e !ollowed %y restriction o! their mo0ements. he colonial authoritiesand the white settlers as well actually eplained the re0olt as an organised

plot against them that was o0erseen %y 5A1. hey thus %elie0ed that the %anning o! 5A1 and the arresting o! 5enyatta, along with the other 5A1leaders, would put an end to the re0olt. *owe0er to ma8e 5A1 responsi%le!or the re%ellion is a serious distortion o! the !acts, leading to a seriousmisunderstanding o! the 0ery nature and su%tlety o! 5enyan nationalism atthe time.

1ndou%tedly 5enyan nationalism had turned 0iolent. *owe0er this wascertainly not %ecause o! 5A1)s plot against 9ritish authorities and white

settlers, as the latter were stri0ing to demonstrate, %ut %ecause, !or morethan thirty years, the 9ritish authorities in 5enya had %een treatingnationalism as seditious, denying it any legitimate outlet. 5A1, along withother political spo8esmen, were dismissed as agitators instead o! %eingrecognised as the 0ocal chord o! a whole people. $t there!ore appeared to theradicals that 5A1 and other law!ul means were ine!!icient in %ringing a%outthe political changes they were as8ing !or, and that only 0iolent means could

%e producti0e. $n that perspecti0e, the re0olt was a challenge, %etter, a coupd)?tat on the part o! the radicals and on the part o! marginal people, mostly!rom the 8i8uyu tri%e, not only against the colonial state, %ut also against5enyatta and 5A1, the legal !orm o! 5enyan nationalism. $ndeed, Da0idhroup was certainly not !ar !rom the truth when he wrote that $n Nairo%i,the 5i8uyu street gangs lin8ed up with the militant 5i8uyu trade unions, led

%y 3red 5u%ai and 9ildad 5aggia, to challenge 5enyatta)s leadership.E+ A!ter the capture o! General China on K th January KB, surrender tal8swere mooted %e!ore the great 9ritish plan to end the re%ellion was launched.he !ighters were as8ed why they were !ighting and what had to %e done toget them to come out o! the !orest peace!ully with their arms. hey thenreplied:

4e are !ighting !or all land stolen !rom us %y the Crown through its Orders inCouncil o! K, according to which A!ricans ha0e %een e0icted !rom the 5enya*ighlands[he 9ritish Go0ernment must grant 5enya !ull independence underA!rican leadership, and hand o0er all land pre0iously alienated !or distri%ution to thelandless. 4e will !ight until we achie0e !reedom or until the last o! our warriors hasshed his last drop o! %lood.

+ Da0id hroup, *conomic and +ocial %rigins of &au &au. 56RN956NQ. Nairo%i, 5enya:*einemann, HH. $ot et Jhuru, ibid ., p.2+



&ichel %linga

$ndeed, 6uite !or the !irst time, a 5enyan nationalist mo0ement wasstrongly and openly demanding immediate independence. Despite this, the

political nature o! the mo0ement was still denied. 3urthermore, the 3reedom3ighters pointed out the decisi0e role o! the land issue. he MA1 MA1re0olt has in !act %een interpreted %y many as a peasant re0olt. heargument was that land hunger in 5enya created a situation o! peasantgrie0ance, and that this had initiated the re0olt. 4hile this interpretation has

pro0ed not to %e entirely wrong the !act nonetheless remains that much o!the agitation %ehind MA1 MA1 was not really %y peasants 7 %asically

people who owned modest pieces o! land - %ut that it was mostly carried out %y people who were landless, li0ing as s6uatters on estates owned %y

?uropeans, %y ur%an o%less and gangsters in Nairo%i, and %y e-ser0icemeno! the "econd 4orld 4ar. All these people who had 0irtually no source o!re0enue and who mostly relied on land eploitation could see large tracts o!land 7 sometimes uneploited, sometimes richly culti0ated, %ut all?uropean-owned 7 and %eyond their capacity to ac6uire. And ust !or thesereasons, they were ready to !ight to death. "o, it seems that there is littlee0idence lin8ing 5enyatta with MA1 MA1 acti0ists. $n a speech at the5enya A!rican 1nion Meeting at Nyeri, in July 2P, K2 5enyatta stated:

5.A.1. spea8s in daylight. *e who calls us the Mau Mau is not truth!ul. 4e do not8now this thing Mau Mau. 4e want to prosper as a nation, and as a nation we

demand e6uality, that is e6ual pay !or e6ual wor8.2

As a matter o! !act, it appears that 5enyatta actually had scant regard !orMA1 MA1, calling the mo0ement this thingE and arguing in the !ollowingterms in PL:

4e are determined to ha0e independence in peace, and we shall not allow hooligansto rule 5enya. 4e must ha0e no hatred towards one another. MA1 MA1 was adisease which had %een eradicated, and must ne0er %e remem%ered again.@

4hat is stri8ing here is that the 0oca%ulary used %y the colonial

authorities and the white settlers in 0ili!ying the MA1 MA1 mo0ementduring the re0olt was also used %y Jomo 5enyatta himsel!, years a!ter MA1MA1 had %een crushed. Just li8e the colonial authorities and the white

5: Jomo, 5enyatta. "peech at the 5enya A!rican 1nion Meeting at Nyeri, July 2P, K2. $n 'omo Een!atta. "he Een!a Africa Jnion is $ot the &au &au % 56N:?, &odern 0istor!+ourceboo;. htt-.PPwww1fordham1eduPhalsallPmodP56N:;en!atta9;au51html@ Jomo 5enyatta, +uffering without <itterness. ?ast A!rican 'u%lishing *ouse, PH, p.H



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settlers, 5enyatta seemed to deny the insurgents any political claim, e0engoing as !ar as to la%el them hooligansE who must %e !orgotten !or e0er. $naccusing 5A1 and arresting its leaders, the 9ritish authorities were writinghistory !rom their own perspecti0e. hey were ma8ing 5enyatta and 5A1responsi%le !or all the massacres and atrocities that had occurred and !or thecoming ones, allowing a dea!ening silence to come down on the grie0anceso! the acti0ists. And still, with or without 5A1)s help, the re0olt wouldne0ertheless ha0e %ro8en out anyway. he irony o! the situation is that notonly were the preparations !or the uprising not initiated %y 5A1 and5enyatta, %etter still, they were deli%erately dissimulated !rom him and his

party. And yet, when the colonial go0ernment crac8ed down, it was 5A1

that was made the scapegoat and 5enyatta the e0il genius who was to pic8up the pieces. Ne0ertheless, 5enyatta patently too8 ad0antage o! %eingaccused as the MA1 MA1 leader. Actually, the accusation le0elled against5enyatta o! %eing the leader o! the acti0ists and the decision to send him to

ail can %e said to ha0e constituted, paradoically, a !orm o! assistance onthe part o! the colonial authorities which was conduci0e to his ascendancyas a hero and a martyrE o0er the other nationalists in the territory. 9esides,the arresting o! 5enyatta, the messiah o! the people, coupled with the

%anning o! 5A1, merely helped to !urther poison the already tenseatmosphere. he declaration o! emergency and 5enyatta)s arrest !anned there%ellion instead o! wea8ening it. housands o! 5i8uyu too8 the oath, manywent to the !orests and %egan to organise themsel0es into guerrilla %ands.

Actually, those who went into the !orests were o! two principal groups:there were the con0inced 3reedom 3ightersE, who !ormed the maority,and there were the less politically conscious 5i8uyu, who simply !led toescape anti-5i8uyu sweeps that the colonial troops were launching againstthe 8i8uyu tri%e, accused o! %eing the instigators o! the re0olt, and whoended up !orming gangs !or sur0i0al. Among the leaders o! these twogroups o! acti0ists, were se0eral e-ser0icemen who had ta8en part in themilitary campaigns o! the "econd 4orld 4ar, in the ungles o! 9urma !orinstance, such as 4aruhiu $ote, who too8 the code name o! ]General China)

and led the !ighters in the Mount 5enya !orest. At the height o! the re%ellionin early KB, there were an estimated @+, +++B !ighters in the !orests o! the Nyandarua mountains, !ormerly A%erdare Mountain and Mount 5enya. he!ighters achie0ed some military successes in the !irst stage o! the war, !romOcto%er K2 to April KB. hey managed to go on the o!!ensi0e, using the

B Oginga Odinga, $ot !et Jhuru1 "he Autobiogra-h! of %ginga %dinga. *einemann stedition &June PH, p1 L





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9y and large, the 0arious colonial go0ernments in A!rica, and the?uropean settlers as well, were conscious o! the spirit o! racial solidarityand the danger which this sense o! solidarity represented !or their rule in thecontinent. Uet they also 8new that A!rican solidarity was o!ten undermined

%y ethnic clea0ages and that they could use these clea0ages to ta8e controlwhene0er the situation !itted. his is what the colonial state in 5enyaachie0ed %y setting the 5i8uyu tri%e against the other 5enyan tri%es andcommunities during the re0olt. ensions were in !act aroused through thego0ernment policy o! detaining only 5i8uyu - with a !ew indi0idualeceptions li8e Ngei and others 7 and remo0ing many 5i8uyu !rom the ci0ilser0ice, replacing them with men !rom other communities. o ta8e the

eample o! Operation An0ilP carried out in Nairo%i in KB, 2K,+++ soldiersand policemen rounded up o0er a%out ++,+++L 5i8uyu and detained all5i8uyu aged %etween P and @K, the warrior age. his colonial policy o!detaining only people !rom one single tri%e is smac8s o! a di0ide-and-rule

policy and it aroused the hostility o! some 5i8uyu against other ethnicgroups or against other communities 7 li8e the $ndian community !orinstance, and 0ice 0ersa. $n his auto%iography, Oginga Odinga, a mem%er o!the (uo tri%e and !ormer 0ice-president o! 5enya, ac8nowledges:

4hen the ?mergency %egan, the indiscriminate arrest and %eating o! e0ery 5i8uyutri%esman seemed to augur the elimination o! the whole tri%e they, too, !ormed

gangs !or sur0i0al, raiding !or !ood and clothes and gunsH.

$t seems that the idea was to ma8e the 5i8uyu responsi%le !or the wholesituation in the eyes o! the other communities in the territory. $t isworthwhile to highlight the !act that colonial 5enya was made up o! 0ariousA!rican ethnic groups, in addition to the white settlers and the heterogenous$ndian communty. he tensions which resulted !rom this patentdiscrimination were !anned when the re%els assassinated prominentmoderates li8e om M%otela, the 5enyan A!rican 1nion &5A1 Sice-'resident, and Councillor Am%rose O!a!a, respecti0ely !rom the Coast

pro0ince and Nyan/a. 4hile %oth were non-5i8uyu, it is important to

highlight the !act that they also represented 5A1, in the case o! M%otela,and the colonial go0ernment, in the case o! Councillor O!a!a, in other words

P During operations li8e An0il, the colonial troops would gather people, mostly 5i8uyu tosort out MA1 MA1 sympathi/ers !rom the rest o! the population. Out o! a total o! P, +++suspects detained during Operation An0il, BB,K++ were sent !or trial and the rest werereleased see #oy (?4$", i%id.L Oginga Odinga, $ot !et Jhuru1 "he Autobiogra-h! of %ginga %dinga1 $%id., p.L.H Ibid .



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the two main entities against which the MA1 MA1 had %asically re%elled.5i8uyu domination in the 5A1, and e0en in 5enyan nationalism in general,may %e a natural outcome o! certain conditions and !actors at the time: 5A1was %uilt !rom the earlier political mo0ement o! the 5i8uyu %e!ore the 3irst4orld 4ar, the 5i8uyu Central Association &5CA. he 5i8uyu were,!urthermore, o! all 5enyan tri%es, those who were most strongly in!luenced

%y contact with ?uropeans and with 4estern ci0ilisation, including 4esterneducation, especially in Nairo%i. hey were thus a%le to pro0ide a largernum%er o! elite cadres who could ta8e part in politics. Also, it appeared thatthe 5i8uyu had greater grie0ances against the colonial go0ernment andwhite settlers. $ndeed, although they had not lost as much land as the Maasai

!or instance, there were !ar more landless among 8i8uyu than among anyother community in 5enya. hey thus represented the !irst wor8!orce ass6uatters in ?uropean !arms. Conse6uently, they were the !irst 0ictims o!repatriation !rom ?uropean !arms, whether to the reser0es or to Nairo%i,where they oined up with other marginal people.

o crush the MA1 MA1, the colonial authorities !irst decided to ignorenationalist claims. $n the !ace o! 5enyan nationalism they opposedindi!!erence, and as they did not meet with the anticipated results with this

policy, they mo0ed on to the propaganda strategy in which the MA1 MA1was descri%ed as a sa0age %ac8ward-loo8ing and terrorist mo0ement. hisstrategy was aimed at pro0o8ing a loss o! credit !or the mo0ement, %othinside and outside the country. he other aim was to arouse !ear amongstthe di!!erent communities o! 5enya. he other strategy which !ollowed wasthat o! di0ide-and-rule. *ere nationalism was distorted into tri%alism. hiswas not howe0er su!!icient to eradicate the mo0ement and the colonial statethought that a military o!!ensi0e should do its tric8.

10 Do:nin- Street*! Gua- =riti!h I+a-e at Sta<eDespite the %iased propaganda o! the colonial state against the MA1

MA1, the re0olt continued to spread, until the colonial state e0entuallydecided to harden its reaction, with the recourse to a military inter0ention

drawing on the !ar more power!ul weaponry and e6uipment o! the #oyalArmy and Air 3orce. he military inter0ention then led to what Caroline?l8ins has called the + Downing "treet)s GulagE. A!ter some MA1 MA1successes up to KB, the colonial troops gradually got on top o! thesituation. he go0ernment policy until mid-KB !ocused on destroyingsupports !or the MA1 MA1 in the towns and reser0es. Conse6uently, !rom

Nyeri in the north to 5iam%u in the south, thousands o! 5i8uyu 0illagerswere !orci%ly resettled in new !orti!ied 0illages under the control o! the



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security !orces. At the edge o! the !orests, 0illages were ra/ed and trees werecut down to pro0ide a !ree-!ire /one and cut o!! the !orest !ighters !rom thereser0es !rom where they could get supplies. $n the new !orti!ied 0illages,

people li0ed under the regime o! cur!ew, endured !orced la%our, star0ation,torture and diseases. Many o! the women !or instance, were !orced to la%ouron so-called poor relie!E proects on the reser0es where some died o!ehaustion and disease. Others would !ind out that their %a%ies had diedwhile strapped to their %ac8s during wor8 %rigades.

Apart !rom destroying MA1 MA1 support !rom the reser0es, throughthe isolation o! the insurgents, these new and controlled 0illages were also a

puniti0e measure against areas suspected o! strongly supporting the MA1

MA1. hus the colonial authorities did not react only against the acti0ists.heir action was also directed against anyone suspected o! %eingsympathetic to them. At the %eginning o! KK, it was estimated that o0er amillion 5i8uyu had %een resettled in these !orti!ied 0illages and %y the same

period, o!!icial reports suggested that since K2, o0er L+,+++ 5i8uyutri%esmen suspected o! MA1 MA1 mem%ership had %een imprisoned,while o0er @,+++ people had %een 8illed %y %oth 9ritish troops and MA1MA1 acti0ists. A!ter KK, the most e!!ecti0e weapon used %y thego0ernment against the MA1 MA1 was the Fpseudo gangsF, largely madeup o! !ormer !orest !ighters who had %een captured. he ]pseudo gangs)were later renamed the ]"pecial 3orce eams). hese units, initially led %ywhites, and su%se6uently %y loyal A!ricans, would go into the !orests onsee8-and-destroy epeditions against the MA1 MA1 hideouts. Actually,the *ome Guard and "pecial 3orce eams were responsi%le !orundermining and neutrali/ing the MA1 MA1 organisation and their !irst0ery success was the capture o! Dedan 5imathi in Nyeri. 5imathi wascaptured in KP and eecuted in 3e%ruary KL. *is capture and deathsigni!ied howe0er the ultimate de!eat o! the MA1 MA1 and o!!iciallyended the military o!!ensi0e against the mo0ement. *owe0er the 9ritishtroops 8ept on trac8ing down what they called terroristsE, up to K andP+.

3or Oginga Odinga, casualties in!licted %y the MA1 MA1 amounted toa%out 2,+++ o! whom only @+ were accounted !or %y 4hites. On the otherhand 7 again in Oginga)s 0iew - go0ernment troops 8illed ,+++ MA1MA1 acti0ists and detained +,+++2+ in detention camps1 $n these detention

Alistair 9oddy-?0ans, imeline: Mau Mau #e%ellionE,http:IIa!ricanhistory.a%out.comIli%raryI%lIMau-Mau-imeline.htmx

2+ he !igures are ta8en !rom: $ot et Jhuru, i%id., p.2B



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camps, they were su%ected to indescri%a%le %rutalities and atrocities. $n hisauto%iography, Oginga gi0es a comprehensi0e description o! the way

prisoners were treated in the camps:

No detainee was released until he had %een passed along a security clearancechannel 8nown as the ]'ipe (ine2) among the ?mergency casualties not recordedare the 0ictims o! the 'ipe (ine who were inured and permanently disa%led %ytorture to etract con!essions.22

4hen the 9ritish le!t 5enya in P@, they destroyed all o!!icial !ilesrelating to their crimes. "ome 5enyans still recall seeing %on!ires around

Nairo%i in the !inal days %e!ore the 9ritish departure in P@ some !ormercolonial o!!icers e0en ac8nowledged recei0ing orders to destroy hundreds o!thousands o! documents relating to the 'ipelineFs 0ictims. he 0ery storyand the e0idence o! how 9ritain crushed the re0olt in 5enya were thus ine!!ect going in smo8e, along with the e0idence as to the eact num%er o!casualties. Conse6uently, until today, there is still not a single death toll, %utse0eral. $! we consider the !igures gi0en %y Odinga in his auto%iography&2,+++ 8illed %y the Mau Mau and ,+++ acti0ists 8illed %y go0ernmenttroops the death toll is a%out @, +++. his does not include ci0ilian5enyans and the 0ictims o! the 'ipe (ine, as Oginga points out. "imilar!igures are gi0en %y the colonial authorities and are ad0anced in Olson R

"hadle)s 0istorical Dictionar! of the <ritish *m-ire &,K+@ re%els, K+security !orces and ,HLL ci0ilians 8illed: a%out @,L+ 8illed in total.*owe0er, according to ]"ecret *istory),2@ a program %roadcast on

Channel 3our ele0ision in 9ritain on Kth "eptem%er , the acti0ists)death toll during the emergency was ,K++, o! whom around ,+++ werehanged. H+,+++ 5i8uyu were imprisoned in concentration camps, K+,+++A!ricans, mostly 5i8uyu, lost their li0es, with many dying o! disease andstar0ation in the protected 0illagesE. On the other side 7 again according tothe Channel 3our documentary- the MA1 MA1 8illed around 2,+++ people,including @2 ?uropean ci0ilians and P@ mem%ers o! the security !orces.'utting all these !igures together, the death toll !or the re0olt, according to

2 ]'ipe (ine) o!!icial name o! the detention system during the re0olt aimed at !inding outMau Mau acti0ists. hrough tough 6uestionings, it meticulously sorted people according totheir alleged MA1 MA1 sympathies.22 $ot et Jhuru, ibid ., p.2B2@ +ecrete 0istor!. Channel 3our ele0ision. (ondon, Kth "eptem%er 'u%lished on: http:IIwww.channelB.comInetstepIsecretjhistoryI.A 0er%atim etract o! the program is also pu%lished on:http:IIwww.hart!ord-hwp.comIarchi0esI@PI+2P.html & a world history archi0es online



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the Channel 3our program, would thus amount to P@,K++. Actually, inorder to gain an eact account o! what did happen in 5enya at the time, itwould %e interesting and help!ul to ha0e the sur0i0ors) own account also,and Channel 3our did rely on se0eral testimonies o! the sur0i0ors. he

program also ta8es into account casualties among ci0ilians, a dimensionwhich !or instance does not !igure in Oginga)s %iography.

$n the same perspecti0e, Caroline ?l8ins pu%lished Im-erial (ec;oning."he Jntold +tor! of <ritainVs 2ulag in Een!a, !or which she inter0iewedMA1 MA1 0eterans and some e-9ritish o!!icers in 5enya in a thoroughhistorical documentation o! the capital crimes during the re0olt. "he came tothe !ollowing conclusion: $ now %elie0e there was in late colonial 5enya a

murderous campaign to eliminate 5i8uyu people that le!t tens o! thousands, perhaps hundreds o! thousands dead.E:R $n !act, while inter0iewing someMA1 MA1 0eterans and other witnesses o! the e0ents, such asmissionaries, ?l8ins disco0ered that detainees in camps mo0ed up or downthe 'ipelineE according to their degree o! resistance and also that %rutalitywas something natural and too8 place at e0ery degree, ranging !romelectrocution and mutilation to %eatings and 0arious !orms o! seual a%usesand humiliations. $n an inter0iew !or the 99C wo program: Een!a. /hite"error %roadcast on Lth No0em%er 2++2, she personally admits whene0o8ing the death toll o! the re0olt and how 9ritain crushed it:Conser0ati0ely, $ would put that !igure Zthe death toll\ at somewherearound K+, +++E:N.

here may not %e an eact death toll - and as in0estigations are pursued,new !igures and !acts will continue to %e unco0ered. *owe0er regarding allthe studies which ha0e %een made on the su%ect up to now, it clearlyappears that the nature o! the colonial propaganda against the MA1 MA1does indeed re0eal a !acet o! 9ritish imperial rule that was not 0ery !ar !romthat ehi%ited %y the 3rench in Algeria. (i0ing conditions in the detentioncamps constituted serious 0iolations o! human rights. John Nottingham,himsel! a district colonial o!!icer in the K+s and who stayed on in 5enyaa!ter the uprising, told the 99C wo correspondent o! Een!a. /hite

"error that: compensation should %e paid immediately as most o! the0ictims are now in their H+sE. *e added: 4hat went on in the 5enya campsand 0illages was %rutal, sa0age torture. Z[\ $ !eel ashamed to ha0e come

2B Caroline ?l8ins, Im-erial (ec;oning. "he Jntold +tor! of <ritainVs 2ulag in Een!a. NewUor8: *enry *olt R Company, January 2++K2K Een!a. /hite "error . 99C wo. (ondon, No0em%er Lth 2++2,$nter0iew %roadcast on:http:IInews.%%c.co.u8IIhiIprogrammesIcorrespondentI2BP+B.stm



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!rom a 9ritain that did what it did here.E2P 9asically, with the colonial statecampaign, most 9ritish citi/ens saw little reason to 6uestion theirgo0ernmentFs line on the situation in 5enya and on internment camps in

particular. he newspapers helped stir up racist !ears during the re%ellion %y pu%lishing gory pictures o! murdered settlers and through their depictions o!the %estialE and degradedE practices o! the acti0ists. his sensationalco0erage made the MA1 MA1 synonymous with sa0agery and %utchery."o, e0en though some people %egan to 6uestion the li0ing conditions indetention camps in operation as late as KH, most 9ritish citi/ens continuedto consider that the MA1 MA1 acti0ists were ust getting what theydeser0ed. One might still wonder whether sa0agery and %estiality weren)t

actually perpetrated on %oth sides, e0en though MA1 MA1 acti0ists weresaid to %e the only sa0ages and %ar%arians. 9oth the colonial secretary at thetime, Alan (enno-9oyd, and 4inston Churchill continued to praise thesuccesses o! the colonial state, despite the mounting e0idence o! a%uses incamps until K, a!ter the !atal %eating o! detainees in *ola prison.

Actually, on @rd March K, HK prisoners at the *ola Detention Campre!used to ta8e part in !orced la%our and sat down in protest. hey had %eenre!using to wor8 !or nine days. 4hen the camp commander, G M "ulli0an,

%lew his whistle, guards attac8ed the prisoners with clu%s and ri!le %utts,8illing one o! them. he prisoners were then as8ed i! they would wor8 andas they still re!used, "ulli0an %lew his whistle once more and the attac8 wasrenewed se0eral times. 9y the end o! the assaults, the guards had %eateneight prisoners to death and seriously inured P+ others. A sur0i0or o! the*ola camp reported to Channel 3our:

4e re!used to do this wor8. 4e were !ighting !or our !reedom. 4e were not sla0es.here were two hundred guards. One hundred se0enty stood around us with machineguns. hirty guards were inside the trench with us. he white man in charge %lewhis whistle and the guards started %eating us. hey %eat us !rom H am to .@+. heywere %eating us li8e dogs. $ was co0ered %y other %odies - ust my arms and legswere eposed. $ was 0ery luc8y to sur0i0e. 9ut the others were still %eing %eaten.here was no escape !or them.2L

Go0ernor "ir ?0elyn 9aring issued a statement claiming that the prisoners had died !rom drin8ing contaminated water. he incident %ecame!ront-page news in 9ritain and the (a%our opposition in parliament attac8ed

2P Ibid ., on http:IInewswww.%%c.net.u8IIhiIenglandIlondonI@+2PLBL.stm:7 9ar%ara "laughter, *ow 9ritain crushed the ]Mau Mau re%ellion). Channel 3our SFs"ecret *istoryvMau MauE, Kth "eptem%er :http:IIwww.hart!ord-hwp.comIarchi0esI@PI+2P.html



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the Conser0ati0e go0ernment !or the %rutality o! their methods in 5enya.he detention camps !inally closed in 5enya a!ter the massacre, heraldingthe end o! 9ritish rule in the country, with the MA1 MA1 continuing tohaunt the socio-political arena %oth in 5enya and in the 15.

The Decooni@ation $roce!! and %auntin- I+a-e o6 the MA9 MA99asically, the way in which 9ritain crushed the re0olt, along with the

colonial sensational campaign and MA1 MA1 radicalism as well, allamounted to the !actors causing a certain wind o! changeE to %low o0er9ritish rule in 5enya !rom KL on. "i A!rican mem%ers were elected inKL in the (egislati0e Council: this was the turning point on the path to

independence. he A!rican elected mem%ers could then claim that they weresupported %y a large electorate and could use the (egislati0e Council todemand !urther constitutional re!orms. Among the elected mem%ers wereOginga Odinga !or Central Nyan/a, om M%oya !or Nairo%i, #onald Ngala!or the Coast and Daniel Arap Moi !or the #i!t Salley. $n KH, the newColonial "ecretary, Alan (enno-9oyd, added another eight A!rican electedmem%ers and !our, specially-elected, A!rican mem%ers, along with !ourspecially-elected ?uropean and !our specially-elected Asian mem%ers. Uet,the maor wea8ness o! the A!rican elected mem%ers was the lac8 o! anational political party and the lac8 o! a charismatic national leader, with5enyatta in prison and the %an on political acti0ities still e!!ecti0e.

hus !ar, it appears that things actually went 0ery 6uic8ly ust a!ter theMA1 MA1 re0olt. he re%ellion had certainly %een 0ery murderous on allsides, and %ecause o! the sensational campaign it had le!t its mar8s on the

populations and o!!icials %oth in 5enya and the 15. One cannot moreo0erdeny that it had hastened the process toward independence. 4hile it wasalready a well-8nown !act that the white settlers were !iercely opposed toindependence with A!rican maority rule, the re0olt re0ealed their

precarious hold on the colony. 3ormer Colonial "ecretary Oli0er (ytteltone0entually ac8nowledged that the decoloni/ation o! 5enya came a%out as aresult o! a general understanding that the continuation o! 9ritain)s rule

would entail a use o! !orce unaccepta%le to the 9ritish pu%lic2H

. And the*ola Camp massacre %rought 5enya to the attention o! the world and, moreimportantly, to the attention o! the 15 with, !or instance, ?noch 'owell)sepressing his pu%lic indignation at the massacre when he stated that i!9ritain couldn)t show moral leadership o! the highest order, then the game

2H Oli0er (yttelton, "he &emoires of )ord Chandos, (ondon, P2



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o! empire was up.2 And so the image o! Great 9ritain was at sta8e, while italso %ecame impossi%le !or 9ritain to continue to claim that most 5enyanswere happy under their rule. Now i! it is true that the possi%le eopardisingo! the image o! 9ritain did ha0e some in!luence in the decoloni/ation

process, it also seems apparent that while the territory %ecame independentlong a!ter the re0olt was o!!icially o0er, the MA1 MA1 ghost was toin!luence 0irtually e0ery aspect o! the decoloni/ation in 5enya. As a mattero! !act, the MA1 MA1 le!t %ehind a legacy o! 0iolence, terror and !ear,

%oth in 5enya and in the 15. As *ilda Nissimi rightly pointed out:

#acial relations, international power considerations, party politics, and strategic

calculations are well-8now !actors in the decolonisation process. he Mau Maughost in!luenced each such !actor, playing a part in constructing the ]li%eral state o!mind) that is said to ha0e made the 9ritish lea0e 5enya. As a 0an6uished mo0ement,the Mau Mau le!t %ehind a legacy o! terror that pro0ed more enduring than theacutal struggle had %een. $t is a potent eample o! the in!luence o! such a mo0ementon policy changes %eyond the armed con!lict.@+

Sirtually e0eryone, in 5enya and in the 15, !eared a renewal o! theMA1 MA1 sooner or later. his !actor might account !or MA1 MA1)slac8 o! o!!icial recognition on the part o! 5enyan politicians and society ingeneral, e0en years a!ter independance. $n addition, the re0olt e!!ecti0ely

%rought to an end the secret hopes o! the white settlers !or the achie0emento! independence under the white minority rule. $n 0iew o! this crucialimpetus to the process o! decoloni/ation in 5enya, we can argue with goodgrounds that the MA1 MA1 is one o! the actual agents o! 5enyanindependence.

One recurrent 6uestion which always returns, when dealing with theMA1 MA1 uprising, is whether the source o! its struggle is to %e located ina !orward-loo8ing or a %ac8ward-loo8ing 0ision. "ome commentatorsthere!ore still wonder whether it was a modern nationalist or ust atraditional ethnic mo0ement. he historiography o! the MA1 MA1

pro0ides a considera%le range o! arguments on these two issues. he 0istorical +ure! of the %rigins and 2rowth of &au &au, also called theCornfield (e-ort &the o!!icial account o! the re0olt pu%lished %y the colonialadministration in P+, portrays the mo0ement as %ac8ward-loo8ing and

2 Da0id Anderson, 0istor! of the 0anged1 "he /ar in Een!a and the *nd of *m-ire. NewUor8, (ondon, 2++K, pp. @2P-L.@+ *ilda Nissimi, MA1 MA1 and the Decolonisation o! 5enyaE. Journal o! Military and"trategic "tudies, "pring 2++P, Sol. H, $ssue @.



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]tri%al). hree is thus no need to speci!y that as long as the mo0ement wasdirected against the colonial rule, the uprising had the reputation o! %eing

%ar%aric, sa0age and e0en terrorist. Carl #os%erg and John Nottingham in"he &!th of ]&au &au’, pu%lished in PP, on the contrary portray themo0ement as !orward-loo8ing and as a 5enyan nationalist mo0ement ratherthan a 5i8uyu su%-nationalist or terrorist mo0ement. 9ethwell A. Ogot,!ormely a pro!essor o! history in the 1ni0ersity o! Nairo%i, has alsodescri%ed the MA1 MA1 as %oth !orward-loo8ing, inso!ar as it !ought !or

political !reedom and the end o! a colonial rule, and su%-nationalist, as ite0idenced a strong sense o! 5i8uyu nationalism, as opposed to 5A1,which represented 5enyan nationalism in general. *owe0er despite all the

research which has %een underta8en to understand the MA1 MA1mo0ement, the organisation, with its oaths and as a result o! the sustainedcampaign which was waged against it, nonetheless remains 6uitemysterious, still retaining something o! the aura o! a secret and rathermythical organisation. Uet one cannot deny that, %oth regardless o! and alsoowing to its 0iolence and its radicalism, the MA1 MA1 mo0ement didenhance A!rican political consciousness in 5enya, thus contri%uting to itsaccess to independence and has continued to haunt %oth Nairo%i and(ondon.

Miche OLINGA1ni0ersité (umire (yon 2

Wor<! Cited

AND?#"ON, Da0id. 0istor! of the 0anged1 "he /ar in Een!a and the *ndof *m-ire. NewUor8, (ondon, 2++K.

9AX?, "eymour and (ouis (?A5?U. Defeating &au &au. (ondon:Methuen, KB.

9ODDU-?SAN", Alistair. imeline: Mau Mau #e%ellionE:http:IIa!ricanhistory.a%out.comIli%raryI%lIMau-Mau-imeline, accessedApril K, 2+@.

CO#3$?(D, 3ran8. "he %rigins and 2rowth of &au &au. an 0istorical+ure! &Fhe Cor!ield #eportF. Nairo%i: Go0ernment 'rinter, P+.



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CA#O*?#", J. C. "he #s!cholog! of &au &au. Nairo%i, 5enya:Go0ernment 'rinter, KB.

?(5$N", Caroline. Im-erial (ec;oning. "he Jntold +tor! of <ritainVs2ulag in Een!a. New Uor8: *enry *olt R Company, January 2++K.

Een!a. /hite "error . 99C wo. (ondon, No0em%er Lth 2++2: inter0iew %roadcast on

http:IInews.%%c.co.u8IIhiIprogrammesIcorrespondentI2BP+B.stm,accessed April K, 2+@.

5?NUAA, Jomo. "peech at the 5enya A!rican 1nion Meeting at Nyeri,July 2P, K2. $n Jomo 5enyatta: he 5enya A!rica 1nion is Not the

&au &au, K2E, &odern 0istor! +ourceboo; :http:IIwww.!ordham.eduIhalsallImodIK28enyatta-8au.html, accessedApril K, 2+@.

5?NUAA, Jomo. +uffering without <itterness. ?ast A!rican 'u%lishing*ouse, PH.

(?4$", #oy. 5enyatta 9rings 1huru !or 5enya.E "he <ritish *m-ire, ime-(i!e $nternational, (ondon, No HP, L@.

(U?(ON, Oli0er. "he &emoires of )ord Chandos. (ondon: he9odley head, P2.

MAX#1, Ali and Michael $DU. $ationalism and $ew +tates in Africa. rom about 56QN to the #resent . (ondon: *einemann, HB.

N$""$M$, *ilda. MA1 MA1 and the Decolonisation o! 5enya.E 'ournalof &ilitar! and +trategic +tudies H-@ &2++P. A0aila%le athttp:IImss.synergiesprairies.caImssIinde.phpImssIarticleI0iewI@IBL

, accessed April @+, 2+@.

OD$NGA, Oginga. $ot !et Jhuru1 "he Autobiogra-h! of %ginga %dinga .(ondon: *einemann, st edition, June PH.

'?1", Ashley. + Downing "treet)s Gulag.E $n 0arard &agazine,March-April 2++K. A0aila%le at



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http:IIhar0ardmaga/ine.comI2++KI+@I+-downing-streets-gulag.html,accessed April @+, 2+@.

#O"9?#G, Carl, G. and John, C. NO$NG*AM, "he &ith of B&AJ &AJ?. $ationalism in Een!a. New Uor8: 'raeger, PP.

+afari %y 4arwic8 3ilms, KK.

+ecret 0istor!. Channel 3our ele0ision. (ondon, Kth "eptem%er .

"(A1G*?#, 9ar%ara. *ow 9ritain crushed the ]Mau Mau re%ellion).

Channel 3our SFs "ecret *istoryvMau MauE, Kth "eptem%er :http:IIwww.hart!ord-hwp.comIarchi0esI@PI+2P.html, accessed April K,2+@.

*#O1', Da0id. *conomic and +ocial %rigins of &au &au. 56RN956NQ. Nairo%i: *einemann, HH.



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$A"T 2

DECOLONIZATION AND LITE"AT9"E IN F"ENC%&S$EAING AND$O"T9G9ESE&S$EAING A"EAS



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C%A$TE"

Colonisation4d$colonisation 'ar la lan+ue et la

litt$rature fran5aises 2 l6 ind$'endance 7 8ir9r$solue

en /friue

Ab!tract: Decoloni/ation has %een !ar !rom demonstrating the !eatures it

presupposes, namely, !reedom, and %y etension, sel!-determination. $n the currentgeostrategic landscape o! trade %etween nation states, the !ate o! the coloni/ed hasnot changed. hey are still go0erned !rom the outside. $t %ecomes 6uite di!!icult, inthis contet, to thin8 calmly a%out the rele0ance o! independence announced soeagerly. $n the case o! languages, cultures and literatures that the immensecontinent o! A!rica possesses, it so happens that 0ia their du%%ing programmedo0er time, the A!rican %ears witness to the !act that he is yet again losing power tothe di8tats imposed %y linguistic and cultural !orces !rom the outside. *ow doeshopelessly persistent coloni/ation emerge through A!rican literature and %yin!erence the eternal 6uestion o! decoloni/ation

")!u+) (a décolonisation a du mal < ré0éler us6u)< ce our les traits usti!icati!sde ce 6u)elle postule, < sa0oir, la li%erté et par ricochet, l)autodétermination. Dansle paysage géostratégi6ue actuel des échanges entre les Ttats, il se trou0e 6ue lesort des colonisés n)ait point changé. $ls sont touours gou0ernés de l)etérieur. $lde0ient asse/ di!!icile, dans ce contete, de penser a0ec sérénité < la pertinence desindépendances annoncées a0ec empressement. 'our le cas des langues, cultures etlittératures, pourtant immenses, 6ue compte ce continent, il se passe 6ue par leuradou%ement &programmé au !il du temps, l)A!ricain enregistre encore une !ois de

plus sa dé!aite !ace < la puissance du di8tat 6ue lui imposent les !orceslinguisti6ues et culturelles de l)etérieur. Comment, au tra0ers de la littératurea!ricaine, se dessine irrémédia%lement la persistance de la colonisation, et doncl)éternelle 6uestion de la décolonisation

Introduction(es origines de la littérature a!ricaine écrite ne sont pas trs anciennes.

peine un sicle su!!it pour 6u)on en trou0e les premiers tetes pu%liés. Onretiendra touours <atouala de #ené Maran comme étant le pionnier, dans legenre romanes6ue, du monde noir, de manire glo%ale. ?n tout cas, Maranou0re la porte de la littéraire a!ricaine, non pas en tant 6u)A!ricain



Claude *ric %wono âmbo

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d)A!ri6ue, mais comme un Noir dont les origines se trou0ent en Guyane. Oncomptera donc par la suite des auteurs, cette !ois-ci a!ricains, tels 6ue Diallo9a8ary, Chouchoro 3éli2, "océ Ousmane@, *a/oumé 'aulB, (omanishi%am%a 'aulK, Naigi/i8i J. "a0erioP, etc. regarder de prs cettelittérature 6ui naQt, on se rend compte 6u)elle est pu%liée en 3ranceI9elgi6ueet dans une langue 6ui n)a rien < 0oir a0ec la langue réelle des auteurs. $lsont choisi &sont-ils contraints d)écrire dans la langue de leur maQtre. Ce6ui se !era certainement a0ec des soup;ons plus ou moins é0idents del)in!luence de l)ancienne métropole au tra0ers des réseau de pu%lication etd)édition 6ui contrlent , censurent et légi!rent sur le li0re noir < partirdu prétete sur la correctionIper!ection du style. Ainsi, l)auteur est soumis,

non au normes 6ue lui inspire son propre génie, mais < celles dictées pardes ré!érents heagonau o des modles en la matire auront %rillé %iena0ant lui : *ugo, Mallarmé, Chateau%riand, #onsard, 9oileau, etc. (e cadrede son écriture !ié, l)écri0ain a!ricain déploie son acte d)écriture sous la

perspecti0e d)un mimétisme 6ui !rise l)assimilation littéraire. Nousl)appellerons ici la littérature du colonisé , celle 6ui aura consisté < !airela 0olonté de son ancien maQtre, soit < tra0ers un mimétisme scripturaire,soit dans un silence 6ui o%lige < ne pas heurter sa sensi%ilité en a%ordant les6uestions liées < sa politi6ue &de perpétuité hégémoni6ue. "ur la %ase doncdu contete littéraire miméti6ue des écri0ains a!ricains, aprs a0oir montréen 6uoi il s)illustrait, nous eaminerons, dans une 0isée de décryptage del)é0olution scripturaire, l)re de la rupture 6ui l)a sui0i a!in de mieucomprendre en!in en 6uoi une telle littérature peut =tre un déclencheur,

peut-=tre sym%oli6ue mais déclencheur 6uand m=me, d)une indépendanceculturelle proposée au A!ricains.

'our son roman orce9<onté. 'aris : #ieder et Cie, 2P.2 'our son roman )’*sclae. 'aris : (a dép=che a!ricaine, 2.@ 'our ses romans Earim, roman sénégalais. 'aris : Nou0elles éditions latines, @K et

&irages de #aris, 'aris : Nou0elles éditions latines, @L.B 'our son roman Doguicimi. 'aris : Maisonneu0e et (arose, @H.K 'our son roman $gando. 9ruelles : Deny, BH.P 'our son roman *sca-ade ruandaise, 'ournal d’un clerc en sa trenti4me année.9ruelles : B.




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I Cooni!ation 4ar a!!i+iation de a nor+e de a an-ue/cuture6ranHai!e!

a, La itt)rature a6ricaine B *?re du +i+)ti!+e'our mieu comprendre cette !orme d)etériorité de l)écriture a!ricaine,

il !aut rentrer dans le contete histori6ue de la colonisation. (e colon 6uiarri0e en A!ri6ue a une idée !ie. (e continent 6u)il décou0re est une0érita%le jungle 6ui a %esoin d)=tre ordonnée selon ses 0aleurs et ses

paradigmes. $gnorantIdéniant toute possi%ilité d)un uni0ers socioculturellocal, il impose son modle de société au ri0erains, a0ec pour de0oir d) apporter la ci0ilisation au peuples Zdits\ %ar%aresL .

$l découle mani!estement d)une telle entreprise, 6ui mas6ue une certainesupercherie sur le postulat de l)humanitéIhumanisme, 6ue le colonisateurrecherchait en réalité < gra0er sa culture et sa 0ision du monde sur lecolonisé. Cela passait par di0ers mécanismes mais nous nous intéresseronssurtout < celui 6ui consistait < imposer au dominé la langue du dominant.C)est ainsi 6ue l)A!ri6ue sera répartie en di!!érentes /ones linguisti6uesre!létant les di0erses dominations impériales dont elle a été l)o%et, < sa0oir :la /one anglophone &prs de pays, la /one lusophone &K pays, la /onehispanophone & pays et la /one !rancophone &prs de 2B pays. chacunede ces res linguisti6ues, correspondront des spéci!icités littéraires dé!inies

par des modles d)écriture prenant en compte des ré!érents métropolitains. Nous allons surtout nous pencher au cas de la littérature !rancophone

pour eaminer le comportement 6ui a été le sien dans un milieu pro!ondément tra0ersé par le mimétisme. Considérant le colon !ran;ais&sous le sceau de l)o%ligation, de l)aliénation ou du complee comme uneemple < sui0re &6uitte < se nier soi-m=me, le colonisé !inira parconsidérer la langue et la culture !ran;aises comme gages de son propreessor et de son accomplissement. 'our ainsi par0enir < singer son maQtre , le colonisé s)assurera 6u)il est un él0e assidu, si ce n)est par!ait,dans son apprentissage du !ran;ais. $l se donne ainsi pour dé!i, en plus deseigences de maestria attendues de lui, d)égaler son ma_tre au tra0ers d)une

L C?(($?#, (éon. &KH : KP reprend d)ailleurs cette epression dans son analyse duromantisme < tra0ers le mythe d)Orphée. Mais, '?((A#$N, Ch. &HPL : BP-BP2-BPLl)a0ait dé< %ien !iée sous l)angle des représentations péorati0es 6u)elle suggérait. (eCN#( les met en lumire en dé!inissant la ci0ilisation ainsi : Ttat de dé0eloppementspirituel et matériel tenu pour supérieur par opposition < <arbarie Z[\. A--orter laciilisation des -eu-les barbares1 http:IIwww.cnrtl.!rIde!initionIacademieIci0ilisationconsulté le P no0em%re 2+2.




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maQtrise sans !aille de sa langue. C)est l< 6ue commence ustementl)acculturation.

Tcrire et parler correctement la langue !ran;aise de0iennent ds lors desidéau sacrés 6ue chacun 0oudrait atteindre, soit pour son honneur, soit pour

plaire au maQtre. Ce dernierne ne cache pas ses intentions. ")il 0eut donnerdu crédit < son argument de ci0ilisateur en A!ri6ue, il lui !audra %ienapporter la preu0e 6ue ces peuples dits indignes ont !ini par =tre capa%lesde s)eprimer dans la su-erbe langue !ran;aise. 'our atteindre ces o%ecti!s,naturellement, les langues locales sont découragées et eclues de tout espoird)=tre érigées en langue d)enseignement. "eul le !ran;ais compte et de0raitmériter ce pri0ilge puis6u)étant dé< accepté comme langue de la science et

capa%le de rendre compte des idées a%straites.()on comprend ainsi 6ue l)entreprise coloniale ait tra0aillé <

compromettre toute possi%ilité d)émergence des langues et cultures locales6ui statisti6uement, étaient maoritaires. D)une soi-disant idéed)humanisation, par la présence du colon en A!ri6ue, l)on assiste plutt <celle de déshumanisation < tra0ers l)acculturation des peuples colonisés.()identité du Noir < tra0ers sa culture lui est reniée sur l)autel de la politi6ued)assimilation. ()A!ricain est in0ité < se renier pour se re0endi6uer, parl)assimilation au 9lanc, une langue et une culture entirement eognes <ses ha%itudes.

(a langue !ran;aise 0a de ce !ait passer en !orce et %ousculer tout sur son passage 6uitte < ce 6ue les politi6ues éducati0es 6ui encouragent une tellesituation reposent sur des stéréotypes. Ces propos de 'ierre Aleandre, cités

par Che0rier H, décri0ent par!aitement la pro!ondeur de la pensée coloniale!ran;aise en A!ri6ue :

(a politi6ue coloniale !ran;aise, en matire d)éducation et d)administration est !acile< dé!inir : c)est celle de 3ran;ois er , de #ichelieu, de #o%espierre et de Jules 3erry.1ne seule langue est enseignée dans les écoles, admise dans les tri%unau, utiliséedans l)administration : le !ran;ais tel 6u)il est dé!ini par les gens de l)académie et lesdécrets du ministre de l)$nstruction 'u%li6ue. outes les autres ne sont 6ue !ol8lore,tutu panpan, o%scurantisme, %iniou et %ourrées, et !erments de désintégration de la

#épu%li6ue.

$l !aut donc é0iter ce sacrilge < la 3rance. (es colonisés ne sauraientéchapper < l)immense entreprise de !ormatage identitaire 6ui 0oudrait 6uel)empire colonial !ran;ais soit grand et partout pareil, c)est-<-dire capa%le demani!ester l)unicité con!orme < la métropole de la langue et de la culture

H C*?S#$?#, Jac6ues. )ittérature n4gre. 'aris : Arman Colin, H, p.2+K.




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heagonales. Cette am%ition, trs criti6ue sur le plan aiologi6ue, resteranéanmoins un non-dit 6ui est rarement eprimé comme le ré0le &parindélicatesse ces propos tenus en HHK par l)homme politi6ue !ran;aisSictor Duruy &H-HB, repris par Mouralis :

Wuand les indignes apprennent notre langue, ce sont nos idées de ustice 6ui entrent peu < peu dans leur esprit, ce sont des marchés 6ui s)ou0rent pour notre industrie.

T0idemment, si on a du mal < accepter l)argument de Duruy sur la ustice , la colonisation étant !oncirement inuste elle-m=me, nouscomprenons 6u)il le !aisait pour essayer de se usti!ier auprs del)opposition coloniale !ran;aise. $l se dégage de sa pensée l)idée d)un

trans!ert d)attri%uts culturels et donc de dépendance ontologi6ue.Celle-ci est en0isagea%le < tra0ers une politi6ue d)in!antilisation ducolonisé 6ue 9re0ié, gou0erneur général de l)AO3, !ormule en 2 en cestermes :

(e de0oir colonial et les nécessités politi6ues et économi6ues imposent < notreu0re d)éducation une dou%le t>che : il s)agit d)une part de !ormer des cadresindignes 6ui sont destinés < de0enir nos auiliaires dans tous les domaines, etd)assurer l)ascension d)une élite soigneusement choisie Z[\ Au point de 0ue

politi6ue, il s)agit de !aire connaQtre au indignes nos e!!orts et nos intentions, deles rattacher < leur place < la 0ie !ran;aise. Au point de 0ue économi6ue en!in, ils)agit de préparer les consommateurs de demain.+

#éa!!irmons donc ici 6ue les o%ecti!s d)enseignement sont aés surl)acculturation et la ro%otisation du colonisé a!in 6ue celui-ci soit plus porté0ers le modle eogne 6ue celui endogne pour et contre le6uel il de0raitse constituer. Cela ne se passe pas en toute tran6uillité. (e recours 6uasisystémi6ue < tous les ni0eau de 0iolence est permis. D)ailleurs, en 2B, ledurcissement dans le ton du discours du gou0erneur colonial #oume ré0leasse/ %ien les eneu : out l)enseignement de l)histoire et de lagéographie doit tendre < montrer 6ue la 3rance est une nation riche,

puissante, capa%le de se !aire respecter ."ur les plans linguisti6ue et culturel, cette mission impériale de la 3rance

0a =tre ser0ie par l)implantation de grandes %i%lioth6ues et la réalisation de0astes chantiers d)écriture d)anthologie. Ces chantiers permettront non

MO1#A($", 9ernard. )ittérature et déelo--ement . *ssai sur le statut, la fonction et lare-résentation de la littérature négro9africaine dVe@-ression franKaise. 'aris : "ile, HB,

p.H+.+ $n <ulletin de l’enseignement en A% , numéro LB, @@, p.@. $n <ulletin officiel de l’A% , numéro +2B, 2B.




@

seulement de recenser la pensée pro!onde des grands auteurs !ran;aissélectionnés intentionnellement, mais aussi, par leurs traits ache0és dansl)usage et la création littéraire, pourraient inspirer, et =tre adoptés par, la

petite élite noire en tant 6ue modles < reproduire. 'our ce !aire,l)ecellence des classi6ues !ran;ais 0a =tre a!!ichée au eunes a!ricainsdésireu de s)a!!irmer eu aussi en littérature.

Cependant, parce 6ue les A!ricains ne sont 6ue des no0ices dans ledomaine de l)écriture, et pour susciter l)en0ie de lire et la con!iance des3ran;ais de 3rance, ou des autres lecteurs occidentau, il 0a se mettre en

place une politi6ue de parrainage par des écri0ains métropolitains dé<reconnus. (a littérature a!ricaine 0a =tre ainsi encadrée par des écri0ains

réputés !ran;ais. André 9reton commente Cahier d’un retour au -a!s natal #. Desnos pré!ace la premire parution de la re0ue #igments de Damas #.Dela0ignette !ait la pré!ace de Earim d)Ousmane "océ lors de la deuimesortie du roman en BH J.-#. 9loch pré!ace orce9<onté de 9a8ary DialloG. *ardy introduit Doguicimi de 'aul *a/oumé Gaston 'érier pré!ace

$gando de (omami-shi%am%a, etc. (a consé6uence logi6ue attendue est6ue la littérature a!ricaine a0ait donc %esoin d)encadrement et du cachet de6uel6ues Occidentau de renom a!in 6u)elle %éné!icie de l)accueil du pu%lic

%ourgeois pour le6uel elle se destinait de pré!érence.$l 0a sans dire dans ce contete 6ue l)école et la langue !ran;aises, s)étant

chargées d)une aura particulire dans l)imagerie populaire, a0aient parache0é l)entreprise coloniale entamée sur le plan politi6ue. (escolonisés, per;us comme des em%ryons certainement inache0és de la castehumaine, le colon se donnait le de0oir de continuer < leur apporter sonassistance et son encadrement. D)ailleurs, comme le rel0e si %ien "artre,cité par Che0rier, le colon s)a0isera < ne amais 6uitter ce statut 0ouluindétrna%le d)entité présente perpétuelle :

c)est dans cette langue Z!ran;aise\ Z[\ 6ue Damas, Diop, (aleau, #a%ieari0elo 0ont0erser le !eu de leurs ciels et de leurs curs : par elle seule ils peu0entcommuni6uer sem%la%les au sa0ants du ^S$e sicle 6ui ne s)entendaient 6u)enlatin, les noirs ne se retrou0ent 6ue sur le terrain plein de chausse-trapes 6ue le %lanc

leur a préparé : entre les colonisés, le colon s)est arrangé pour =tre le médiateur ilest touours l< m=me a%sent.2

'our assoir le primat du !ran;ais sur les langues du cru et surtout pour pou0oir espérer des indignes une epression accepta%le, l)initiation augrands classi6ues !ran;ais est un recours incontourna%le. (e colonisé est

2 C*?S#$?#, Jac6ues. Ibid1, p. 2@B.




B+

ainsi, tt certainement, mis au contact des grands auteurs de la ci0ilisationoccidentaleI!ran;aise. $l doit s)en inspirer et ré0éler sa propre epression surle 0ersant du génie de ces maQtres < penser. (e colonisé est attendu sur leterrain de l)ecellence. $l n)a d)ailleurs pas de choi puis6u)il ne connaQtaucune autre norme 6ue celle de l)ecellence.

'ris dans l)e!!er0escence d)une telle am%iance de clonage, les eunescolonisés, ressentant le %esoin d)écrire, s)essayeront sur le m=me sillage 6ueleurs aQnés !ran;ais dont ils tenteront de reproduire non seulement la languestylée, mais aussi les techni6ues d)écriture, s)il ne s)agit pas toutsimplement de copier les imaginaires. (a de0ise est simple < ce ni0eau. $l!aut mimer son maQtre et s)a%reu0er < sa source. 'rocéder autrement n)était

pas en0isagea%le car il !allait é0iter de pécher contre ses 0énérésmodles.

(a langue !ran;aise 0a s)a0érer incontourna%le et les modles del)*eagone 0ont ser0ir de guides au déclic des nou0eau écri0ains noirs!rancophones. Ceu-ci, a!!ranchis de leurs 0érita%les ressources créatrices etinspirationnelles, 0ont s)arrimer < un prestige a0ilissant 6ue leur procurenéanmoins le sensationnel d)une écriture dans une langue eoti6ue.Orphelin de son uni0ers socioculturel, l)écri0ain noir 0a se retrou0er prisdans les chaQnes d)une langue 6ui lui ole toute possi%ilité de penser oud)écrire en sa propre langue ou de pu%lier dans son continentIpays d)origine.Colonisé politi6uement et économi6uement, aoutons m=meen0ironnementalement puis6ue ses ressources naturelles sont gérées de &et

pro!itent < l)etérieur, le eune écri0ain a!ricain 0a connaQtre l)epériencedouloureuse de la colonisation linguisti6ue et culturelle. ()écri0ain noir!rancophone a ainsi les pieds en A!ri6ue et la t=teIpenséeImodle en?uropeI3rance. "on acti0ité scripturaire tente, dans un e!!ort digne deseigences de )’Art -oétique de 9oileau, de reconstituer le paysage littéraireet artisti6ue de son maQtre ceci au tra0ers de l)imitation ser0ile et del)identi!ication de soi < l)altérité en0isagée comme 0oie de &sur0ie.

De 9al/ac, Molire, "tendhal < *ugo, Malher%e, Soltaire, Corneille,Chateau%riand, 'roust en passant par 9audelaire, 3lau%ert ou #ousseau, le

désir de ressem%lance est a0éréIa0oué. 'our l)écri0ain #ené 'hilom%e, cité par 3otsing &2++B, la con!ession en dit long sur l)attention 6u)il réser0e <ses aQnés !ran;ais :

out en!ant, e sa0ourais délicieusement tous les li0res 6ui étaient mis < ma portéeZ[\. C)est par cette 0oie 6ue )ai décou0ert des écri0ains Ztels 6ue\ (a 3ontaine,Soltaire, Montes6uieu, 9audelaire, Sictor *ugo, 9oileau[ Je me suis




B

a%ondamment a%reu0é de ces auteurs !ran;ais < l)école primaire et au cours de mesétudes secondaires. @

Comme on peut le constater, la !lamme occidentale %rle en l)écri0ain!rancophone au point 6ue sa création puisse en dépendre !ondamentalement.

b, De a 4eau noire au +a!7ue banc *)criture co++e 4a!!eree(a 3rance et le !ran;ais se portent %ien en A!ri6ue. (es 0aleurs de ce

pays sont allgrement considérées et reprises par les écri0ains noirs 6ui netrou0ent d)ailleurs d)autres !ormes d)écriture 6ue sous le de0oir dereconnaissance 0is-<-0is d)un paysInationIculture 6ui leur a tout

apprisItransmis. (e reconnaQtre, c)est aussi prendre la plume et mani!esterune certaine louange < la langue !ran;aise et au génie !ran;ais. (aconsé6uence 6ui serait alors attendue est 6ue non seulement les auteursa!ricains 0ont écrire dans la langue du colon, mais aussi, ils seront pu%liés etrécompensés par ce dernier lors6u)il ugera les tetes su!!isamment soignés< son got. "ou0enons-nous 6ue le premier roman de 5ourouma n)a0ait pasété pu%lié en 3rance parce 6u)il s)éloignait des 0ertus normati0es attenduesd)un roman de colonisé. "ou0enons-nous aussi 6ue Mongo 9eti n)a pres6uerien re;u comme pri littéraire du !ait de son positionnement idéologi6uecontre l)ancienne métropole dans ses romans.

?n d)autres termes, lors6u)un A!ricain a!!ichait une certaine dépendance

de la norme !ran;aise, en plus de ne pas mani!ester une plume acer%e <l)encontre du colon, il pou0ait =tre rassuré de l)encadrement et de la

prospérité < lui accordés. #aris se positionne, d)aprs moiB, comme uncenseur et un !aiseur d)écri0ains.

(es premiers écri0ains, dans cet en0ironnement %asé sur la perspecti0e del)ecellence par l)imitation des aQnés , 0ont reprendre a0ec un certaintalent, les techni6ues d)écriture de leurs modles !ran;ais. ()assimilation est

pres6ue totale < ce ni0eau. ()écri0ain noir, inscrit sur les traces de sonmaQtre, tend < le camélioniser, a0ec succs d)ailleurs. C)est alors 6ue 0a semettre en place le grand marché de l)intertetualité o la techni6ue ducitationnel reconnue au tete est a%ondamment employée. (es énoncés se

répondent comme en échos au point 6u)il de0ient intéressant d)en étudier les!ormes de correspondances entre les tetes d)origine métropolitaine et ceud)origine a!ricaine 6ui les miment.

@ '*$(OM9?, #ené. ?ntretien a0ec Da0id Ndachi agne. $otre )ibrairie ++ &+ : [email protected] C!. Mon article intitulé 'aris au cur de la production littéraire !rancophone :monopole éditorial, péril créateur , in )a tortue erte, 2+2, pp. 2-@.




B2

(es relations intertetuelles entre ces deu ensem%les de tetes montrent %ien les liens de !iliations entre les deu classes d)écri0ains également. $l setrou0e 6ue le langage du tete d)origine est repris, pres6u)< l)identi6ue, parle langage du tete a!ricain. ()écri0ain noir cherchait, pour atteindre ceni0eau de correspondance des !ormes, < se dé%arrasser de toutes lestropicalités liées < son oralité %asi6ue. (e courant en 0ogue en 3rance, tel6ue le naturalisme de Xola, a %ien in!luencé #ené Maran. Che0rier reconnaQtla !er0eur naturaliste de Maran en ces termes :

?n tant 6ue roman, l)u0re Z[\ se réclame < l)é0idence de l)esthéti6ue naturalisteZ[\ ?n déclarant dans sa pré!ace 6ue ce roman est tout o%ecti!. $l ne t>che m=me

pas epli6uer : il constate. $l ne s)indigne pas : il enregistre , Maran se place dansla perspecti0e des romanciers naturalistes !ran;ais, et notamment Xola a0ec 6ui la parenté éclate.K

#icard, analysant les romans de 3éli Couchoro, en arri0e < la conclusion6u)ils sont tous d)un ni0eau de langue 6ui, de manire consé6uente, se 0eutch>tié :

(es trois premiers romans de 3éli Couchoro !ourmillent des mots et de toursappartenant < ce style dit rele0é 6ui n)est 6ue stéréotypé. 1n got Z[\ pour les grands mots et le %eau style , sou0ent dans la grande tradition classi6ue.P

Cette o%session de la per!ection, m=me si elle peut paraQtre etra0agante par!ois, a aussi ha%ité la plume de Camara (aye. (es intermina%lessu%oncti!s impar!aits dont regorge )’*nfant noir ont assuré une plus-0alue< une maQtrise de la syntae et de la mesure rythmi6ue de sa phrase.

Dans le domaine de la poésie, "enghor, en 2L, use a0ec 0irtuosité des!igures des courants parnassiens et sym%olistes, comme le souligne ArmantGuiltier L. Des similitudes se nouent ainsi entre la poésie de "enghor et cellede Claudel. (a pensée de "enghor se rapporte < la 0olonté conceptuelle de'ierre eilhard de Chardin dont il ne se cache pas en tout cas lors d)undiscours 6u)il prononce < 9ordeau en H+ :

Nous a0ons 0oulu aider au grand proet eprimé par 'ierre eilhard de Chardin, au proet de %>tir une ci0ilisation de l)1ni0ersel, o tous les continents, toutes les races,

K C*?S#$?#, Jac6ues. Ibid1, p. 2L.P

#$CA#D, Alain. $aissance d’un roman africain . éli@ Couchoro, 5688956OM1 'aris :'résence a!ricaine, HL, pp. -2+. L Cité par C*?S#$?#, Jac6ues, Ibid1, p.2P.




B@

toutes les nations, en un mot toutes les ci0ilisations, apporteraient chacune toutes ses0aleurs irrempla;a%les.H

9ien plus, dans cette tendance < l)adossement des potes a!ricains < la pensée occidentale, Magnier &K : K s)autorise les conclusionssui0antes : chi8aya 1 am)si est un disciple de #im%aud, 9irago Diop sere0endi6uerait du parnasse alors 9ernard Dadier répondrait aisément <l)esthéti6ue classi6ue. On pourrait donc dire 6ue Maran est celui 6ui areproduit Xola, Couchoro a retracé les lignes dé!inies par *ugo, Mongo9eti, celles éla%orées par Soltaire, *amidou 5ane a opté pour lesclassi6ues, etc. out cela porte < croire 6ue nous sommes %ien dans la

logi6ue de peau noire, écriture %lanche.Ainsi, cette littérature des colonisés résout la 6uestion selon la6uellel)entreprise coloniale a au moins 6uel6ues raisons de continuer puis6ue desindignes ont pu accéder < une connaissance accepta%le de la langue ducolon. M=me si on peut admettre a0ec Che0rier 6ue Zn\ul ne peut contesteren e!!et 6u)< l)épo6ue coloniale la maQtrise de la langue !ran;aise a constitué

pour l)intelligentsia a!ricaine un atout de premier ordre , il !aut toute!oisrele0er 6ue celui-ci aidera l)A!ricain < mieu saisir les contradictions liées <la politi6ue coloniale plus tard. C)est en prenant mieu connaissance de sonétat de clone du 9lanc 6ue l)écri0ain noir 0a peu < peu se déchaQner ducontrle linguisti6ue et culturel 6ui le lie < l)epérience scripturaire

métropolitaine. $l 0a ainsi re0endi6uer, < dé!aut d)écrire en sa propre languematernelle, sa méthode de création, de composition et d)a!!irmation, en tant6u)auteur, dans la langue !ran;aise 6u)il lui con0ient d)utiliser. C)est < ceni0eau 6ue %ascule le %on usage de la langue !ran;aise dans ce 6ui estretenu comme le nou0el ordre linguisti6ue de la littérature noire émancipée.

II D)cooni!ation 4ar abUtardi!ation de a nor+e de aan-ue/cuture 6ranHai!e!

a, Ind)4endance itt)raire en A6ri7ue noire 6ranco4hone(oin donc de continuer de 0oir en la langue !ran;aise, un outil de

con!ormité < une norme intangi%le et incontourna%le, le rapport desécri0ains a!ricains < cette langue 0a changer de pesanteur au point 6u)il luidonnera le 0isage 6u)ils souhaitent. $ls dé!igureront < 0olonté le !ran;ais

pour 6u)il soit capa%le de s)adapter < eu et non plus l)in0erse. (e !ran;aisde0ient ainsi, non plus une langue de contraintes ou d)imposition, mais une

H Discours de 9ordeau, B mars H+. C*?S#$?#, Jac6ues. Ibid1, p. 2@L.




BB

langue !lei%leIpropice < la création et pou0ant 0éhiculer des réalités toutaussi eoti6ues, c)est-<-dire liées < la socioculture locale.()a!!ranchissement 0is-<-0is du di8tat d)une norme ugée eogne et peuou0erte < l)epression du moi a!ricain est déclaré. (a !in de la colonisationlinguisti6ue au tra0ers du !ran;ais standard métropolitain est annoncée. Onse rend pres6ue dé< compte du mal immense 6ue crée cette langue 6uant au0ide dans le6uel elle installe les A!ricains par rapport < leurs ressourcesoriginelles. ()*aqtien Gérard Chenet, cité par Che0rier eprimera cet étatdans un sentiment d)occupationIin0alidation linguisti6ue :

Dans mon en!ance o e m)épanouissais dans la connaissance, gr>ce < la langue

maternelle, l)intrusion du !ran;ais m)est apparue comme la présence d)un gendarme2+

.

$l est é0ident 6ue les écri0ains a!ricains commencent dé< < se sentir <l)étroit dans une langue !ran;aise incapa%le de li%érer e!!icacement leur

pensée pro!onde. Conscient de ce malaise 6ui trou%le 0iscéralement sonidentité 0iolée, le pote haqtien (éon (aleau, cité par Ngal écrira :

Ce cur o%sédant, 6ui ne correspond'as < mon langage ou < mes coutumes,?t sur le6uel mordent, comme un crampon,"es sentiments d)emprunt et des coutumesD)?urope, sente/-0ous cette sou!!rance

?t ce désespoir < nul autre égalD)appri0oiser, a0ec des mots de 3ranceCe cur 6ui m)est 0enu du "énégal 2

3ort de cette déroute intérieure, l)écri0ain 0a aller < la con6u=te de lui-m=me comme l)a0ait souhaité les chantres de la négritude. Ne pou0ant ni

pu%lier dans son continent, ni écrire en langues locales, il 0a néanmoins tirersa re0anche sur la langue !ran;aise sur la6uelle il appli6uera sa propre0olonté et sa dé!inition de la littérature. Celle-ci, di!!icilement classi!ia%leau canons occidentau, 0a eplorer les domaines de l)inattendu et del)oralittérature. Nous entendons par ce concept, le !ait 6ue le tete

!rancophone a!ricain puisse m=ler dans sa constitution, les ressources del)oral et de l)écrit dans l)émergence d)une poéti6ue postcoloniale.

Juste aprs les indépendances, 5ourouma 0a inaugurer cette tendancenou0elle de la littérature noire %asée sur l)a%>tardisationIdésacralisation du

2+ C*?S#$?#, Jac6ues. Ibid1, p. [email protected] NGA(, Georges. Création et ru-ture en littérature africaine. 'aris : ()*armattan, K,

p. BK.






BP

con!ormer ou < reproduire. "on émancipation est telle 6ue seule sa propreimagination se constitue en guide. out est maintenant possi%le. "onesthéti6ue oscille entre le !ragmentaire, l)arithméti6ue, la tropicalisation du!ran;ais o l)oralité est en compétition a0ec l)écriture. (e 0aste chantierd)appropriation de la réalité a!ricaine et des langues de ce continent !eraapparaQtre celles-ci dans les li0res. Ainsi, des mots, epressions et phrasesentires rentreront en con!lit de positionnement a0ec le !ran;ais dans unelittérature 6ui postule pourtant s)éla%orer en !ran;ais . ?n !ait, ce sont des littératures de traduction dont il est 6uestion ici. (es auteurs cherchent <écrire leurs uni0ers socioculturels d)origine a0ec les mots de la langue!ran;aise. 5ourouma l)atteste %ien en ces termes :

Mon premier pro%lme d)écri0ain, d)écri0ain !rancophone, est donc d)a%ord une6uestion de culture[ e me %ats dans une grande con!usion de termes a0ec lesepressions !ran;aises 6ue )utilise.2K

Cela usti!ie donc sa raison de malin8iser le !ran;ais pour tenter de li%érer sa parole pro!onde. C)est un acte de courage scripturaire 6ui 0ient rompre a0ecles ré!lees assimilationnistes. 5ourouma opte pour un pu%lic a!ricain 6u)il!aut désormais satis!aire, plutt 6ue celui européen 6ui, pour peu 6u)il estmis au centre de l)écriture, aline < coup sr l)auteur noir :

Ce li0re s)adresse < l)A!ricain. Je l)ai pensé en malin8é et écrit en !ran;ais prenantune li%erté 6ue )estime naturelle a0ec la langue classi6ue Z[\ Wu)a0ais-e donc!ait "implement donné li%re cours < mon tempérament en distordant une langueclassi6ue trop rigide pour 6ue ma pensée s)y meu0e. J)ai donc traduit le malin8é en!ran;ais, en cassant le !ran;ais pour retrou0er et restituer le rythme a!ricain.2P

Cette li%erté dans le ton et la démarche caractérise aussi (a%ou ansi pour 6ui écrire chercherait < ramener au strict minimum la distance 6uisépare l)écri0ain dit !rancophone de son pu%lic a!ricain < tra0ers le conceptde tropicalisation. 'our lui, cité par Che0rier, Z\e !ais éclater les mots

pour eprimer ma tropicalité : écrire mon li0re me demandait d)in0enter unlei6ue des noms capa%les par leur sonorité de rendre la situationtropicale 2L.

1ne nou0elle norme est ainsi imposée < l)ancienne norme centrale6u)était le !ran;ais métropolitain. Gassama la usti!ie de cette manire :

2K 5O1#O1MA, Ahmadou. Tcrire en !ran;ais, penser dans sa langue maternelle in tudes ranKaises, 0ol. ^^^$$$, nV , L, p.K.2P Cité par C*?S#$?#, Jac6ues, Ibid1, p.2K.2L Ibid1, p.2@L.




BL

c)est précisément les mots de 3rance 6ui doi0ent se plier, se soumettre, pour épouserles contours par!ois si sinueu, si complees de nos pensées il !aut %ien 6u)ilsacceptent cette o%éissance a0eugle, 6u)ils admettent des dé0iations, puis6u)ils ont

pris le ris6ue de tra0erser les mers il !aut %ien 6u)ils acceptent de s)acclimater.2H

(es rles sont ainsi in0ersés. Ce n)est plus l)écri0ain noir 6ui se plie < lanorme eogne c)est celle-ci désormais 6ui se plie < la 0olonté li%érée dela norme locale. D)ailleurs, on se sou0ient %ien de ce propos retentissant6u)a0ait émis chicaya 1 am)si en LP et repris par "ou%ias pourencourager le phénomne d)appropriation : il y a 6ue la langue !ran;aise

me colonise et 6ue e la colonise < mon tour, ce 6ui, !inalement, donne %ienune autre langue.2

b, $our une ib)ration !cri4turaire de *)crivain noir (concu!ion,()un des principau signes de l)indépendance littéraire de l)A!ri6ue est

incontesta%lement l)a!!ranchissement des recettes proposées par la langue etles canons des classi6ues !ran;ais. ()on ne s)en inspire plus. (a rue et lasociété a!ricaines su!!isent pour ser0ir de lieu de composition et de créationlittéraires. (e terroir n)est donc plus ignoré ou négligé. $l rentre désormaissur la scne de construction de l)identité nationale et littéraire a!ricaines. (asource d)inspiration n)est plus loin cherchée elle est disponi%le sur le plan

local et découle de l)imaginaire singulier de l)écri0ain 6ui en eploite lesressources dans le langage 6u)il lui con0ient de con0o6uer.'arler de décolonisation serait donc chercher < donner une eistence

centrale au contete et au génie a!ricain < tra0ers une littérature d)a%orda!!ranchie de la dictature 6ue lui impose les milieu d)édition et dereconnaissance occidentau, mais aussi, se doter de ses propres arcanes de

production en masse de la pensée locale. 'our cela, l)industrie du li0rea!ricain doit se doter de ses propres maisons d)édition 6ui 0ulgariseront les

pu%lications en langues locales, ensuite, les pri littéraires 0isant < rassurerles écri0ains noirs sur leurs talents, en!in de grands marchés de traduction enlangues européennes des li0res authenti6uement a!ricains. $l 0a sans dire

6ue tout ceci doit s)accompagner d)une politi6ue du li0re non seulement 6uile rende disponi%le partout, mais aussi est aidée d)une éducation scolaire etacadémi6ue mettant au rang de langues o!!icielles et d)enseignements, les

2H GA""AMA, Ma8hily. )a )angue d’Ahmadou Eourouma ou le franKais sous le soleild’Afrique. 'aris : ACCI5arthala, K, p.K.2

"O19$A", 'ierre. ?ntre langue de l)autre et langue < soi , in ranco-honie etidentités culturelles &dir. Ch. Au%ert. 'aris : 5arthala, , p. @.




BH

richesses socioculturelles et linguisti6ues 6ue compte ce continent. Ce n)est6u)ainsi 6ue l)A!ri6ue s)a!!ranchira pour se constituer en !orce de

proposition consé6uente au commerce de la pensée dans le monde.

Caude ;ric OWONO ZAM=O1ni0ersité de 9ergen, Nor0ge

Ouvra-e! cit)!

9ADDAU, Monce! ". Ahmadou 5ourouma, écri0ain a!ricain . Afriquelittéraire et artistique, nV+, L+, pp. 2-H.

C?(($?#, (éon. (e #omantisme et le mythe dFOrphée . Cahiers delVAssociation internationale des études franKaises, nV+, KH, pp.@H-KL.

C*?S#$?#, Jac6ues. )ittérature n4gre. 'aris : Arman Colin, H.

3O"$NG, #o%ert. Mongo 9eti, #ené 'hilom%e : écrire entre lFeil et le

royaume . #e0ue *quino@es, nV @, 2++B.http:IIwww.%rown.eduI#esearchI?6uinoesIournalIissue@Ie6@j!otsing.html, consulté le 2 décem%re 2+2.

GA""AMA, Ma8hily. )a )angue d’Ahmadou Eourouma ou le franKais sous le soleil d’Afrique. 'aris : ACCI5arthala, K.

*A#1NA, Jiyah Jaco%. A!rican 4riters as 'racticing ranslators : heCase o! Ahmadou 5ourouma . )iterar! "ranslations, 0ol. P, nV B, 2++2.http:IIwww.%o8orlang.comIournalI228ourouma.htm, consulté le 2décem%re 2+2.

5O1#O1MA, Ahmadou. Tcrire en !ran;ais, penser dans sa languematernelle . tudes ranKaises, 0ol. ^^^$$$, nV , L, pp.K-H.

MAGN$?#, 9ernard. #oésie d’Afrique au sud du +ahara . 56RN9566N.'aris : 1N?"COIActes "ud, K.




B

MO1#A($", 9ernard. )ittérature et déelo--ement . *ssai sur le statut, la fonction et la re-résentation de la littérature négro9africainedVe@-ression franKaise. 'aris : "ile, HB.

NGA(, Georges. Création et ru-ture en littérature africaine. 'aris :()*armattan, K.

O4ONO XAM9O, Claude Tric. 'aris au cur de la production littéraire!rancophone : monopole éditorial, péril créateur . )a "ortue 3erte,2+2.http:IIwww.latortue0erte.comIDO""$?#2+Ce2+6ue2+'aris2+!a

it2+au2+litteratures2+!rancophones2+an02+2+2.pd!consulté le K an0ier 2+@.

'*$(OM9?, #ené. ?ntretien a0ec Da0id Ndachi agne. $otre )ibrairie. nV++, +, pp. K2-K@.

'?((A#$N, Ch.. Ce 6uFil !aut entendre par le mot ci0ilisation . <ulletinsde la +ociété dVanthro-ologie de #aris, $$V "érie, tome 2, HPL, pp. BB@-BL.

#$CA#D, Alain. $aissance d’un roman africain . éli@ Couchoro, 5688956OM1 'aris : 'résence a!ricaine, HL.

"O19$A", 'ierre. ?ntre langue de l)autre et langue < soi . ranco-honie et identités culturelles &dir. Ch. Au%ert. 'aris : 5arthala,, pp. -@K.



K+

C%A$TE" K

(a d$colonisation de Maurice 2 entre chan+e!ent et

a'orie

Ab!tract: he 2th o! March PH mar8s a new %eginning !or Mauritius, as theisland %ecomes independent a!ter %eing consecuti0ely Dutch, 3rench and 9ritish

colonies. Decoloni/ation le!t Mauritius with a melting pot o! ethnic groups,cultures and languages that come !rom A!rica, China, $ndia and ?urope, all o!which ha0e %een !eeding the island in terms o! sla0es, immigrants as well ascoloni/ers. *ardly can it %e said that the independence o! Mauritius was o%tainedsmoothly. Maor militants o! the island struggled !or the upli!tment o! Mauritians)well-%eing and human dignity. hose who had the 0ision o! an independent nationwere #amgoolam, An6uetil and 'andit "ahadeo, among others. here were also theintellectuals li8e Marcel Ca%on & $amasté, <rasse9au9ent and (oys Masson& )’toile et la Clef who did not re!rain !rom the promotion o! the mani!esto o!cutting the cordE with the 9ritish ?mpire. heir writings spea8 lengths a%out it.More recently, )e +ilence des Chagos &"hena/ 'atel %rings to light the traumacaused when the inha%itants o! Diego Garcia were !orced to eile in PK, a!ter the

15 ecised the Chagos Archipelago &with Diego Garcia %eing the main island!rom Mauritian territory. he 15 leased the atoll to 1" to accomplish the 15I1"mutual de!ense strategy.

'ostcolonial literature see8s o%ecti0ity, and neither tries to !orce readers tosympathi/e with nor to !eel resentment !or any epression o! radical 0ictimi/ation.$t see8s to unra0el the pain o! the mass through a delicate com%ination o! thoughtsand words. he Mauritian postcolonial !rancophone literature lays emphasis onwhat is called ]une0enness) li8e cross%reeding & l’Autre bout de moi %y *um%ert,while eploring the glo%al literature as in )e Chemin des -oussi4res %y Gordon-Gentil and )e Dernier fr4re %y Nathacha Appanah.

4e are now in 2+@. Does this metamorphic genre still show the trauma caused %y coloni/ation $s sel!-go0ernance, a!ter decoloni/ation, su!!icient !or the

construction o! the identity o! a nation $! so0ereignty !ails to do so, what then doesthe aporetic metamorphosis conceal Are we still negotiating nationalism %ehindthe mas8 o! a recuperati0e discourse o! empowering e!!ects and attitudes

")!u+) : (e 2 mars PH sem%le mar6uer un tournant dé!initi! pour Mauricel)Qle accde < son statut d)indépendance de la colonisation %ritanni6ue 6ui, elle-m=me, est précédée par une colonisation hollandaise, puis !ran;aise. (e peuplemauricien est un %rassage d)ethnies et de cultures a!ricaine, indienne, chinoise et



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européenne, issues d)escla0es, d)immigrants ou de colons. "i l)indépendance du pays est ac6uise non sans heurts, il !aut saluer le rle maeur 6u)ont oué lesacti0istes du pays dans cette lutte pour l)indépendance &#amgoolam, An6uetil,'andit "ahadeo. "ans compter les intellectuels dont la plume littéraire de0ient uneassignation < la re0endication. ?n e!!et, si (oys Masson & )’toile et la clef ouMarcel Ca%on & $amasté, <rasse9au9ent sont les chantres de l)indépendance,d)autres - comme Marcelle (agesse & )a diligence s’éloigne l’aube - démontrentune stratégie d)écriture 6ui encense la colonisation. "ans doute cela nous in!orme-t-il 6ue le trans!ert de pou0oir est mal 0u par certaines couches de la population, dontcelles 6ui 0oient cela sonner le glas de leurs prérogati0es, 6uand le pou0oir seramaoritairement entre les mains de la communauté hindoue.

()o%tention de l)indépendance, engendrerait-elle pour autant une métamorphose

de l)hori/on littéraire !rancophone mauricien Alors 6ue ceu 6ui se sentent léséss)eilent, l)écriture leur sert d)eutoire et, au mieu, d)arme de com%at. *um%ert& l’autre bout de moi, par eemple, a%orde l)épineu pro%lme de l)identité desmétis et de leur acceptation dans une société o le métis a sou0ent le traitementd)un su%alterne. 'lus prs dans le temps, 'atel & )e +ilence des Chagos dénonce laspoliation des Chagossiens de Diego Garcia depuis PK par les Anglais. (esChagossiens, eilés de !orce < Maurice, pleurent de ne pou0oir regagner leur terrealors 6ue (es Chagos ser0ent auourd)hui de %ase militaire américaine notamment

pour les epéditions en A!ghanistan, entre autres. ?n somme, l)écriture postcoloniale nous con0ie < l)o%ecti0ité a!in de ne pas

tom%er dans la complaisance ou la radicalisation de la 0ictimisation. $l y a commeune discontinuité !éconde de cette écriture 6ui pri0ilégie les désé6uili%res&métissage, eplore les nou0elles a0enues en ligne a0ec une littérature dite glo%ale & )e Chemin des -oussi4res de Gordon-Gentil et )e Dernier fr4red)Appanah. Mais, pour autant, l)écriture de la décolonisation, est-ellecompltement dé!aite de certaines compleités 6ui lui sont eistentielles ()indépendance, n)a-t-elle pas dans son sillage laissé une aporie liée < une nou0elleac6uisition de l)identité ()écriture postcoloniale 6ui sem%le s)a!!irmer,n)autorise-t-elle pas < porter un autre discours < l)interrogation collecti0e des suetssou0erains

(e 2 mars PH sem%le mar6uer un tournant dé!initi! pour Maurice

l)Qle accde < son statut d)indépendance de la colonisation %ritanni6ue 6ui,elle-m=me, est précédée par une colonisation hollandaise, puis !ran;aise. (e peuple mauricien est un %rassage d)ethnies et de cultures a!ricaine, indienne,chinoise et européenne, issues d)escla0es, d)immigrants ou de colons. "il)indépendance du pays est ac6uise non sans heurts, il !aut saluer le rlemaeur 6u)ont oué les acti0istes du pays dans cette lutte pourl)indépendance &#amgoolam, An6uetil, 'andit "ahadeo. "ans compter lesintellectuels dont la plume littéraire de0ient une assignation < la



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re0endication. ?n e!!et, si (oys Masson & )’toile et la clef ou MarcelCa%on & $amasté, <rasse9au9ent sont les chantres de l)indépendance,d)autres - comme Marcelle (agesse & )a diligence s’éloigne l’aube -démontrent une stratégie d)écriture 6ui encense la colonisation. "ans doutecela nous in!orme-t-il 6ue le trans!ert de pou0oir est mal 0u par certainescouches de la population, dont celles 6ui 0oient cela sonner le glas de leurs

prérogati0es, 6uand le pou0oir sera maoritairement entre les mains de lacommunauté hindoue. ()o%tention de l)indépendance, engendrerait-elle

pour autant une métamorphose de l)hori/on littéraire !rancophonemauricien

Alors 6ue ceu 6ui se sentent lésés s)eilent, l)écriture leur sert

d)eutoire et, au mieu, d)arme de com%at. *um%ert & l’autre bout demoi, par eemple, a%orde l)épineu pro%lme de l)identité des métis et deleur acceptation dans une société o le métis a sou0ent le traitement d)unsu%alterne. 'lus prs dans le temps, 'atel & )e +ilence des Chagos dénoncela spoliation des Chagossiens de Diego Garcia depuis PK par les Anglais.(es Chagossiens, eilés de !orce < Maurice, pleurent de ne pou0oir regagnerleur terre alors 6ue (es Chagos ser0ent auourd)hui de %ase militaireaméricaine notamment pour les epéditions en A!ghanistan, entre autres.

?n somme, l)écriture postcoloniale nous con0ie < l)o%ecti0ité a!in de ne pas tom%er dans la complaisance ou la radicalisation de la 0ictimisation. $l ya comme une discontinuité !éconde de cette écriture 6ui pri0ilégie lesdésé6uili%res &comme le métissage.

Mais, pour autant, l)écriture de la décolonisation, est-elle compltementdé!aite de certaines compleités 6ui lui sont eistentielles ()indépendance,n)a-t-elle pas dans son sillage laissé une aporie liée < une nou0elleac6uisition de l)identité ()écriture postcoloniale 6ui sem%le s)a!!irmer,n)autorise-t-elle pas < porter un autre discours < l)interrogation collecti0edes suets sou0erains

Nous proposons donc d)articuler notre analyse selon trois aes principau. Dans un premier temps, nous a%orderons une perspecti0ehistori6ue a!in de mieu en cerner les eneu. (a premire partie intitulée

le, colonisation et littérature : pour une perspecti0e histori6ue a%orderal)aspect histori6ue de Maurice a!in de mieu comprendre la littérature 6uien a émergé. (a deuime partie intitulée De l)appel au changement au

processus de décolonisation , mettra en é0idence le tete de (oys Masson,roman-phare de la période pré-indépendance de l)Qle. (a troisime etdernire partie ou Aporie liée < la décolonisation de Maurice allierahistoire et le tete de "hena/ 'atel a!in de mieu cerner l)émou0antehistoire entourant l)Archipel des Chagos.



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Ve. cooni!ation et itt)rature 4our une 4er!4ective hi!tori7ue3 Nous ne pourrons !aire état de la décolonisation de Maurice en !aisant

a%straction de la période coloniale, elle-m=me instrumentale < l)émergenced)une littérature dite ]engagée). ?n e!!et, l)Qle Maurice, décou0erte par le'ortugais en BH - 6ui la %aptisent Cirne -, connaQtra successi0ement lacolonisation hollandaise, !ran;aise puis %ritanni6ue. "i les *ollandais 6uis)installent dans l)Qle en P@H - l)appelant &auritius - ne peu0ent maQtriserl)Qle car les !or=ts indignes &notamment les é%éniers !urent saccagées alors6ue Zl\)éta%lissement principal !ormé au Grand-'ort autour d)un !ortnommé 3ort 3rederi8 *endri8 ne dé0eloppa gure , ils trou0eront leur

salut au Cap, %ien mieu situé 2. 'ar ailleurs, la destruction occasionnée par les rats 6ui dé0oraient leurs récoltes, ainsi 6ue leur incapacité, demanire générale, < gou0erner le pays, les !eront a%andonner l)Qle. Alors 6ueles 3ran;ais prennent possession de 9our%on l)année o les *ollandaiscolonisent Maurice, ce sera le 2+ septem%re LK 6ue l)Qle est re%aptisée

&auritius. &auritius de0ient o!!iciellement colonie !ran;aise et elle estrenommée Isle de rance@. (e dé0eloppement de Maurice connaQt alors uneascension !ulgurante, gr>ce au génie de 9ertrand-3ran;ois Mahé de(a%ourdonnais, note Nagapen. ?!!ecti0ement, Mahé de (a%ourdonnais :

Z[\ con;ut pour la 0ille un plan d)ur%anisme, selon un tracé régulateur 6uadrillé 6ui

a régi le percement des rues perpendiculaires Z[\ !it construire Z[\ des casernes,des magasins, un moulin < !arine, un moulin < poudre, des salines au Caudan, et desa6ueducs pour alimenter le che!-lieu en eau pota%le. ?n L@L, < l)emplacement del)actuelle &auritius Commercial <an; , il !it ériger la premire église "aint-(ouis

B.

$l organise également la traite négrire et en mars PHK, (ouis ^$S promulgue l)édit - le Code Noir - a!in de réglementer l)escla0age auAntilles. (e départ < la retraite de Mahé de (a%ourdonnais ainsi 6ue sessuccesseurs ne permettra pas < la 3rance de maintenir sa supériorité dansl)Qle. (e @ décem%re H+, la capitulation est signée et l)Qle de0ient

O1""A$N, Auguste. 0istoire de l’_le &aurice. 'aris : '13, LB. Coll. 6ue sais- e , p. 2P.2 Ibid ., p. 2L.@ NAGA'?N, Amédée. 0istoire de la Colonie, Isle de rance 9 le &aurice, 57:5 956OM.'ort-(ouis : Diocse de 'ort-(ouis, P, p. @.B Ibid1, p. 2+.



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o!!iciellement colonisation %ritanni6ue, %ien 6ue les colons !ran;ais conser0eront leur religion, leurs lois, leurs coutumes K.

$l est intéressant de noter le regard porté < la colonisation %ritanni6ue carl)histoire de l)Qle prendra une tournure tout < !ait particulire durant cette

période spéci!i6ue. andis 6ue H@K mar6ue l)A%olition de l)?scla0age, l)émancipation de PP P@ escla0es !ut proclamée au sein d)une populationglo%ale de + BP ha%itants P. Alors 6ue l)Qle est en pleine epansionsucrire et a!in de maintenir le pri pré!érentiel de sucre, l)Angleterre décided)a0oir recours < une main-d)u0re étrangre %on marché et ser0ile < sa0oirles immigrants indiens. "i, dans un premier temps, on usti!ie l)introductiondes tra0ailleurs étrangers < cause du Z[\ penchant naturel des indi0idus,

6ui passent de la condition ser0ile < l)état de li%erté, pour la paresse etl)oisi0eté Z[\ L, le #apport de HBK ré0le, pourtant, d)autres raisonslégitimes pour a0oir recours < une main-d)u0re importée :

(e Comité est con0aincu 6u)il ne !aut pas é0aluer les %esoins de la colonie par lenom%re de tra0ailleurs 6u)elle a0ait en H@2. (es ressources de l)Qle pour la

production du sucre ne !aisaient 6ue commencer < se dé0elopper < cette épo6ue. (amoyenne des coupes des K années, de H2+ < H2B, étaient seulement de 22millions de li0res et celles des cin6 dernires sui0antes de B2 millions de li0resseulement. ?n H@+, la coupe a atteint PH millions et en H@2, L@ millions. cetteépo6ue, l)Qle n)a0ait d)autres tra0ailleurs 6ue les escla0es 6ui s)y trou0aient alors etle nom%re des machines applica%les < la !a%rication du sucre y était aussi limité.

Mais un grand cheminement s)est opéré depuis les ressources producti0es de l)Qlesont mieu connues ses produits ont trou0é un meilleur accueil sur le marché de lamétropole et ses moyens de ri0aliser a0ec les produits des autres pays se sontaccrus[ (es procédés de !a%rication se sont grandement améliorés. (e nom%re demachines a %eaucoup augmenté. Des capitau anglais considéra%les ont étéintroduits[ (es propriétés ont changé de mains[ $l !aut pour cela augmenter lenom%re de la%oureurs[H

K MO1O1, 9enamin. )’_le &aurice, ingt9cinq leKons d’histoire =5N6M9566M>1 #iche-erre: Al!ran Co. (td, H, p. KB. P NAGA'?N, Amédée. o-1 cit ., p. P. Auguste oussaint note, pour sa part, LP LLBd)escla0es émancipés. $n oussaint, Auguste. #ort9)ouis Z Deu@ +i4cles d’0istoire. 'ort-(ouis : (a typographie Moderne, @P, p. @@.L Ordonnance du @ octo%re H@K &amais promulguée &.H NAGA'?N, Amédée. propos de )a fin d’une légende . en marge de l’abolition del’esclaage et engagisme indien par #i0alt/ Wuenette in Abolition de l’esclaage etY engagisme indien ». 'ort-(ouis : $'(, (a Sie Catholi6ue, re édition, L, p. B.





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des immigrants indiens dans l)Qle poussent la communauté < se regroupera!in de se dé!endre :

Aprs com%ien d)atrocités, de ch>timents et de mau0ais traitements ces trois arpentsétaient-ils de0enus la propriété des la%oureurs ()*istoire elle-m=me les leur a0aitaccordés. On n)allait pas les rendre si !acilement. l)épo6ue, ils n)a0aient été6u)une poignée d)hommes < s)a0enturer us6u)ici. "euls, ils a0aient coupé lesar%res, retourné la terre, té les pierres une < une, coupé les ronces et les lianes, etd)une ungle a0aient !ait de %eau champs !ertilesK.

(oys Masson, cél%re écri0ain mauricien, pu%lie )’toile et la Clef o ilraconte le com%at 6u)ont mené les di!!érentes communautés 0enues ha%iter

l)Qle a!in de re0endi6uer leurs droits au syndicalisme.$l y a plusieurs similarités entre ce roman de l)a0ant-indépendance et

l)*istoire de Maurice elle-m=me. )’toile et la Clef est, comme son titrel)indi6ue, un roman de l)indépendance parce 6u)il reprend, en partie, lade0ise inscrite sur les armoiries de l)Qle ()Ttoile et la Cle! de l)Océan$ndien &traduite du latin +tella Claisque &aris Indici 1 Mais aussi

parce 6u)il interpelle, a0ec 0éhémence, l)appel au changement. Alors 6uel)étoile sym%olise l)espoir, parce 6u)elle se disait 6ue les gens la 0oyaientet c)était un grand soleil de pau0re P, la clé sera le sym%ole du 'artira0ailliste. (e tete est imprégné de ce cadre particulier - la pau0reté - 6uisem%le anéantir l)homme et le réduire < une solitude certaine, surtoutlors6ue l)on est entouré de riches : $l y a0ait la sensation de solitude, maisaussitt une autre, la sensation d)=tre entouré d)in0isi%les amis, il y a0ait lasensation d)=tre pau0re, dénué de tout, < cté la préscience d)une richessein!inie L.

Dans le tete, *enri 9arnse, le protagoniste principal d)origine %lanche, sera le dirigeant du 'arti 'rogressiste alors 6ue dans la réalité,l)histoire !ait état du 0érita%le creuset o se retrou0ent les grandes !igures del)*istoire dont Curé, #amgoolam et An6uetil &parmi d)autres. Cela étant, lamé!iance, dans le tete, se !ait our lors6ue l)on doit se regrouper a!in decom%attre l)ennemi supr=me < sa0oir l)oligarchie %lanche. Coulom%e, un

métis 6ui épouse une %ordelaise, nourrit une haine du %lanc

H

, lors6ue sa!ille, Jeanne, mise en pension che/ les surs de Notre-Dame-de-(orette[

K 1NN1*, A%himanyu. +ueurs de sang . 'aris : "toc8 &pour la 0ersion !ran;aise, 2++, p. [email protected] MA""ON, (oys. )’toile et la Clef . 'aris : Gallimard, BK, p. P.L Ibid1, p. 2P.H Ibid ., p. L.



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se Z0oit\ méprisée, tenue < l)écart par ses camarades %lanches . Coulom%e Zdescend\ dans l)arne < cause Zde cette\ déception, non de plein gré en6uel6ue sorte 2+. 'opingol, 6uitte le parti, en re!usant catégori6uement6u)un 9lanc !asse partie de l)é6uipe - car Zds\ leur naissance ils Zles9lancs\ sucent la hargne, la 0olonté de domination 2 - alors 6ue #amdourr=0e de l)a%solu soit l)harmonie entre les di!!érentes ethnies, la 0astecon!raternité des %lancs et des $ndiens 22. $l 0a m=me us6u)< nourrir uneadmiration irraisonnée pour les 9lancs. D)ailleurs, Zo\n l)appelait#amdour-le-9lanc2@ . Ce so%ri6uet est plus 6u)un simple eu demots : Dans le 'arti 'rogressiste, #amdour était seul de son espce : ilaimait les 9lancs 2B. Wuant < 9arnse, il n)hésite pas < sacri!ier "imone, la

9lanche, pour otie Malle!ille, la Mul>tresse car, sa chair Zle\ ramneratouours au %lancs 2K alors 6u)intérieurement, il lutte contre toute !ormede parti pris.

?n @P, le 3ront 'opulaire est au pou0oir en 3rance alors 6u)< Mauricedans les années @+, un nou0eau sou!!le se !ait sentir dans la sphre

politi6ue. Matelot, un des personnages, précise, < ce suet : Auourd)huiP an0ier, les ournaliers ont décidé de !ormer des syndicats. $ls demandent< leur administrateur de les appuyer auprs du gou0ernement 2P, ce 6uiattise la colre de son che! 6ui le gi!le. ?n e!!et, en @H, "he Indiidual

Association %rdinance autorise la création d)associations industrielles, ce6ui donnera lieu, plus tard, au "rade Jnions. @H sera charnire car,d)une part, le er mai, le Dr Maurice Curé, leader du #arti "raailliste crééen @P, organise le premier meeting pour mar6uer la !=te du ra0ail alors6ue, d)autre part, le er septem%re, ?mmanuel An6uetil, syndicaliste,

paralyse le port a0ec les dé%ardeurs, en !aisant une gr0e générale. (e Kseptem%re de la m=me année, les la%oureurs de la sucrerie rianon !ontgr0e et %rlent les champs de canne. (a guerre est ou0erte : les pro%lmesde gages, de droit au syndicalisme et surtout les pro%lmes liés au respect del)homme sont les trois !acteurs principau 6ui epriment le mécontentementde la population mauricienne2L.

Ibid1, p. LH.2+ Ibid1, p. L.2 Ibid1, p. .22 Ibid1, p. 2PP.2@ Ibid1, p. [email protected] Ibid1, p. [email protected] Ibid1, p. P+.2P Ibid1, p. H+.2L NAGA'?N, o-1 cit1, pp H-2+. Ces insurrections coqncident a0ec l)administration de"ir 9ede Cli!!ord. (e eune syndicaliste *urryparsad #amnarain aussi %ien 6ue son cousin,



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Néanmoins, si les luttes intestines se !ont our che/ Masson, iln)emp=che 6ue ce roman, < la thémati6ue politi6ue, !ait scandale. Commenous l)indi6ue le li0re )o!s &asson, entre $ord et sud . )es terresd’écriture: Ce roman 6ui mar6ue l)introduction du roman ]]moderne)) <Maurice, !ut 6uali!ié de scandaleu parce 6ue l)auteur issu lui-m=me d)une!amille %lanche, osa décrire les %lancs mauriciens d)un point de 0uedépréciateur 2H. ?n e!!et, le roman n)est pas %ien accueilli < sa sortie et,dans un entretien, *er0é Masson, son !rre, dira :

Ce li0re dont un écri0ain disait 6u)il nous !erait un tort immense Z[\ Ce nous m)a %eaucoup amusé. O a0ait-il pris, ce monsieur, 6ue e pou0ais ne pas =tre

socialiste, 6ue e pou0ais ne pas souscrire < ce 6ue (oys a écrit - si magni!i6uement- dans ce li0re, contre le conser0atisme mauricien et le préugé de couleur )’toileet la Clef est, peut-=tre un roman raté a0ec des parties d)une réelle %eauté, mais pourles pau0res de ce pays, c)est un document sans pri

2.

Nous ressentons également 6ue le métissage !ait son entrée dansl)analyse littéraire mauricienne !rancophone. D)a%ord, et d)une maniresym%oli6ue, lors6ue 9arnse repousse "imone la 9lanche pour lamul>tresse otie. Mais aussi < tra0ers l)élan de solidarité 6ui s)installe %ien6ue su%repticement entre les personnages des di!!érentes communautés a!inde mener < %ien leur entreprise pour le droit de !ormer des syndicats. $l

serait intéressant de !aire une comparaison a0ec le roman de Marcelle(agesse, )a diligence s’éloigne l’aube1 ?n e!!et, le roman de (agessedi!!re sensi%lement de celui de (oys Masson dans son approche. M=me sitous deu s)engagent dans une approche historico-littéraire et 6u)ilsa%ordent, de manire précise, des é0énements 6ui se sont déroulés, certes, ily a une nuance < !aire ressortir. )a diligence s’éloigne l’aube racontel)histoire d)un 3ran;ais, Nicolas 5eru%ec, 6ui 0ient < l)Qle Maurice, au décsde son cousin, 3ran;ois. $l de0ient propriétaire de ses %iens dont Zu\ne

"harma Jugdam%i, pr=tent main !orte au mou0ement contestataire. Cependant, le 2@septem%re B2, 9ell-Sue-*arel connaQt de nou0elles con!rontations. ()o!!icier A.J de

3ondaumire est %lessé alors 6ue trois mani!estants y perdent 0ie dont Analay Coopen,!emme la%oureur, enceinte.(es années d)aprs-guerre 6ui 0oient successi0ement une é0olution politi6ue

caractérisée par la crainte et surtout les cli0ages ethni6ues, le su!!rage uni0ersel de Kmais surtout la demande pour une plus large autonomie politi6ue. "ir "eewoosagur#amgoolam, < la t=te du 'arti ra0ailliste, réussit < o%tenir l)indépendance le 2 mars PH.2H 9OO(?((, "ha8untala, C1NN$A* 9runo Cli!!ord et (O1$", Nor%ert. )o!s &asson,entre $ord et sud . )es terres d’écriture. Sacoas : Tditions (e 'rintemps, uin L, p. @L.2 CA9ON, Marcel. 'aris, *er0é MassonE, entretien a0ec *er0é Masson. $n )e

&auricien, mardi 2 mai, K+, p. .



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grande maison < étage, comme on en construisait autre!ois 6uand on ymettait cette sorte d)amour 6ue met 0otre parent < !aire prospérer mondomaine, Z[\ a0ait écrit le notaire, Me. (eperet @+. Ce sera < %ord de )a

&inere 6u)il arri0era au Grand-'ort, le 22 a0ril H@@. Néanmoins, Marcelle (agesse a%orde l)escla0age de manire

particulire dans son tete. Nous constatons 6u)elle puise %eaucoup de laréalité histori6ue de l)épo6ue. 'ar eemple, le roman a%orde un aspecthistori6ue important lors6ue John Jeremie, 'rocureur-Général, [ a0ait eula charge d)appli6uer l)ordre 0oté en no0em%re H@, ordre décidant del)émancipation des escla0es sans indemnités @ et comment, par suite, leColonel Draper a0ait 0oté le ren0oi de Jeremie alors 6u)Adrien d)Tpinay

a0ait mené une 0iolente campagne de presse contre Jeremie @2. Marcelle(agesse !ait aussi mention de l) Inertie, soit les B+ ours de gr0e pro0o6uée

par le Comité colonial, au port, dans le udicaire et dans les écoles@@. M=mesi le décor paraQt enchanteur a0ec accent mis sur l)apport de Mahé de(a%ourdonnais, (agesse, comme par une nostalgie du passé ]glorieu) descolons dans l)Qle, a pour personnages principau des 3ran;ais &Nicolas5eru%ec, $sa%elle Ghast, Monsieur et Madame 9oucard[. Aussi, cette

pré!érence pour l)administration coloniale se !ait da0antage ressentirlors6u)elle sem%le présenter de manire sensi%lement positi0e l)escla0age&comme pour rappeler le mythe de #aul et 3irginie o les escla0es 0i0aienten par!aite harmonie a0ec leur maQtre. ?n e!!et, Marcelle (agesse sem%learticuler son écriture autour d)une 0ision strictement personnelle et nonreprésentati0e de la réalité m=me si, au premier a%ord, les inter0entionshistori6ues donneraient l)impression d)une a%solue 0érité. Nous pou0onsrépertorier un incident maeur 7 soit lors6ue Mme Ghast décide de !ouetterl)escla0e ()introu0a%le 7 alors 6ue cette punition sera é0itée de ustesseaprs l)inter0ention de Nicolas 5eru%ec lui-m=me. Ce dernier nousdémontre également 6u)il est un %on colon 6ui achte une montre etune chaQne argent et permet au !emmes d)acheter du tissu des0=tements 6ue l)on distri%ue au escla0es deu !ois l)an @B. 'ourtant, plustt dans le tete, il est dit : (es escla0es étaient de 0érita%les sau0ages[ il

!allait les appri0oiser @K

. Soil< en 6uoi Marcelle (agesse, sous prétete

@+ (AG?""?, Marcelle. )a diligence s’éloigne l’aube. #ose-*ill : Tditions de l)Océan$ndien, K &Hme édition, p. K.@ Ibid1, p. 2H.@2 Ibid1, p. @+.@@ Ibid1, p. 2.@B Ibid1, p. HP.@K Ibid1, p. L.



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d)édi!ier l)image du %on colon, présente un ta%leau %ien moins o%scur 6uen)a été la réalité. Comme le précise Sicram #amharai :

(a 0ision < l)eau de rose de l)escla0age décrite par certains romanciers %lancss)estompe et < la place émergent les images d)un maQtre %lanc cruel etmachia0éli6ue, eer;ant le !ouet au moindre man6uement de l)escla0e. MarcelCa%on montre un autre aspect de l)escla0age, un aspect 6ue Marcelle (agesseocculte 0olontairement dans )a diligence s’éloigne < l)au%e &KK. (e roman deMarcel Ca%on se situe < l)opposé de celui de Marcelle (agesse. (e temps a changéet il !aut 6ue certains romanciers é0oluent dans leur mentalité. oute tentati0e demontrer 6ue les colons %lancs étaient %ons en0ers leurs escla0es traduit da0antageune mentalité colonialiste et raciste@P.

andis 6ue l)Qle Maurice 0it des sou%resauts politi6ues et sociau maeurs6ui 0ont lui permettre plus loin d)accéder < son indépendance, certaines

personnes, par nostalgie du passé colonial et surtout, par peur de 0oir le pou0oir %asculer entre les mains des hindous, stagnent dans le passé etencensent le pou0oir colonial sans réser0e.

A4orie i)e B a d)cooni!ation de *e Maurice3Alors 6ue les di!!érents auteurs de la littérature mauricienne sont pro-

indépendantistes ou plus su%tilement anti-indépendantistes, reste une autrecatégorie d)écri0ains 6ui s)eile au lendemain de l)indépendance. Marie-

hérse *um%ert !igure parmi ces écri0ains. "on roman, l’autre bout demoi, a%orde l)épineu pro%lme des cli0ages ethni6ues, accentué lors6ue le personnage issu de la communauté créole, Nadge Morin, tom%e enceinted)un $ndo-mauricien. 1ne étude appro!ondie de ce tete intitulé Y )’e@il de

&arie9"hér4se 0umbert . entre mort et renaissance », e!!ectuée par moi-m=me est disponi%le en ligne@L.

A0ec l)accession de l)Qle < son indépendance, le 2 mars PH, ladécolonisation a graduellement !ait opérer des changements au sein de lacommunauté locale.

oute!ois, l)Qle Maurice a d payer son indépendance au pri !ort. Cesera sur une tonalité déchirante 6ue "hena/ 'atel articule le dé%ut de son

@P #AM*A#A$, Sicram. (a littérature des années soiante < Maurice : re!let ou re!usd)une société en mutation in (eue des &ascareignes Z )es années soi@ante dans le sud9ouest d l’%céan Indien, NV B, 2++2, p. 2.@L DO"O#1*, "onia. ()eil de Marie-hérse *um%ert : entre mort et renaissance »1

)es écrits des femmes de l’%céan Indien et des Carabes 7 (es Cahiers du G.#.?.(.C.?.3.Z?n ligne\ &numéro @, mai 2+2, p. P-LB :http:[email protected] &'age consultée le @+ octo%re2+2.



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roman )e silence des Chagos : Chagos. Diego. Déportation. ?il !orcé @H.D)ailleurs, l)épigraphe de son roman con!irme le dé0eloppement de cetteidée : Charlesia, #aymonde et Désiré, 6ui m)ont con!ié leur histoire. tous les Chagossiens, déracinés et déportés de leur Qle, au pro!it du]]monde li%re))[ @.

'our mieu comprendre ce 6ui sous-tend cette u0re, il con0ientd)appréhender les é0énements 6ui ont précédé l)accession de Maurice < sonindépendanceB+.

()archipel des Chagos est composé de L atolls 6ui comprennent plus deP+ Qles. (e plus grand des atolls est Diego Garcia. ()archipel des Chagos !utcédé par la 3rance au Anglais par le raité de 'aris de HB et us6u)en

PK, cet archipel !ut gou0erné comme !aisant partie de la colonie de l)QleMauriceB. ?n L@, 22 escla0es de Maurice, trs pro%a%lement d)originemalgache et a!ricaine, ainsi 6ue 'ierre Marie (e Normand, créent une

plantation sur Diego Garcia. (e PB, le gou0erneur %ritanni6ue < Mauriceconseille < sir "eewoosagur #amgoolam, au suet d)une possi%le ecision del)Archipel. 1n memo du gou0erneur conseille au Ministres d)approu0erles recommandations américano-%ritanni6ues. #amgoolam pré!recependant un %ail < long terme et le droit de pou0oir %éné!icier desminérau 6ui pourraient =tre décou0ertsB2. ?n uillet PK, l)Angleterre !ait

par0enir sa proposition pour le détachement de l)Archipel des Chagos deMauriceB@.

Du L au 2B septem%re PK, le &auritius Constitutional Conference alieu < (ancaster *ouse < (ondres. (a con!érence est représentée par lesdélégués des partis politi6ues maeurs de Maurice dont le #arti "raailliste,le #arti &auricien +ocial Démocrate, l) Inde-endent orward <loc et le

@H 'A?(, "hena/. )e silence des Chagos1 'aris : Tditions de l)Oli0ier, 2++K, p. .@ Ibid1, p. . B+ Dans son mémoire de MaQtrise de Droit $nternational 'u%lic < l)uni0ersité d)1trecht,2+2, intitulé Chagos : 4here international law stops , Mihai Martoiu icu analyse la

pro%lémati6ue des Chagossiens et analyse, %ien o%ecti0ement, le suet.B

CO((?N (indsey et 5$"NA"AMU, #agini. *ow Diego Garcia was Depopulated and"tolen? in Diego 2arcia was de-o-ulated and +tolen. 'ort-(ouis: (edi8asyon pu ra0ayer,2++2, p. 2P.B2 '#O 3CO @2IBHBINo .B@ Mauritius is sympathetically disposed to de!ence !acilities proposals, %ut o%ectZs\ in0iew o! li8ely pu%lic opinion, to detachment and pre!erZs\ long-term lease o! islands. Alsoas8ed !or sa!eguards !or minerals, oil and !ishing rights, meterological, air and na0igational!acilities and pro0ision !or a de!ence agreement with 1.5 as well as 9ritish help ino%taining trade &sugar and other concessions !rom 1." . &'#O 3CO @2IBHBINo '#O3CO +@PIK+.



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Comité d’Action &usulman. (e 2+ septem%re, la con!érence tire < sa !inmais les Mauriciens ont eprimé leur souhait d)une compensation pourl)ecision de Diego Garcia BB. "elon l)accord de (ancaster : i. l)archipeldes Chagos serait détaché de Maurice et placé sous la sou0eraineté

%ritanni6ue par Ordre au Conseil 0ii. si le %esoin pour les !acilités auChagos disparaissait, Maurice retrou0erait la sou0eraineté de l)archipelBK.

(e H no0em%re PK, l)Angleterre prend ar%itrairement l)archipel pourcréer la <ritish Indian %cean "erritor! =<I%">. Cela est rendu possi%le parordre de "a Maesté, la reine d)Angleterre, par le <I%" %rder BP. Dans la

prati6ue, malgré le !ait 6ue Maurice o%tienne son indépendance en PH,(es Chagos demeurent %ritanni6ues &aussi %ien 6ue sa populationBL. (e

<I%" %rder créa le poste de commissaire 6ui o%tient le pou0oir, sous lasection , de promulguer des lois pour l)ordre, la pai et la %onnegou0ernance du erritoire BH. oute!ois, il l)utilise pour promulguerl) Immigration %rdinance 5675 6ui, sous la section B, stipule l)epulsiono%ligatoire de toute la population eistante sur l)Qle car elle ne possde pasun permis émis par le gou0ernement. Cette in!ormation ne sera pu%liée 6uedans le <I%" 2azette, et reste donc sans grande di!!usionB. 1ne !ois la

procédure liée < l)immigration enclenchée, les 9ritanni6ues entrent dans uncontrat < %ail < long terme a0ec les Ttats-1nis et trans!rent la possessiondes Chagos en L.

"i les Chagossiens sont pendant longtemps !rustrés de ne pou0oirregagner leur archipel, en H, Oli0ier 9ancoult poursuit l)Angleterre. $ldéclare 6u)on ne lui permet pas de regagner son Qle o il est né, 'eros9anhos, alors 6u)il est 0enu < Maurice pour des raisons médicales en PLlors6ue sa sur est %lessée lors d)un accident. (es uges du Fueen’s <ench

Diision rendent un 0erdict en sa !a0eur, alors 6ue, dans la prati6ue,

BB '#O '#?M @I@@2+.BK raduit de l)anglais : i. the Chagos Archipelago should %e detached !rom Mauritius and

placed under 9ritish so0ereignty %y Order in council

0ii. i! the need !or the !acilities in the Chagos Archipelago disappeared, so0ereignty would %e returned to MauritiusE CM&PK H@, CO1NC$( O3 M$N$"?#" 15I1" De!ence$nterests in the $ndian Ocean, M?MO#AND1M 9U *? C*$?3 "?C#?A#U, B No0PK. #eproduced in the ?cision #eport, p. K.BP #egina 0. "ecretary o! "tate o! the 3oreign and Commonwealth o!!ice, *@ -arte9ancoult, +LP.BL NA1S?(, Christian. A return !rom eile in sight he Chagossians and heir "truggleEin $orthwestern 'ournal of International 0uman (ights, 0ol. K, issue , 3all 2++P, p. .BH 9$O Order, PK.B *@ -arte 9ancoult, Z2++\, W9 at +HP.



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plusieurs o%stacles persistent, comme pousser les Américains < changer de position sur le %ail eistant.

"i "hena/ 'atel écrit son roman, c)est aussi sa !a;on < elle de se !aire porte-parole des Chagossiens. C)est cette triste constatation de ladéportation 6ui déclenche une aporie tant che/ les Chagossiens 6ue che/ lesMauriciens. Charlesia et #aymonde, deu personnages du roman, auront lem=me destin 6ue d)=tre déportées 0ers Maurice contre leur gré. Charlesia,comme %on nom%re de Chagossiens, tra0aille < la sécherie : Zl\a plupartd)entre eu sont assignés au cocoteraies, < la sécherie ou au calori!re K+.#entrée che/ elle, elle s)attle < la préparation d)un %on sera/ de

poisson-%anane.

out comme Chalesia, #aymonde mne une 0ie ordinaire au Chagos,sau! 6u)elle est enceinte de Désiré. Or, un matin de PL, elle se rendcompte 6ue progressi0ement, l)administrateur réduit la charge de tra0ail detout le mondeK et 6ue les na0ires assurant le ra0itaillement de Maurice se!ont rares. Ce sera dans un décor tout aussi glau6ue, en contraste a0ecl)incipit du décor eoti6ue & C)est une pluie d)Qles posées sur la mer.3rangées de sa%le %lanc, un semis de gouttelettes laiteuses[ Chagos. 1narchipel au nom soyeu comme une caresse[K2 6ue l)histoire prend unetournure pour le moins dramati6ue &des ]] sacs en ute[comme des peaumortes l)odeur sournois de la poussire Z6ui\ a0ait chassé le par!um 0i0acede la nourriture K@. 9ien 6ue son intuition lui indi6ue 6u) il se passait6uel6ue chose KB et 6u)une sorte d)a%attement s)était emparée de l)Qle KK,l)arri0ée du $oraer sonne littéralement le glas des derniers Chagossiens.(e coup dur arri0e lors6ue #aymonde entend -Sitesse Sitesse 9isinalé KP et 6ue les ha%itants n)ont 6u) Zu\ne heure et pas une minute de

plus KL pour 6uitter l)Qle. C)est en mer 6ue #aymonde donne naissance <Désiré, et ce sera au "eychelles 6ue l)en!ant sera déclaréKH.

?n réalité, il y a eu des plaintes par Mme Mein, une Chagossienne, 6uiclame 6u)en L et L2, les représentants des Ttats-1nis et dugou0ernement %ritanni6ue les ont !orcées, elle et sa !amille, < monter < %ord

K+ 'A?(, o-1 cit1, p. [email protected] Ibid1, p. +.K2 Ibid1, p. +.K@ Ibid1, p. +.KB Ibid1, p. .KK Ibid1, p. 2.KP Ibid1, p. B. Site Site $l !aut s)en aller .KL Ibid1, p.LK.KH Ibid1, p. +H.



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d)un %ateau 6ui allait de Diego Garcia < 'eros 9anhos, et, plus tard, au"eychellesK. ?lle allgue a0oir été 0ictime de %rutalité, ce 6ui aurait été lacause d)une !ausse couche. Mme 3rance-Charlot, issue de la premiregénération des Chagossiens, soutient pour sa part 6ue la cause de l)etr=me

pau0reté dont sa !amille sou!!re < Maurice a !ait 6u)elle et sa !amille sontsocialement, culturellement et économi6uement opprimées. Oli0ier9ancoult a%onde dans le m=me sens en disant 6ue des demandes d)emploiont été reetées sur la %ase de Diego GarciaP+. (isette alate, née sur l)atollde Diego Garcia, raconte au &auricien comment elle et ses en!ants, toutcomme de nom%reu autres Chagossiens, sont témoins de chiens %rlés dansles calori!res. 1n acte 6ui leur indi6ue 6ue la 0ie dans l)archipel tire < sa

!in P.(e 2+ décem%re 2+2, la Cour ?uropéenne des Droits de l)*omme a

reeté l)appel des Chagossiens contre le gou0ernement %ritanni6ue d)a0oirepulsé LHP d)entre eu soutenant 6u)ils a0aient accepté la compensationo!!erte dans le passé. ?n e!!et, en LK, Michel Sencatessen porte plainte <la *aute Cour de (ondres pour dommages causés suite < son epulsion deDiego Garcia. (e gou0ernement %ritanni6ue accepta par suite de 0erser lasomme de B millions de li0res au-del< des PK+ +++ li0res dé< 0ersées auChagossiens entre LL et LH. (es Anglais, ayant o!!ert unecompensation, pensaient 6ue cela allait classer dé!initi0ement l)a!!aire alors6ue M. Sencatessen retire sa plainteP2. Oli0ier 9ancoult précise : DepuisH, )ai entamé des actions légales dans l)intér=t des Chagossiens et de2+++ < 2++H, )ai remporté et perdu des procs. Cependant, )ai maintenu lalutte , rétor6ue le président du 2rou-e (éfugiés ChagosOQ1

(e groupe 0a contester la proposition d)édi!ier un parc marin en 2+@ <Diego Garcia. "i la /one maritime protégée est déclarée, aucun Chagossienne pourra y a0oir accs pour la p=che m=me s)il ad0ient 6u)on donne ledroit au Chagossiens de regagner leur pays. Ce sera en 2+B 6ue les Ttats-1nis et l)Angleterre 0ont décider s)ils renou0ellent le %ail 6ui arri0e <epiration en 2+P.

K

9ancoult et al. S. McNamara et al., 22L 3. "upp. 2d BB &D.D.C 2++2 &No. +-2P2#M1.P+ 9ANCO1( et al. S. McNAMA#A, o-1cit1P Mémoire : (isette alate demeure une !orce inspiratrice . $n )e &auricien, Z?n (igne\&P an0ier 2+2, http:IIwww.lemauricien.comIarticleImC@Amoire-lisette-talate-demeure-!orce-inspiratrice&'age consultée le 2 décem%re 2+2.P2 KB-KP, P+-P, Chagos $slanders 0. he Attorney General, her Maesty)s 9ritish $ndianOcean erritory Commissioner, Z2++ \ ?N*C 2222, z 2B.P@ "he Inde-endent Dail!, 0ol. B, no @@.



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()aporie dont nous a0ions !ait mention au dé%ut de cette partie et donclargement usti!iée et le com%at continue 0oire s)intensi!ie a0ant l)epirationde ce %ail 6ui agit 0érita%lement comme une épée de Damocls.

Concu!ion3$l est un !ait 6ue la littérature !rancophone mauricienne, < tra0ers ses

di!!érentes représentations politi6ue, sociale, économi6ue ou autres, est pro!ondément ]engagiste). (oys Masson 0éhicule dans son roman la luttedes tra0ailleurs pour un meilleur traitement et surtout pour leur droit de!ormer des syndicats alors 6u)en contrario, Marcelle (agesse sem%leimprégnée de la culture escla0agiste si %ien 6u)elle écrit un tete en

déphasage a0ec la réalité de son temps. "hena/ 'atel, écri0ainecontemporaine, n)hésite pas < mettre son talent d)artiste au pro!it des plusdémunis comme au pro!it des Chagossiens, dans leur long et douloureucom%at pour regagner leur terre. (a décolonisation de Maurice donne lieu,dans %ien des cas, < des dé%ats et contentieu. Alors 6ue Maurice, prise dansles a!!res de la maltraitance des colonisateurs, lutte pour son indépendance,0oil< 6ue, %ien des années plus tard, les répercussions perdurent comme

pour signi!ier 6ue l)o%tention de l)indépendance ne s)est pas !aite sansheurts et 6u)il pourrait s)agir au !ait d)une décolonisation inache0ée.

Sonia DOSO"9T%1ni0ersité de Maurice



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Ouvra-e! cit)!

A''ANA*, Nathacha. )es (ochers de #oudre d’%r1 'aris : Gallimard,2++@.

9OO(?((, "ha8untala, C1NN$A* 9runo Cli!!ord et (O1$", Nor%ert. )o!s &asson, entre $ord et sud . )es terres d’écriture. Sacoas : Tditions(e 'rintemps, uin L.

CA9ON, Marcel. 'aris, *er0é MassonE, entretien a0ec *er0é Masson.$n )e &auricien, mardi 2 mai, K+, p. .

CO((?N, (indsey et 5$"NA"AMU, #agini. 0ow Diego 2arcia was De-o-ulated and +tolen. $n Diego 2arcia was de-o-ulated and +tolen.'ort-(ouis : (edi8asyon pu ra0ayer, 2++2, p. 2P.

DO"O#1*, "onia. ()eil de Marie-hérse *um%ert : entre mort etrenaissance »1 )es écrits des femmes de l’%céan Indien et des Carabes 7(es Cahiers du G.#.?.(.C.?.3. Z?n ligne\ &numéro @, mai 2+2, p. P-LB. http:[email protected]

(AG?""?, Marcelle. )a diligence s’éloigne l’aube. #ose-*ill : Tditionsde l)Océan $ndien, K &Hme édition.

)e &auricien, Mémoire : (isette alate demeure une !orce inspiratrice ,P an0ier 2+2.

O1""A$N, Auguste. 0istoire de l’_le &aurice. 'aris : '13, LB. Coll. 6ue sais-e .

MA""ON, (oys. )’toile et la Clef . 'aris : Gallimard, BK.

MO1O1, 9enamin. )’_le &aurice, ingt9cinq leKons d’histoire =5N6M9566M>1 #iche-erre: Al!ran Co. (td, H.

NAGA'?N, Amédée. propos de )a fin d’une légende . en marge del’abolition de l’esclaage et engagisme indien. 'ort-(ouis : $'(, (a SieCatholi6ue, re édition, L, Znon pag.\.



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NAGA'?N, Amédée. 0istoire de la Colonie, Isle de rance9 le &aurice,57:5 956OM. 'ort-(ouis : Diocse de 'ort-(ouis, P.

NA1S?(, Christian, A return from e@ile in sight` "he Chagossians and"heir +truggle, Northwestern Journal o! $nternational *uman #ights, 0ol.K, issue , 3all 2++P, p. .

'A?(, "hena/. )e silence des Chagos1 'aris : Tditions de l)Oli0ier, 2++K.

#AM*A#A$, Sicram. (a littérature des années soiante < Maurice : re!letou re!us d)une société en mutation . #e0ue des Mascareignes 7 (es

années soiante dans le sud-ouest d l)Océan $ndien, NV B, 2++2, p. 2.

"?(SON, "ydney. A new com-rehensie histor! of &auritius. from thebeginning to :885. 'ort-(ouis: Mauritius 'rinting "pecialists (td, 2++K.

$C1, Mihai Martoiu, hesis, Master 'rogramme in 'u%lic international(aw, Chagos: 4here international law stops , 1trecht 1ni0ersity,2+2.

$N5?#, *ugh. A $ew +!stem of +laer!1 (ondon: *ansi% 'u%lishing(imited, 2nd edition, @.

O1""A$N, Auguste. #ort9)ouis Z Deu@ +i4cles d’0istoire. 'ort-(ouis :(a typographie Moderne, @P.

1NN1*, A%himanyu, +ueurs de sang . 'aris : "toc8 &pour la 0ersion!ran;aise, 2++.

9nited in-do+ Archive! Docu+ent!

9ancoult et al. S. McNamara et al., 22L 3. "upp. 2d BB &D.D.C 2++2 &No.+-2P2 #M1

CM&PK H@, CO1NC$( O3 M$N$"?#" 15I1" De!ence $nterests in the$ndian Ocean, M?MO#AND1M 9U *? C*$?3 "?C#?A#U, B No0PK. #eproduced in the ?cision #eport, p. K.



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'#O 3CO @2IBHB, e0ents leading to the esta%lishment o! <ritish Indian%cean "erritor! in No0em%er PK.

'#O 3CO +@PIK+, De!ence in %rie!.

'#O '#?M @I@@2+, MA1#$$1". Sisits o! sir "eewoosagur #amgoolam,'rime Minister o! Mauritius, to 15: records o! meeting with 'rimeMinister.

#egina 0. "ecretary o! "tate o! the 3oreign and Commonwealth o!!ice, *@ -arte 9ancoult, +LP.



P

C%A$TE"

(e fla!ant% la lionne et la d$colonisation au

Moza!biue

Ab!tract A critical reading o! two no0els %y Mia Couto, "he )ast light of the

lamingo, 2+++ and A confisso da )eoa, 2+2, allows us to raise some issues thatare superimposed with regard to the process o! decoloni/ation. *ow dogo0ernments esta%lished a!ter independence continue to participate in the samecolonial logic *ow do people !eel a%out this YchangeY o sol0e the enigma o!1N soldiers who mysteriously eplode and the attac8s on women %y lions, theadministrators ha0e called in !oreigners in Mo/am%i6ue. he contact with the localcommunity has led them to !ind out that the real pro%lem lays %eyond thesemysterious deaths. his critical reading tries to show the process o! decoloni/ation!rom the perspecti0e o! the administration and the people with a !ocus on the{character-mirrors{: the !oreigners and the outcasts o! society.

")!u+) 1ne lecture criti6ue de deu ou0rages de Mia Couto, )e dernier ol du

flamant , 2+++ et )a confession de la )ionne, 2+2, nous permet de poser des6uestions 6ui se superposent en ce 6ui concerne la décolonisation : comment lesgou0ernements instaurés aprs les indépendances participent-ils d)une m=melogi6ue coloniale Wuelle est la perception du peuple par rapport < ce changement A!in de résoudre l)énigme des soldats de l)ON1 6ui eplosentsans eplication et des atta6ues par des lions 6ui tuent eclusi0ement des !emmes,on appelle des étrangers. Con!rontés < la communauté locale, ils décou0rent 6ue le0rai pro%lme se situe au-del< de ces morts mystérieuses. Cette lecture criti6ue,centrée sur les !igures des personnages-miroirs -les administrateurs, les étrangers etles marginau de la société- analyse le processus de décolonisation du point de 0uede l)administration et du peuple.



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La itt)rature a6ricaine u!o4hone 4ha!e! de d)veo44e+ent'endant longtemps l)A!ri6ue a été per;ue comme une unité histori6ue

!ondée sur les concepts du sa0oir occidental. 'enser les littératures issuesdu systme colonial entraQne une discussion sur l)histoire littéraire 6uis)appuie sur les modles européens et la 6u=te d)émancipation 6ui enrésulte. $l est 0rai 6ue par!ois les généralisations sont utiles pour créer un

panorama o insérer les particularités. Dans ce sens, nous !erons appel < lathéorie de 'atric8 Cha%al et de #ussel *amilton pour epli6uer les phasesde la !ormation de la littérature lusophone a!ricaine, pour ensuite mettre ené0idence les particularités du Mo/am%i6ue et le rle de Mia Couto danscette production.

Dans l)introduction de "he #ostcolonial )iterature of )uso-hone Africa:,'atric8 Cha%al décrit le processus d)écriture en langue portugaise dans les

pays a!ricains en distinguant 6uatre phases. Au moment de la colonisation,le modle d)écriture est celui de l)assimilation &. Dans cette premireétape de la production littéraire, les écri0ains, pour prou0er leurs capacitésintellectuelles, imitaient le modle européen. ouours dans la périodecoloniale, une production de la littérature de la résistance &2 a entrainé lalutte pour l)indépendance. Cela 0eut dire 6ue le reet de la culturemétropolitaine et le désir de rédemption de la culture a!ricaine étaient aucentre de la préoccupation des écri0ains. $ls croyaient 6ue la recherche dessources et de racines pourraient !onder l)écriture d)une A!ri6ue originelle.(a troisime phase décrite par Cha%al est ce 6u)il appelle assertion &@ etse passe aprs les indépendances. (es écri0ains ne cherchent plus <eorciser l)impérialisme culturel. $ls s)e!!orcent de trou0er leur positiondans la société postcoloniale. (es thmes sont centrés sur la réalité6uotidienne, dans la 0oi de la conscience et de la morale ainsi 6ue dans larecherche de soi en tant 6u)artiste. (a dernire période traitée par Cha%al estcelle de la consolidation &B 6ui a permis d)élargir la discussion sur le !aitlittéraire et de penser le !utur de la littérature dans ces pays.

'our compléter le tra0ail de Cha%al, il est intéressant de citer égalementla périodisation en 6uatre phases éta%lie par #ussel George *amilton @.

*amilton pré!re commencer la discussion au ^$^ sicle a0ec la littérature

M1D$M9?, S. U. "he Idea of Africa1 9loomington: $ndiana 1ni0ersity 'ress, JamesCurrey, B.2 C*A9A(, 'atric8. "he #ost9colonial )iterature of )uso-hone Africa. Johannes%urg :

Northwestern 1ni0ersity 'ress, P.@ *AM$(ON, #ussel George. ?iste-t-il encore une littérature a!ricaine d)epression

portugaise in )ittérature du &ozambique, Organisateurs : (a%an, Michel et Magnier,9ernard. Numéro @. Notre (i%rairie, a0ril-uin @, pp. 2-++.



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écrite par les 0oyageurs, a0enturiers et colons. $l s)agit d)une production deromans ultra-marins coloniau, ou %ien des nou0elles ethnographi6ues 6uimontraient l)A!ricain comme l)Autre. Cette phase a duré us6u)au dé%ut du^ê sicle. (a deuime phase est dé< celle d)une littérature a!ricained)epression portugaise, produite dans les années 6ui sui0ent la !in de ladeuime grande guerre. (es pomes sont porteurs de l)epression desre0endications culturelles et sociales, o l)on cherche également unecertaine authenticité a!ricaine et l)epression d)un désir d)autonomie

politi6ue. (a troisime phase est celle de la littérature de com%at 6ui, 0ersles années P+, 0a !aire porter une re0endication sociale et lutter pour la ré-a!ricanisation. (es sentiments indépendantistes éclosent dans la poésie des

{potes-soldats{ 7 il s)agit d)une littérature clandestine de la guérilla. (a6uatrime phase s)étale < partir des années H+ us6u)auourd)hui : la

poésie reprend une 6ualité épi6ue et la prose réeamine les in!rastructureshistori6ues et réin0ente les superstructures socioculturelles. (a prose de MiaCouto s)inscrit dans ce courant.

La itt)rature +o@a+bicaineAu généralisations de Cha%al et *amilton 0iennent s)aouter les

recherches spéci!i6ues sur le Mo/am%i6ue d)Ana Ma!alda (eiteB et3rancisco NoaK. (es auteurs epli6uent 6u)< partir de @+ l)on distingue unsystme littéraire spéci!i6ue au Mo/am%i6ue. (a production de cette épo6ueest essentiellement ancrée sur la poésie, la prose ne s)a!!irmant 6u)< partirdes années H+.

?n B+, une premire génération créée autour de la re0ue $tinerfrio ,cherche une conscience littéraire inno0atrice et nationaliste. (es 0aleursesthéti6ues et éthi6ues 0enaient de l)in!luence de la littérature dumodernisme portugais et %résilien. Orlando Mendes et 3onseca Amaral sontles deu auteurs 6ui agglutinent les tendances de cette épo6ue. JoséCra0eirinha et #ui 5nop!li sont les interprtes les plus signi!icati!s de la mo/am%icanité , phase littéraire o la thémati6ue sociale était liée < une

B (?$?, Ana Ma!alda. )iteraturas africanas e formulaKes -Us9coloniais. (is%oa : Coli%ri,2++@. Ana Ma!alda (eite, `picos para uma hist`ria da literatura mo;am%icana ,in &oKambique das -alaras escritas, A!rontamento, 'orto, 2++H.K NOA, 3rancisco. A escrita infinita. ensaios sobre literatura moKambicana. Maputo :1ni0ersidade ?duardo Mondlane, H. NOA, 3rancisco. Im-ério, mito e mio-ia.

&oKambique como inenKo literHria. (is%oa : Caminho, 2++2. NOA, 3rancisco. (iteratura mo;am%icana: trilhos e margens , in &oKambique das -alaras escritas, 'orto: A!rontamento, 2++H.



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esthéti6ue endogne et eogne 6ui !onde la tradition modernisatrice duMo/am%i6ue.

(es années P+ sont mar6uées par la lutte armée, se re!létant dans une poésie de com%at nationaliste. ?n L-L2, le proet Cali%an lutte pourl)a!!irmation d)un compromis esthéti6ue < tra0ers la di0ersité thémati6ue etesthéti6ue dans la littérature. Aprs l)indépendance apparait une polémi6uedans les ournau entre ceu 6ui désiraient une littérature politi6ue etalignée au régime et ceu 6ui luttaient pour des idéau esthéti6uesinsu%ordonnésP.

?n H+ se crée l)Association des Tcri0ains Mo/am%icains &A?MO. $ls)agit d)un espace de dé%at 6ui a aidé < promou0oir ses écri0ains par la

re0ue Charrua &HB. 1ne partie des 0oi littéraires les plus importants duMo/am%i6ue en !aisait partie et proclamaient l)irré0érence de la li%ertéesthéti6ue et thémati6ue. Cette épo6ue n)a pas duré longtemps et est tom%éeen décadence, !aute d)in0estissement des politi6ues pu%li6ues en !a0eur dela lecture et de l)édition. (a production des années H+-+ 0oit le roman!leurir en détriment de la poésie. (e roman est l)espace de con!rontation etde conciliation de plusieurs ordres et dimensionsL. ()écriture de Mia Coutose situe dans cet espace de la prose, 6ui concilie la tradition et la modernitéet réeamine l)histoire.

Mia Couto et a 4ro!e enchant)e de 4o)!ie Tcrire c)est apprendre au gens < r=0er

erre "omnam%ule, Mia Couto

Mia Couto est peut-=tre le plus connu et le plus étudié des écri0ains duMo/am%i6ue. 3ils de 'ortugais, il est né < 9eira en KK. ?n L ildéménage < (ouren;o Mar6ues, auourd)hui Maputo, pour !aire ses étudesde médecine. Cependant, a0ec la #é0olution des |illets au 'ortugal enLB, le parcours de l)écri0ain 0a changer drasti6uement, re!létant lechangement de son pays. ()écri0ain a%andonne son cours de médecine entroisime année pour se dédier au ournalisme durant dou/e années de sa

0ie. Mem%re et militant du 3#?($MO - 3ront de li%ération du Mo/am%i6ue 7 il participe comme ournaliste < la guerre de li%ération du pays. Aprsl)indépendance, il de0ient %iologiste, ce 6ui lui permet de dé0elopper uncontact %eaucoup plus direct et pro!ond a0ec les ha%itants du Mo/am%i6ue.

P NOA, 3. o-1cit1, 2++H, pp. @H-B.L Ibid ., pp. B-BB.



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"on u0re porte la trace de son itinéraireH, ses romans et ses nou0ellestémoignent d)une démarche 6ui m=le 0olontiers le plus immédiaten0ironnement a0ec la !écondité d)un imaginaire puisé au sources de latradition et de l)oralité. ?ntre !a%le et !iction romanes6ue l)écri0ain %>tit ununi0ers 6ui m=le mythe et réalité, 6uotidienneté et déraison.

?n H@ il pu%lie son premier recueil de pomes (aiz de %ralho. $l écritensuite des nou0elles, parce 6u)il lui sem%le important de raconter ce 6uise passait dans tout le pays au dé%ut de la ré0olution, cette ealtation d)uneidée, d)une cause. $l me sem%lait également important de chercher la racinedes choses. C)est une démarche < la6uelle la prose con0ient le mieu +,epli6ue-t-il < 9ernand Magnier. Mais ce n)est 6u)en 2 6u)il est reconnu

comme un grand écri0ain. "on roman "erre +omnambule est considéré undes dou/e meilleurs romans a!ricains du ^ê sicle.

Mia Couto est connu par son écriture 6ui %rasse la langue portugaise.$l l)enrichit des mots trou0és auprs du peuple et de ses nom%reunéologismes. "a langue est originale, la seule capa%le de raconter ladémesure et le dérglement des personnages et de son en0ironnement. (astructure de sa pensée est trs imagée : Wu)est-ce 6ue le destin sinon undou i0rogne conduit par un a0eugle (a destinée décrite dans son u0reécarte la raison au pro!it de la possi%ilité d)oser le pas i0rogne.

La d)cooni!ation dan! a 6i-ure de a ionne et du 6a+ant )e dernier ol du flamant et A confisso da )eoa sont des romans 6ui ont

pour %ut de montrer comment l)indépendance n)a été 6u)un changementsuper!iciel, en étant elle-m=me une !iction. Dans ces deu li0res, les!antmes de l)ancien régime colonial rgnent, su%tils, a0ec l)appro%ation detous. Contrairement < ce 6ui était attendu, les indépendances n)ont pasauguré d)un a0enir meilleur. (a politi6ue de répression n)a pas disparu dansles sociétés nou0ellement li%érées. (a machine politi6ue au Mo/am%i6ue necesse de se désagréger et l)insta%ilité politico-économi6ue de0ient de plusen plus chroni6ue. ()idéologie de la Négritude et du 'ana!ricanisme 6ui en6uel6ue sorte aide < !onder l)imaginaire d)une unité a!ricaine est

%oule0ersée. (es %eau proets socialistes 6ui ont guidé les di!!érentes luttesré0olutionnaires ne re!ltent gure la réalité d)une société écrasée par desgou0ernements 6ui ont pactisé a0ec les puissances étrangres. Colonialisme

H 9$DA1(, Marie 3ran;oise. Mia Couto: (a 0ie a0ant tout in tudes )ittéraires Africaines Z Autour de &ia Couto, 0ol. 2K, A'?(A, 'aris, 2++H, p. 22. MO1#A($", 9arnard. Mia Couto ou la !a%le du chaos . "ur :http:IIwww.a!ri%d.comIarticle.phpno2K2. Consulté le P a0ril 2+2.+ Ibid .





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A con6i!!Xo da eoa$nspirée d)une epérience réelle 0écue par Mia Couto, le li0re raconte

l)histoire d)un 0illage assailli par l)atta6ue des lions. 'our aider la population, les dirigeants demandent l)aide d)un chasseur de la capitale. 1nécri0ain accompagne le chasseur et prend des notes sur l)a!!aire. Au !ur et <mesure, l)on comprend 6ue la présence des étrangers et des lions est mise <

pro!it par les ha%itants du monde in0isi%le, mécontents a0ec les con!litssociau : aos poucos, os ca;adores entenderam 6ue os mistérios 6ueen!renta0am eram apenas os sintomas de con!litos sociais 6ue supera0amlargamente a sua capacidade de resposta @.

(e discours de Mariamar, le personnage principal, met en 0aleur le rle

de la !emme dans la conser0ation des traditions et ré0le sa position paradoale, une position !ondamentale mais en m=me temps reléguée aucon!ins de la société. (a communauté patriarcale, intéressée par lamodernité du capitalisme, par la cupidité et l)ou%li, est en train de tuer les0érita%les sources de la 0ie a!ricaine. ()on comprend ainsi 6ue l)e!!acementdes !emmes de la 0ie en société dé!orme la communauté et condamne le

peuple < l)etinction, les lionnes ne tra0aillant 6ue pour concrétiser lesactions commencées par les hommes.

La d)cooni!ation(e noyau des pro%lmes traités dans les deu li0res peu0ent =tre résumés

par le con!lit entre tradition et modernité et par le rapport des ha%itants etdes étrangers a0ec la terre. (a 0oie simple et directe du rationnel nous

permet d)epli6uer les causes des pro%lmes 6ui ont lieu < i/angara et <5ulumani. (e man6ue d)attention des soldats de l)ON1 est tel 6u)ilsmarchent sur les mines laissées cachées lors de la guerre ci0ile. ?n ce 6uiconcerne les lionnes 6ui atta6uent la 0ille de 5ulumani, Couto epli6uel)hypothse réelle de l)histoire : la guerre a laissé des corps morts dans la!or=t et les lions se sont ha%itués < les manger. (es !emmes, par leursacti0ités, par eemple le !ait d)aller chercher de l)eau < la ri0ire, sont pluseposées au danger de l)atta6ue des lions. Néanmoins, les récits nous

présentent une réalité o ces pro%lmes se montrent %eaucoup pluscomplees : le surnaturel agit comme une alerte !ace au dangers dont lasociété est 0ictime.

'our mieu comprendre les procs de décolonisation tels 6u)ils sontinscrits dans ces ou0rages, nous nous pencherons sur 6uatre couples de{personnages-miroirs{ 6ui nous en montrent les eneu. D)un cté, nous

@ CO1O, Mia. A confisso da leoa. (is%oa : 'ortugal, Caminho, 2+2, p. +.



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a0ons les administrateurs, un prolongement du pou0oir colonial, et lesétrangers, 6ui sont appelés < résoudre un pro%lme ci%lé et 6ui démontrentla relation de dépendance du peuple mo/am%icain. De l)autre, il y a lesmarginau de la société, comme le 0ieu et le grand pre, le sorcier etl)a0eugle, 6ui apparaissent comme une sorte de 0oi de la conscience. C)est

par la présence de l)étranger et le rle oué par les marginau 6ue sontré0élés les leurres du procs de décolonisation.

Le! )tran-er!$l eiste deu catégories d)étrangers dans les li0res : d)a%ord les

administrateurs, puis les personnes chargées de résoudre un pro%lme. (es

gou0ernants de i/angara et de 5ulumani sont des étrangers du dedans .Anciens ré0olutionnaires pour la li%ération du Mo/am%i6ue, ils occupent un

poste de direction dans une 0ille 6ui n)est pas la leur. $ncapa%les de gérer les pro%lmes 6ui ont lieu dans leur en0ironnement, ils ont recours < l)aided)autres étrangers, un du dedans, s)agissant du chasseur, et un du dehors,s)agissant de l)autre, l)en6u=teur italien. ()insistance sur les termesétrangers du dedans et du dehors est récurrente dans les li0res, mar6uantl)importance de la présence du peuple autochtone passi0e. C)est una0ertissement 6uant < la mise en place du néo-colonialisme 6ui emp=chetout mou0ement de décolonisation e!!ecti0e.

Dans les deu li0res, il eiste un cli0age net entre l)intér=t desgou0ernants et celui de la population, mani!este ds l)arri0ée des étrangers.()intér=t des che!s de gou0ernement est de perpétuer leur pou0oir. uer leslions est pour le che! de 5ulumani une mission politi6ue, il ne !aut surtout

pas 6ue les ha%itants du 0illage s)engagent dans cette lutte : N}o pode seressa gente, esses tradicionais, a le0ar a melhor B . A aucun moment le

peuple n)est censé participer < la 0ie politi6ue et se 0oir reconnu commeétant capa%le de s)autogérer. (e m=me propos est tenu par l)administrateurde i/angara :

Z[\ com os donati0os da comunidade internacional, as coisas tinham mudado. Z[\?ra preciso mostrar a popula;}o com a sua !ome, com as suas doen;ascontaminosas. (em%ro %em as suas pala0ras, ?cel=ncia: a nossa miséria estf render

%em. 'ara 0i0er num pas de pedintes, é preciso arrega;ar as !eridas, colocar <mostra os ossos salientes dos meninos. Z[\ ?ssa é actual pala0ra de ordem: untaros destro;os, !acilitar a 0is}o do desastre. ?strangeiro de !ora ou da capital de0e

poder apreciar toda a6uela coitade/a sem despender grandes suores. T por isso os

B CO1O, M. o-1 cit1, p. P2.





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mulheres, os engenhos eplosi0os. Au moment o les étrangers entrenten contact a0ec la population locale les pro%lmes de compréhension entreles mondes augmente. $ls sont con!rontés < des réalités 6ui leur échappent."i dans un premier temps ces a0ertissements, prononcés par desmarginalisés et proposant une 0ision surnaturelle des !aits, leur sem%lentsans importance, les étrangers ne tardent pas f se rendre compte 6ue ces

personnages possdent une grande connaissance de la réalité 6ui lesentoure : Morreram milhares de mo;am%icanos, nunca 0os 0imos cf.Agora, desapareceram cinco estrangeiros e f é o !im do mundo 2+, ditAna. 1n tra0ailleur du champ demande < l)écri0ain Gusta0o Wuerem sa%ercomo morremos Mas nunca ninguém 0eio sa%er como 0i0emos 2.

(e peuple pro!ite de la !igure de l)étranger pour se mani!ester : l)élite, legou0ernement, l)aide etérieure sont les ci%les des atta6ues. C)est < cemoment 6ue les étrangers comprennent 6u)il y a aussi un décalage entre ce6u)ils ont été appelés < !aire et ce 6u)il !aut !aire il ne sert < rien d)eaminerles champs minés ou d)aller chasser les lions, il !aut aller plus loin pourrésoudre le 0rai pro%lme.

Dans ce sens, le grand pre de Mariamar epli6ue 6ue le plus grandennemi du peuple n)est autre 6ue lui-m=me :

Os de 5ulumani s}o hospitaleiros para 6uem é longn6uo e estranho. Mas entreeles reina a in0ea e a maledic=ncia. Z[\ Nem precisamos de inimigos. "empre nos

%astamos a n`s mesmos para nos derrotarmos 22.

(e grand pro%lme 6ue les étrangers doi0ent résoudre est résumé danscette dernire phrase, puis6ue le peuple dans son inertie et son re!us d)agirest son pire ennemi. ()a0ertissement est lancé dans les deu romans : ce nesont pas les étrangers 6ui doi0ent s)occuper des pro%lmes desMo/am%icains. (e peuple doit assumer la responsa%ilité de son !utur ettra0ailler uni pour le construire, c)est seulement ainsi 6ue l)on arri0era < ladécolonisation.

CO1O, Mia. o-1 cit1, p. H@. ( : (es soldats étrangers eplosent, oui monsieur. Ce n)est pas parce 6u)ils marchent sur les mines, non monsieur. Ce sont nous, les !emmes, lesmachines eplosi0es.2+ Ibid1, p. @B.( : On a tué des milliers de Mo/am%icains, on ne 0ous a amais 0u ici.Maintenant, cin6 étrangers sont disparus et cFest dé< la !in du monde2 CO1O, Mia. o-1 cit1, p. L. ( : Sous 0oule/ sa0oir comment on meurt Mais

personne nFest amais 0enu pour sa0oir notre !a;on de 0i0re.22 Ibid1, p. K2. ( : Ceu de 5ulumani sont accueillants < toute personne 6ui est lointaine etétrangre. Mais parmi eu rgne lFen0ie et la calomnie. Z...\ Nous nFa0ons pas %esoindFennemis. Nous nous sommes touours su!!is pour nous 0aincre.



ernanda 3ilar

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La voi5 de! +ar-inai!)!(a 6uestion du su%alterne, traitée par G. "pi0a8 2@, s)interroge pour sa0oir

si le marginalisé est en mesure de s)eprimer ou s)il est o%ligatoirement une présence silencieuse, une parole non récupéra%le par les autres. 'our MiaCouto, le marginalisé est la !igure centrale dans la dénonciation des

pro%lmes : sa parole contredit et in0alide la 0oi du pou0oir. (e su%alterne,répondrait Couto, peut parler, mais il !aut 6uel6u)un pour l)écouter.

Nous a0ons choisi deu couples de 0oi marginalisés pour illustrer leur place dans la société et leur rle de dénonciateurs. (e premier couple de personnages miroirs est celui !ormé par le pre du narrateur de l)(DS3 et

par le grand pre de Mariamar de AC(. (es deu personnages ont été eclusde la société pour a0oir tra0aillé pour les 'ortugais dans le régime colonial :Dans (DS3 Durante anos ele se eerceu como !iscal de ca;a. ?ra o tempocolonial Z...\ era 6uase o •nico preto 6ue detinha igual lugar 2B. Dans AC( No tempo colonial, Z...\ Co%ra0a impostos e resol0ia con!litos locais a!a0or dos colonos. ?sse cargo custou a meu %isa0 culpas, in0eas eduradouras inimi/ades 2K.

A0oir tra0aillé pour les 'ortugais génre une situation de malaise 6ui ne permet pas au personnages de se sentir me%re de la société, 6uelle 6ue soitl)épo6ue. $ls sont marginalisés dans deu moments di!!érents de l)histoire :< l)épo6ue coloniale &0ictimes de racisme et postcoloniale &considéréscomme des réactionnaires."e trou0ant dans une situation d)entre-deu, ces personnages sont capa%lesde discerner des pro%lémati6ues 6ui ne sont pas mises en 6uestions par lesautres :

Wuando chegaram os da #e0olu;}o eles disseram 6ue amos !icar donos emandantes. odos se contentaram. Minha m}e, muito ela se contentou. "ulplcio,

porém, se encheu de medo. Matar o patr}o Mais di!cil era matar o escra0o 6ue0i0e dentro de n`s. Agora, nem patr}o, nem escra0o.2P

2@ "'$SA5, Gayatri Cha8ra0orty. Can the +ubaltern +-ea;` . (eflections on the 0istor! ofan Idea. New Uor8 : Colum%ia 1ni0ersity 'ress, 2++, pp. 2-H+.2B CO1O, Mia. o-1 cit1, p. @P. ( : 'endant des années il a ser0i comme garde-chasse.CFétait < lFépo6ue coloniale Z...\ il était pres6ue le seul noir 6ui a occupé une telle place.2K CO1O, Mia. o-1 cit1, p. K@. ( : lFépo6ue coloniale, Z...\ il était le responsa%le deramasser les taes et de résoudre les con!lits locau en !a0eur des colons. Cette position aapporté < mon grand-pre une culpa%ilité, des alousies et des éternelles inimitiés.2P Ibidem, p. @L. ( : Wuand les ré0olutionnaires sont arri0és, ils ont dit 6ue nous allionsde0enir propriétaires et che!s. ous étaient contents. Ma mre, elle était trs contente.



ernanda 3ilar

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"ulplcio souligne 6ue l)escla0e 6ui ha%ite au coeur des A!ricains ne leur permettra pas de dé0elopper une 0érita%le politi6ue de décolonisation. uerle colonisateur est une mission simple < cté du dé!i 6ui est de com%attre lamentalité a!ricaine 6ui permet et usti!ie la domination eterne eercée surle pays. (a m=me 6uestion est analysée par le dernier couple de{personnages-miroirs{ : le sorcier Andorinho et l)a0eugle de 5ulumani. $lsepli6uent le procs utilisé par les 'ortugais lors de la colonisation. (a!a;on dont ils ont réussi < propager les préugés et persuader les noirs deleur in!ériorité epli6ue pour6uoi il sera di!!icile d)en !inir a0ec la mentalitédu colonisé:

3alam muito do colonialismo. Mas isso !oi coisa 6ue eu du0ido 6ue hou0esse. O 6ue!i/eram esses %rancos !oi ocuparem-nos. N}o !oi s` a terra: ocuparam a n`sacamparam no meio das nossas ca%e;as. "omos madeira 6ue apanhou chu0a. Agoran}o acendemos nem damos som%ra. emos 6ue secar < lu/ de um sol 6ue ainda n}ohf. ?sse sol s` pode nascer dentro de n`s. 2L

Aconteceu o mesmo no tempo colonial. Os le~es !a/em-me lem%rar os soldados doeército portugu=s. ?sses portugueses tanto !oram imaginados por n`s 6ue setornaram poderosos. Os portugueses n}o tinham !or;as para nos 0encer. 'or isso,!i/eram com 6ue as suas 0timas se matassem a si mesmas. ? n`s, pretos,aprendemos a nos odiar a n`s mesmos2H.

"urmonter une mentalité 6ui a été construite au long de nom%reusesannées est le 0rai dé!i de la décolonisation. 1ne !ois 6ue le peuplecommencera < se 0aloriser par ses 0raies 6ualités, ce sera le moment o lesoleil pourra %riller < nou0eau en A!ri6ue. De l< découle une autre6uestion : se croyant in!érieurs, les A!ricains croient aussi 6ue leur cultureest méprisa%le. C)est < ces personnages 6ue re0ient aussi la t>che de mettre

"ulplcio, cependant, !ut rempli de crainte. uer le che! 'lus di!!icile était de tuer lFescla0e6ui 0it en nous. Or, ni che! ni escla0e.2L Ibid1, p. KB. ( : $ls parlent %eaucoup du colonialisme. Mais cFétait 6uel6ue chose dont

e doute. Ces %lancs, ce 6u)ils ont !ait, c)était de nous occuper. Ce nFétait pas seulement laterre: ils nous ont occupés, ils ont campé au milieu de nos t=tes. Nous somme du %ois 6ui a pris de la pluie. Maintenant, nous ne pou0ons pas =tre allumés et m=me pas donner del)om%re. Nous de0ons sécher < la lumire dFun soleil 6ui n)y est pas encore. Ce soleil ne

peut naQtre 6u)en nous.2H CO1O, Mia. o-1 cit1, p. 2+.( : CFétait la m=me chose < lFépo6ue coloniale. (es lionsme rappellent les soldats de lFarmée portugaise. Ces 'ortugais ont été si idéalisés 6u)ils sontde0enus puissants. (es 'ortugais nFa0aient pas la !orce de nous %attre. Donc, ils ont !ait ensorte 6ue leurs 0ictimes se donnent la mort. ?t nous, les noirs, nous a0ons appris < noushaqr.



ernanda 3ilar

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en garde 6uant au lien entre la tradition, l)histoire et la construction du pays.$ls dénoncent l)ou%li et le man6ue de respect en0ers la terre et les anc=tres6ui ne peu0ent 6ue conduire < un ou%li total de 6ui ils sont. (es paroles de"ulplcio l)illustrent %ien:

Nem a terra, 6ue é propriedade eclusi0a dos deuses, nem a terra é poupada dasgan>ncias. Nada é nosso nos dias de agora. Chega um desses estrangeiros, nacionalou de !ora, e nos arranca tudo de 0e/. Z...\ 'or6ue esses che!es de0iam ser grandescomo fr0ore 6ue df som%ra. Mas t=m mais rai/ 6ue !olha. iram muito e d}o

pouco.2

Adiru dé!end l)idée 6u)ou%lier la condition d)escla0e d)autre!oistrans!orme la population en d)éternels escla0es du pou0oir et en escla0es deleur histoire :

Jf se es6ueceram 6ue !omos escra0os Z...\ Os escra0os n}o deiam mem`ria sa%em por6u= 'or6ue n}o t=m campa. 1m dia destes, em 5ulumani, ninguém mais terfcampa. ? nunca mais ha0erf lem%ran;a de 6ue a6ui hou0e gente[ Z[\ A6ui,moramos todos untos, escra0os e donos de escra0os, os po%res e os donos da

po%re/a.@+

"ulplcio signale 6ue les nou0eau che!s sont a0ides de richesse etn)agissent pas au pro!it de la population. Adiru pré0ient 6ue le peuple,

éloigné de sa mémoire collecti0e continue < =tre 0ictime de ses gou0ernants.1n discours complémente l)autre et nous !ait penser au de0oir de raisonneren !a0eur d)un lien d)harmonie entre tradition et modernité, histoire etmémoire, gou0ernement et population.

Morae de *hi!toire"i la 6uestion de la décolonisation est traitée dans les deu li0res de

manire similaire, on constante une di0ergence s)agissant de leursdénouements. (es dernires péripéties dans (DS3 permettent < Mia Couto

2

CO1O, Mia. o-1 cit1, p. K2,K@. ( : Ni la terre, 6ui est la propriété eclusi0e desdieu, ni la terre n)a été épargnée de la cupidité. #ien nFest < nous ces ours-ci. 1n étranger,national ou du dehors, arri0e et nous enl0e tout Z...\ 'arce 6ue ces che!s de0raient =treaussi grands comme un ar%re 6ui donne de lFom%re. Mais ils ont plus de !euilles 6ue deracines. $ls nous prennent tellement des choses et nous donnent si peu.@+ Ibid1, p. +2. ( : A0e/-0ous ou%lié 6ue nous étions des escla0es Z...\ (es escla0es nelaissent pas de mémoire, et 0ous sa0e/ pour6uoi 'arce 6u)ils n)ont pas de tom%es. 1n deces ours, dans 5ulumani, personne dFautre nFaura une tom%e. ?t amais plus on pourra serappeler 6uFil y a0ait des gens ici ... Z...\ $ci, nous 0i0ons ensem%le, les escla0es et les

propriétaires dFescla0es, les pau0res et les propriétaires de la pau0reté.



ernanda 3ilar

H2

de donner 0ie < la !a%le du !lamant. (e papier o l)italien annonce < l)ON1la !in du pays 0ole en !orme d)oiseau dans l)in!ini. Ce papier représente unnou0eau commencement o les Mo/am%icains réussiront < surmonter leursdé!is et seront pr=ts < 0i0re et < gérer leur 0ie et leur pays sans inter0entionétrangre. Dans AC(, la 6uestion de l)autonomie laisse place au messagede 0alorisation de la !emme. (a !emme, 0ictime pendant plusieurs annéesd)une société patriarcale et machiste, sera reconnue comme l)entitéessentielle pour l)harmonie et le prolongement de la 0ie a!ricaine. Ainsi, peuimporte l)atta6ue des lionnes sur des personnes dé< mortes :

odas essas mulheres f esta0am mortas. N}o !ala0am, n}o pensa0am, n}o ama0am,

n}o sonha0am. De 6ue 0alia 0i0erem se n}o podiam ser !eli/es Z...\ "e elas ti0erem6ue continuar a 0i0er uma 0ida 6ue se lhes destina e n}o 6ue escolhem, o melhor é6ue n}o haa mulheres en6uanto elas n}o !orem as deusas.@

Concu!ion(a lecture criti6ue des deu li0res montre 6ue la mission de décoloniser

est une lutte dou%lement interne. $l !aut com%attre le pou0oir local, 6ui ne0eut 6ue continuer le cycle de dépendances initié durant la colonisation, et

plus pro!ondément encore, il !aut dépasser la mentalité du colonisé pourréussir < 0raiment se décoloniser . Mia Couto souligne dans ces deu romans6ue la décolonisation est en marche, 6u)une partie de la population est

consciente des pro%lmes du néocolonialisme et est pr=te < le dénoncer : ilne nous reste plus 6u)< écouter ces 0oi et agir en !a0eur du pays.

Fernanda >ILA"1ni0ersité de 'aris Ouest - Nanterre (a Dé!ense

@ Ibid1, p. 2K.( : outes ces !emmes étaient dé< mortes. Ne pas parler, ne pas penser, ne pas aimer, ne pas r=0er : est-ce 6ue ;a 0alait la peine de 0i0re si elles ne pou0aient pas =treheureuses &... "i elles de0raient continuer < 0i0re une 0ie 6ue l)on leur a choisie et 6uFellesne peu0ent pas choisir, il est pré!éra%le 6uFil n)y ait pas des !emmes us6u)< ce 6uFelles nede0iennent des déesses.





ernanda 3ilar

HB

NOA, 3rancisco. A escrita infinita. ensaios sobre literatura moKambicana.Maputo: 1ni0ersidade ?duardo Mondlane, H.

NOA, 3rancisco. Im-ério, mito e mio-ia. &oKambique como inenKoliterHria. (is%oa : Caminho, 2++2.

NOA, 3rancisco. (iteratura mo;am%icana: trilhos e margens . &oKambique das -alaras escritas. 'orto : A!rontamento, 2++H.

#O*4?((, 'hillip. A -ostmodern nationalist. truth, oralit!, and gender

in the wor; of &ia Couto. (ewis%urg Z'a.\, ?tats-1nis : 9uc8nell1ni0ersity 'ress, 2++B.

"'$SA5, Gayatri Cha8ra0orty. Can the +ubaltern +-ea;`. (eflections onthe 0istor! of an Idea. New Uor8 : Colum%ia 1ni0ersity 'ress, 2++, pp.2-H+.



HK

$A"T

DECOLONIZATION IN INDIA/I"ELAND



HP

C%A$TE"

,ationalist *ersus Social :e*olution ; / co!'arati*e

Study of :it<ik &hatak=s Subarnarekha 80>?@9 and

1en (oach=s The Wind that Shakes the Barley 8A? 9

Ab!tract Decoloni/ation o! 9ritish dominion was synonymous with partition inse0eral countries &$reland, $ndia. he !ounding myth o! some newly independentstates is unmista8a%ly one o! partition. (iterary and !ilm critics li8e 9odh 'ra8ash

and 9has8ar "ar8ar ha0e etensi0ely dealt with partition narrati0es in !ormer9ritish colonies. 5en (oachFs 0iew that nationalistic struggles that led todecoloni/ation !oregrounded the !ault lines o! these societies and highlighted theneed !or social re0olution at the dawn o! independence o!!ers new perspecti0es !orresearch. his article eplores how partition is mirrored in terms o! %rea8s withinthe !amily in some ?nglish &"he /ind that +ha;es the <arle!, 2++P and 9engali&+ubarnare;ha, PK !ilms and how the !amilial tragedy is used %y mo0ie ma8ers&5en (oach, #itwi8 Ghata8 to re0eal the social challenges that postcolonialsocieties ha0e had to !ace &property law in $reland, caste and gender discriminationin $ndia %y using music as an aesthetic !orce.

")!u+) (a décolonisation des dominions %ritanni6ues est synonyme de la partition dans certains pays &$rlande, $nde. (e mythe !ondateur de 6uel6ues paysnou0ellement indépendants est sans doute celui de la partition. Des criti6ueslittéraires et cinématographi6ues tels 6ue 9odh 'ra8ash et 9has8ar "ar8ar se sont

penchés sur les récits de la partition dans des anciennes terres coloniales %ritanni6ues. ()éclairage de 5en (oach selon le6uel les luttes nationalistes 6ui ontmené < l)indépendance ont mis en a0ant les !ailles de ces sociétés et souligné lanécessité de la ré0olution sociale < l)au%e de l)indépendance o!!re des nou0elles

perspecti0es de recherche. Cet article eplore la !a;on dont la partition se re!ltedans la rupture < l)intérieur de la !amille dans des !ilms anglais & )e ent se l4e etindien &+ubarnare;ha et de la manire dont la tragédie est utilisée par les cinéastes&5en (oach, #itwi8 Ghata8 pour dé0oiler les dé!is sociau 6ue les sociétés

postcoloniales ont du soule0er &droit de la propriété en $rlande, discrimination %asée sur la caste et le genre en $nde en se ser0ant de la musi6ue comme !orceesthéti6ue.



2eetha 2ana-ath!9Doré

HL

he e!!ect o! imperial sway in some indigenous societies had %een one o!administrati0e uni!ication, al%eit tenuous, al%eit !orced. 9ut this did not helpiron out the !undamental !issures in society such as the caste system or theclass system. 4hen the empire was dismantled and decoloni/ation too8

place, it was as i! a 0eil o! smo8e had %een li!ted !rom the eyes o! the!ormer su%ects. he societies awo8e to !reedom and what they thought washappiness. *owe0er, %etween the dreamed nation and the reality that wastheirs, the gap was tragic. 4ar, !amine, riots and partition are commontopics that lin8 $rish and $ndian histories. his paper attempts to loo8 at howdecoloni/ation was played out in $ndian and $rish societies through the!ilmic portrayal o! !amily dramas %y #itwi8 Ghata8 and 5en (oach, who

are %oth 8nown !or their cinema o! social conscience. $ndeed #itwi8 Ghata8 %elonged to the $ndian 'eople)s heatre Association which was the culturalarm o! the Communist mo0ement in pre-independence $ndia. 5en (oach isan a0owed Marist and has %een associated with the 3ourth $nternational,the rots8yite mo0ement !ounded in @H.

3rom the strictly artistic point o! 0iew, it must %e said that Ghata8)s !ilmis in %lac8 and white, while that o! 5en (oach is in colour. he period inwhich these !ilms were shot must also %e ta8en into consideration:+ubarnare;ha was produced in P2, the year o! the Chinese in0asion o!$ndia %ut was released in PK. "he /ind that +ha;es the <arle! wasreleased in 2++P, i.e., a!ter the disarmament o! the $#A. he historicalmoments !ocused on in the two !ilms, BH in the case o! Ghata8 and 2+-2@ in the case o! 5en (oach)s !ilm, whose title was %orrowed !rom #o%ertDwyer Joyce)s %allad o! the same name and which was written in the thcentury in memory o! the LH $rish re%ellion against 9ritain are also 6uitedi!!erent. Ghata8)s purpose was to engage with the !ormati0e role o! cinemaas a language o! nation %uilding. 5en (oach, who got interested in $relanda!ter reading Jim Allen)s script !or Da!s of 0o-e &LB and con0inced thatthe $rish 6uestion is a topical and crucial one,2 intended his !ilm to %e a0ery little step in the 9ritish con!ronting their imperialist history.E@ elling

?rin OFDonnel, 4omanE and homelandE in #itwi8 Ghata8)s !ilms: Constructing post-$ndependence 9engali cultural identity,E in 'um- Cut. A (eiew of Contem-orar! &edia BL &2++B. http:IIwww.eumpcut.orgIarchi0eIcBL.2++KIghata8Itet.html, accessed April K,2+@. he dialogues !rom Ghata8)s !ilm are 6uoted !rom the ?nglish su%titled 0ersion held

%y the National 3ilm Archi0es o! $ndia.http:IIwww.youtu%e.comIwatch0yS?gA'yps@M, accessed April K, 2+@.

2 Consult 'age 2 o! the rench #ress Eit, "he /ind that +ha;es the <arle!,http:IIwww.!esti0al-cannes.!rIassetsI$mageIDirectI+PK@L.'D3, accessed April K, 2+@.@ 5en (oach, 6uoted %y Michael 'hillips, Cannes !esti0al wraps with top honours,E in "he+-o;esman (eiew, 2 May 2++P. "ee also Donal € Drisceoil , Braming the Irish




HH

the truth a%out the past was !or him one way o! telling the truth a%out the present &the 1" in0asion o! $ra6. *owe0er, the perpetually de!erred dreamo! a home and a !ree nation %y the newly decoloni/ed, the patriarchaloppression o! women and the paradoical a!!irmation o! their strength, thelo0e and ri0alry %etween si%lings as a metaphor !or the re%alancing o!

power %etween the mighty ?mpire and the independent nation states, the!ragmentation o! their territorial space, and the use o! the music in the !ilmas a !orm o! deep national connection, warrant the comparison.

"ara "uleri has argued that the !ounding myth o! $ndia and 'a8istan isone o! perpetual partition.B 'oetry, !iction and theatre in *indi, 1rdu,9engali, 'una%i and ?nglish ha0e dwelt etensi0ely with this traumatic

period o! the history o! $ndian su%continent. 9oth commercial and a0ant-garde !ilm ma8ers on %oth sides o! the %order ha0e created un!orgetta%lemasterpieces on the death, sur0i0al and epic ourney o! re!ugees.K "cholarson partition cinema ha0e insisted that the 9engal partition pro0ides thecontet within which all o! Ghata8Fs wor8 is situated.EP $t is to %eremem%ered that Ghata8 himsel! came !rom a 9engali *indu !amily !romDacca that sought asylum in Calcutta a!ter the partition o! 9ritish $ndia.Ghata8 does not depict partition as such, %ut partition as memory and thea!termath o! partition in the dispossession, dislocation and depri0ationwhich come to constitute postcolonial destiny.

Subarnarekha& Syno4!i!he middle class and the *indu protagonists o! +ubarnare;ha, $sh0ar and

"ita are orphans o! partition 0iolence. hey are eiles in Calcutta !rom ?ast-9engal, trying to !orge a new home in a country that is itsel! in the processo! %eing !ormed as a new and so0ereign nation. hey witness the separationo! a low caste mother, 5ausalya, and her son, A%hiram, %ecause the people!rom 5ausalya)s <agdi caste on the outs8irts o! the New (i!e &najia

(eolution. Een )oachVs "he /ind "hat +ha;es the <arle!,? in (adical 0istor! (eiew,&+B 2++: K-K.

http:IInews.google.comInewspapersnid@BRdat2++P+K2Ridaml4AAAA$9AJRsidJ'MDAAAA$9AJRpgBHHB,LH@B@2B, accessed April K, [email protected] "ara "uleri, "he (hetoric of *nglish India &Chicago: Chicago 1ni0ersity 'ress, 2,2+B.K 9odh 'ra8ash, /riting #artition. Aesthetics and Ideolog! in 0indi and Jrdu )iterature &New Delhi: Dorling 5indersley '0t (td, 2++.6 9has8ar "ar8ar, &ourning the $ation. Indian Cinema in the /a;e of #artition &Durham,

NC: Du8e 1ni0ersity 'ress, 2++. "ee in particular Anindya #aychaudhuri, “#esisting theresisti%le: re-writing myths o! partition in the wor8s o! #itwi8 Ghata8,E in +ocial +emiotics&-B 2++: BP-BH.




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Colony in Calcutta would accept only re!ugees !rom a 0illage called 'a%na,not !rom the city o! Dacca. $sh0ar, a 9rahmin, ta8es A%hiram with himwithout mani!esting any sense o! caste discrimination when he decides toaccept the position as a %oo88eeper in a !oundry that his %usinessman !riend#am%ilas o!!ers him. *e thus lea0es the city !or a 0illage called Chatimpursituated on the %an8s o! the "u%arnare8ha #i0er that runs through Orissaand 9engal. *owe0er *aradas, his teacher !riend, treats him as a sel!ishtraitor who puts his sister)s wel!are a%o0e communal solidarity and accuseshim o! a%andoning the school he set up.

A!ter settling down in Chatimpur, A%hiram is sent to a %oarding schoolwhile "ita !lowers into a good singer and housewi!e. $sh0ar plans to send

A%hiram to get trained as an engineer in Germany while A%hiram)saspiration is to %ecome a writer. A%hiram and "ita are in lo0e. 9ut when5ausalya dies in Chatimpur ha0ing come to loo8 !or her son a!ter all theseyears, his low caste %irth is disclosed. here is surprisingly !ierce oppositionon the part o! $shwar)s %rother, who would pre!er to see "ita dieE ratherthan allow A%hiram to wed her. *e decides to !orce an arranged marriageon her. he disappro0ing attitude o! #am%ilas, now ready to propose him acontract !or partnership, and his eagerness to succeed in his pro!ession arethe !actors that lead to $sh0ar)s reection o! his sister.

(i8e the heroine "ita !rom "he (ama!ana, his sister decides to transgressthe golden lineE &the subarnare;ha o! restriction and protection that#ama)s %rother (a8shman draws around the legendary "ita, as8ing her notto step across that line and elope with A%hiram. heir new li!e is amisera%le one as they try to ma8e %oth ends meet and %ring up their littleson. 'roud "ita would not go to her %rother !or help. A%hiram gi0es up hisdreams o! %ecoming a writer and turns into a %us dri0er instead. 9e!ore hecould %ring in his !irst month o! pay, he is 8illed %y an angry mo%, when his

%us meets with an accident, 8illing a girl in the process. $n the meantime,$sh0ar tra0els with his !riend *aradas to Calcutta to get drun8 and !orget hiswoes. *e is tempted %y a tout to enter a %rothel. he prostitute he meets isnone other than his own sister. hough shoc8ed, his sister has the presence

o! mind to commit suicide in !ront o! his eyes. $sh0ar declares himsel! to %eguilty o! her death. 9ut police en6uiry concludes that it is a suicide andreleases him.

At the end, his employer !riend changes his mind and hands o0er thecharge o! the !oundry to the net in command, Mu8heree. 9ere!t o! homeand saddled with his nephew 9inu, $sh0ar returns disillusioned andstaggering to the "u%arnare8ha #i0er %an8s, when 9inu starts to sing a song

%y agore that his mother had taught him.




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%er the rice fields sun and shade -la! a game of hide and see; toda! At hide and see; the! -la!1 In blue s;ies, who floated rafts of white clouds o -ra!` At hide and see; to -la!1 <ees forget to si- at hone!, ecstatic with light the! just fl! around, isiting1 And wh! in the rier sandban;s are the duc;s and dra;es all gathering` )et us not go home toda! let’s not go home toda!1 )et us brea; out through the s;! and -lunder the outdoors toda!1 )i;e foam u-on the flood laughter floats in the air toda!1 In futile fluting let us squander our lie long da!1L

he memory o! the land o! 9engal thus transmitted %y the musical art %ringsthe smile %ac8 to $shwar)s !ace and esta%lishes the %ond %etween the olduncle and the young nephew, as they em%ar8 on yet another ourney insearch o! a new home to house their sel0es.Once a re!ugee, always are!ugee,E as #uth 'rawer Jha%0ala remar8s.H

A Fa+iy divided by Ca!te. a Nation united by Arthe !ilm starts with a !lag hoisting ceremony, thus inscri%ing it clearly in

the space o! the nation. *owe0er, rather than the national anthem that laysstress on national integration and the commingling o! $ndia)s di0ersity inone national identity, the anthem composed %y agore, it is 9an8im

Chandra Chatteree)s 3ande &atharam &*ail to thee, my mothercountryE+ that is sung, gi0ing the !ilm its characteristic 9engali tilt. 3or$sh0ar, *aradas and "ita, $ndia is certainly a mother !igure. he collecti0edream is !or a modern $ndia that will rely on educated citi/ens who will8now %oth the past and the present and spea8 $ndian and ?uropeanlanguages. Ne0ertheless, the country has to deal with its persisting and

L #a%indranath agore composed o0er 2K++ songs. Aa Dhaner 5hete is one o! them. histranslation is !rom the !ollowing lin8.http:IIgreenaydeep.tum%lr.comIpostI@BL+22@K@Io0er-the-rice-!ields-sun-and-shade-

play-a-game-o!, accessed April K, 2+2.H

Jana Gana Mana, a 9engali song composed %y #a%indranath agore in was adoptedas the national anthem %y the Constituent Assem%ly on 2Bth January K+. Sande Matharam, is a poem %y 9an8im Chandra Chattopadhyay that appeared in his HH2no0el Anandamath. $t was !irst sung %y agore at the HP session o! the $ndian NationalCongress !ounded %y the "cotsman Allan Octa0ian *ume in HK.+#uth 'rawer Jha%0ala 6uoted %y Maya Jaggi, 9ra0e New 4orlds,E in "he 2uardian, march 2++K. http:IIwww.guardian.co.u8I!ilmI2++KImarII%oo8s.!eaturesre0iews, accessedApril K, [email protected] "andra Al0are/ de oledo, (itwi; 2hata;, )es films du <engale &'aris: ()Archnéen,2+.




parochial territorial and caste loyalties %e!ore this enlightened $ndia couldsee the light o! day. he re!ugee settlement called Na0i0a Colony is ametaphor !or the new nation state that promises a %rand new li!e o! !reedom!rom the 9ritish. 9ut its practice o! ecluding the lower caste !rom Daccaspells trou%le !or the epected renaissance. he !ilm portrays a group o!9engali landowners & zamindars who are chasing away the re!ugees. his!urti0e image o! their show o! !orce is an allusion to their !eudal powerunder the Mughal and 9ritish administration o! $ndia. 4hen 5ausalya andA%hiram are torn asunder, the drama o! partition is re-enacted. A !ew sceneslater, Mahatma)s Gandhi)s assassination is indirectly represented through anews ca%le. he !ather o! the nation thus tragically disappears !rom the

scene at a crucial time. Alluding to James Joyce)s de!inition o! the nation as!ather)s time and mother)s species, Julia 5riste0a has proposed an idea o!the nation as a con!iguration o! intertwined history and geography.2$n thecontet o! a clear %rea8 with geography and history in Ghata8)s !ilm, %othreally and also sym%olically, the newly independent citi/ens o! $ndia aredepicted as orphaned and as %eing le!t to !ind a way out and !end !orthemsel0es, li8e *ansel and Gretel in Grimm)s !airy tale.

he representation o! %orders in the !ilm, those lines, /ones or %ands o!separation, contact and con!rontation, o! %arrage and passage, !ied ormo%ile, continuous or discontinuous, %ut o0erdetermined, polysemic andheterogeneousE, as ?tienne 9ali%ar de!ines them,@ are signi!icant.Ma8eshi!t !ences hurriedly set up separate the ur%an space o! Calcutta !romits re!ugee colonies in the su%ur%. 4hen $sh0ar and his !amily ta8e the trainand arri0e in Chatimpur, they cross the railway lines to reach their 6uarters.hough uno%trusi0ely included, this particular scene is the one that connectsthe !ilm)s narrati0e with "he (ama!ana, inso!ar as the legendary "ita)scrossing o! the golden line which her %rother-in-law has drawn is the actionthat dri0es the plot. A%hiram and "ita eplore the ruins o! Chatimpur. heseempty, deserted and scorched spaces, such as a%andoned wartime airportand the pilots) clu%, are traces o! the colonial and imperial past. hecon0ersation %etween A%hiram and "ita during this eploratory scene hints

2Julia 5riste0a, (e temps des !emmes , in )es nouelles maladies de l’me &'aris:3ayard, 2L-@@.@?tienne 9ali%ar, Wu)est-ce 6u)une !rontire , in Asile, 3iolence, *@clusion en *uro-e1

0istoire, anal!se, -ros-ectie, M. C. Calo/-schopp R A. Cle0enot eds. &Gene0a : Cahiersde la "ection des "ciences de lF?ducation, 1ni0ersité de Gen0e et Groupe de Gen0e,B @@K-@[email protected]:IIeil-ciph.comIhtdocsIressourcesjdwnldItetesI9I9ali%ar3rontiere.pd!, accessed AprilK, 2+@.




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at the con0entional %orderline and the resultant tension %etween genders.A%hiram wants to show the way around, %ut "ita, who is younger andhindered %y the traditional sari she wears, seems to ha0e a prior 8nowledgeo! the place, surprising him at each turn with her percepti0e remar8s. A noman)s land lies %etween the !oundry and the li0ing 6uarters. 4hen "itacomes across a !rightening bahuru-iB per!ormer wearing a mas8, in otherwords her ominous destiny, her !ather)s old colleague tells her the story o!"ita who was the daughter o! the ?arth and had to return to ?arth, there%ygi0ing the spectators a premonition o! "ita)s impending !ate. 4hen A%hiramand "ita declare their mutual lo0e, the setting is a stretch o! woodland,suggesting the wilderness o! desire. he in0isi%le !rontier %etween castes is

!oregrounded when 5ausalya comes to die in Chatimpur.

he "u%arnare8ha #i0er itsel! is %oth a geographical and psychological!rontier in the sense that it separates a !riendly, slow paced, rural and

pastoral 9engal !rom the !ast-paced and !ashiona%le &em%odied in the person o! #am%ilas)s wi!e who alights !rom a car, ta8es o!! her sun glasses

and %ids her words o! good%ye in ?nglish to "ita Calcutta o! the noueau@riches. $t thus !unctions as a transitional and com!orting mother. $t is on the %an8s o! the ri0er that "ita ma8es up her mind to %rea8 !ree !rom the

B 9ahurupi - 6uic8-change artists across $ndia who physically metamorphose into manycharacters. "ee Ananda (al ed., "he %@ford Com-anion to Indian "heatre &O!ord: O!ord1ni0ersity 'ress, 2++B.http:IIwww.o!ordre!erence.comI0iewI+.+@Iacre!ILH+KPBBBP@.++.+++Iacre!-LH+KPBBBP@-e-++@K, accessed April K, 2+@.






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the memories o! it and entertains her son in the Calcutta bustee, repeatingthe same words used %y Mu8heree. 4hen 9inu meets his uncle, he repeatsthese images again, connecting the past to the nostalgic present.

#itwi8 Ghata8 engages with a%surdist philosophy %y ha0ing recourse tonon-sense speech, sleepiness, mad rage and drun8enness. 4hen $sh0arspea8s in delirious nonsensical rhymes, "ita puts a stop to it. $sh0ar getswor8ed up when "ita tells him point %lan8 that he is wronging her andwishes her to die. *e then crosses the limits o! sanity. *ealthy sleep is asign o! sanity. 4hen she is young, $sh0ar wants his sister to ha0e a propersleep ust as "ita would want her son 9inu to sleep peace!ully. *owe0er, theempire)s 0alue was the spirit o! enterprise with its correlati0e restlessness.

he lines in "ans8rit !rom the Aitareya 1panishadH heard in the %ac8ground as $sh0ar and 9inu head %ac8 to Chatimpur etolling the 0irtueso! mo%ility citing the !orces o! the sun that ne0er sleep as eampleemphasi/e the irony underlying the condition o! the re!ugee %rought a%out

%y the end o! the empire where the sun ne0er slept. he re!ugee is always inan in-%etween state o! wa8e!ulness and slum%er. his con!used state istranslated into the %lurry-eyed drun8enness o! $sh0ar and the sleepiness o!the ournal)s reporter, who wants to !ind out the truth a%out $sh0ar !rom*aradas. As the latter spea8s to the reporter, the camera angle is such thathe seems to %e addressing the spectator directly, gi0ing him or her a lessonin meaninglessness. he martyrdom o! !reedom !ighters had a meaning. 9utin independent $ndia, a dog)s death is mista8en !or martyrdom and asenseless %eating !or a meaning!ul struggle. As !or A%hiram)s writings,neither $sh0ar nor his pu%lishers understand them. heir meaning is lost dueto lac8 o! time, resources and simply the willing a0aila%ility o! minds.

Music is the metaphorical protagonist o! this !ilm, as in his earlier !ilms &eghe Dha;a "ara and Eomal 2andhar . 4hen $sh0ar ma8es his crucialchoice, we hear their Guru playing in the %ac8ground as i! to gi0e his

%enedictions. "ita sings a haunting 9engali song o! longing& Erishna;irthan. he 0ocalese o! this song inherited !rom the Saishna0a9a8thi tradition !orms the signature tune o! the !ilm. At one le0el, the song

!ills the 0oid %etween her and A%hiram, who is separated !rom her. Atanother le0el, it is an epression o! the longing !elt %y the people o! 9engal

H rina Nileena 9aneree, Journeys o! No #eturn, ?ile and ra0el in the 3ilms o! #itwi8Ghata8,E in #ratili-i, Decem%er 2+2, http:IIpratilipi.inI2++I+PIourneys-o!-no-return-trina-nileena-%anereeI, accessed April K, 2+@. "u%roto Mihir #oy, "emiosis o! Music in Ghata8)s "elect !ilms,Ehttp:IIwww.academia.eduI2P+P@KI"emeiosisjo!jMusicjinjGhata8sj"electj3ilms,accessed April K, 2+@.




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who yearn !or the reuni!ication o! their partitioned homeland. 9engali !ol8tunes are heard %oth as a per!ormance %y a street artist and as a per!ormance

%y "ita. Music helps Ghata8 weld the epical and the historical and to gi0e %irth to a modern myth o! the sacri!ice o! women to ena%le the nation to proceed. 4hile partition has o!ten %een compared to !ratricide, Ghata8 gi0esit a suicidal twist, accentuating the tragic rather than the cruel aspect. heironic use o! the Nina #ota)s theme song 'atricia !rom 3ellini)s Dolce 3ita at the night clu% and at "ita)s room in 5aal)s house underscores thedegradation o! 9engali culture. Decoloni/ation had %een harsh on the0ulnera%le, the women, the children and the underpri0ileged. #ather thanupli!ting them, it had plunged them into the a%yss o! pain and misery.

The Wind that Shakes the Barley & Syno4o!i!$n 5en (oach)s Cannes award winning !ilm,2+ two County Cor8 %rothers,

one a medical student, Damien O)Dono0an and another an $#A commander,eddy O)Dono0an are pitted against each other.2 Damien is on the 0erge o!lea0ing his hometown to practice medicine in a (ondon hospital while his

%rother wants him to oin the nationalist struggle. 9e!ore his departure,Damien witnesses two incidents that help change his mind 7 the summaryeecution o! Michefl € "•illea%hfin %y the <lac; and "ans %ecause here!uses to say his name in ?nglish and the %rutal intimidation o! the railwayguard and train dri0er who re!use to allow the 9ritish troops to %oard.Damien oins the $#A, gets trained and participates in su%0ersi0e acti0itieswith the help o! his girl !riend and mem%er o! the $rish 4omen)s Council,"inéad "ulli0an.

A!ter the attac8 on the 0illage)s #oyal $rish Consta%ulary andassassination o! !our 9ritish auiliaries, Anglo-$rish landowner "ir John*amilton !orces his !armhand Chris #eilly to denounce the $#A militants tothe 9ritish army)s intelligence corps. $#A mem%ers are arrested and eddyis tortured. 4ith the help o! a 9ritish soldier o! $rish descent, all %ut three o!them manage to escape. 4hen these three are shot, Damien is ordered toeecute the traitors. Damien shoots %oth "ir *amilton and Chris, his long

time !riend. Damien is guilt stric8en at the prospect o! meeting Chris)smother who supports nationalist cause. A!ter another attac8 on an armed

2+ 5en (oach, "he /ind that +ha;es the <arle!, DSD, 2+th Century 3o *ome?ntertainment, 2++P.2 he !igures o! these two protagonists and some episodes o! the !ilm were inspired %y theli!e and writings o! the $rish !reedom !ighter ?rnie o)Malley. "ee Damon "mith, Our imeo! rou%les 7 $nter0iew with 5en (oach,E in <right )ights KP &2++L.http:II%rightlights!ilm.comIKPI8enloachi0.php, accessed April K, 2+@.




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9ritish con0oy %y the $#A, the 9ritish army retaliates %y %urning down"inéad)s homestead and humiliating her. At that precise moment, a young

%oy arri0es with the news o! a cease!ire.he Anglo-$rish reaty o! 2+ only grants dominion status to the

partitioned $reland. 4hile eddy and his allies !a0our the treaty, Damienand his !riend Dan, the train dri0er and mem%er o! the $rish Citi/ens) Armywho gi0es 0oice to the ideas o! the $rish repu%lican and socialist leaderJames Connelly,22 are opposed to it. "inéad wor8s !or the courts and stops agreedy landowner !rom eploiting a helpless woman. Damien and his groupaspire !or a 1nited $rish #epu%lic and the nationali/ation o! industry andagriculture !or more social ustice. eddy and his !riends parade in $rish

Army 1ni!orms and are sneered at %y the opposite camp. 4hen the ci0ilwar %rea8s out in Du%lin, the Anti-reaty group o! the $#A in Cor8

perpetrates acts o! 0iolence against the $rish 3ree "tate. eddy is o%liged toturn against his own %rother.

Dan is 8illed and Damien captured during a raid !or arms on a 3ree "tate %arrac8s commanded %y eddy. Damien is imprisoned in the same cellwhere he and his %rother were earlier held %y the 9ritish, and sentenced todeath. eddy as8s Damien to disclose the $#A)s cache. $n return, he o!!ershim !ull amnesty and the prospect o! a li!e with "inéad in a peace!ul $reland.Damien stands !irm and writes a good %ye letter to "inead.

At dawn, Damien is %rought %e!ore a !iring s6uad. eddy orders thes6uad to !ire, and Damien !alls dead. eddy ta8es DamienFs letter and handsit o0er personally to "inéad. *er anger and grie! 8now no %ounds and sheorders eddy to lea0e. he !ilm ends with "inéad weeping !or Damien andeddy wal8ing away in remorse.

An atte+4t at co+4ari!on$! Ghata8 !rom the outset installs the nation as a !rame, showing the !lag-

hoisting ceremony and the singing o! 3ande &atharam, 5en (oachachie0es a similar initial !raming, !irst 0isually, through the depiction o! thehurling game !or%idden %y the 9ritish in H,2@ then aurally, through the

inclusion o! Gaelic sounds in an ?nglish !ilm. As in Ghata8)s !ilm, the %urden o! a momentous choice is %rought to %ear on the protagonist in 5en(oach)s !ilm. $sh0ar !lees the city in search o! security and serenity. $n 5en

22 Consult the discussion %etween Jim Creegan and 'hil 3erguson on the topic, 4asConnolly right De%ate on ]he 4ind that sha8es the 9arley)E dated @+ July 2++L.http:IIwww.socialistdemocracy.orgIDe%ateIDe%ate4indhat"ha8eshe9arley.html,accessed April K, [email protected]@ he 9ritish suspected that it was the %reeding ground !or tough $rish !reedom !ighters.




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(oach)s !ilm, Damien decides to stay and ris8 his li!e in the 0illage. Just asthe 9engali landscape pro0ides not only the setting %ut the 0ery heart o!Ghata8)s mo0ie, the lush green !ields and the cosy %rown interiors o!$reland captured %y cinematographer 9arry Ac8royd !orm an integral part o!5en (oach)s narrati0e.

Much li8e the contrast %etween the city and the 0illage and the !actory!loor and home depicted in +ubarnare;ha, the contrast %etween "inead)s!armhouse and "ir John *amilton)s mansion is stri8ing in "he /ind that+ha;es the <arle!. $n Ghata8)s !ilm, the !oundry is an inheritance o!industrial re0olution and empire, while the rural landscape represents themotherland. he solidity and spaciousness o! "ir *amilton)s house, the

opulence o! its interiors and its many ser0ants, clearly esta%lish it in (oach)s!ilm as a sym%ol o! the empire. he !armhouse is a more domesticated and

peripheral space representing the colony. "imilarly, the 9ritish soldiersmo0e in armoured 0ehicles while "inead uses a %icycle. he sound made %ythe army 0ehicle and its speed that sha8es the stillness o! the $rishcountryside are in contrast to the slow paced and 6uiet ride o! the %icycle.5en (oach seems to suggest that resistance to empire could %e articulated asa re!usal to synchroni/e local time with imperial time.

$n Ghata8)s !ilm, it is the women who are sacri!iced7 treated as o%ects,a%used, oppressed, dri0en to commit suicide or who are 8illed. $n 5en(oach)s !ilm, it is young men who are punished and murdered in the nameo! the nation. he struggle %etween eddy and Damien, reminiscent o! the9i%lical !ight %etween Cain and A%el, is a metaphor !or the partition tactics

played %y the 9ritish and the internal di0isions o! the $rish 3ree "tate.




H

Michefl)s mother and "inéad are !acilitators o! men)s actions. 4omen)sintegrity and in0ol0ement in the repu%lican 0alues o! e6uality and ustice aremani!est when (ily and "inéad sit as udge2B and cler8 in the #epu%licancourt. hey come o!! as strong women who could not %e politicallymanipulated.

(i8e #a%indranath agore)s song in Ghata8)s !ilm, #o%ert DwyerJoyce)s %allad sung at the !uneral o! Mi8hail !orms the aural theme o! 5en(oach)s mo0ie.2K

I sat within a alle! green I sat me with m! true loe

&! sad heart stroe to choose between"he old loe and the new loe"he old for her, the new that made

&e thin; on Ireland dearl!/hile soft the wind blew down the glen

And shoo; the golden barle!2P

A religious con!lict is at the core o! the partition o! $ndia and $reland.*owe0er %oth directors set aside this aspect2L and choose to loo8 at themore practical challenges that the new nation-in-!ormation has to !ace, i.e.,corruption and ine6uality. $n Ghata8)s !ilm, corruption is su%tly suggestedwhen #am%ilas tells $sh0ar that he would %e paid one hundred and !i!ty

rupees per month as salary, %ut the accounts will show that as two hundredand !i!ty rupees. 5en (oach shows how the !ormer $#A male militants aretempted to close their eyes on the in!ringement o! one o! their richsupporters who eploits a peasant woman %y charging eor%itant interestrates. he discourse o! Damien and Dan at the court clearly indicates thatindependence will not represent a real change in $reland unless the pro%lems

2B he copyright o! the image reproduced !rom "he /ind that +ha;es the <arle! %elongs toits right!ul owners. Grate!ul a8nowledgement is made to them. $t is reproduced here ascitation !or purely academic and non-commercial purposes in accordance with the !air

useE and !air dealingE clauses o! the copyright law.2K he other traditional songs that the !ilm)s music director George 3enton used to gi0e a patriotic !la0our are: he $rish national anthem ]Amhfn Na %h3iann) %y 'eader 5earneyand 'atric8 *eeney, the re%el song ]Or` "é Do 9heatha ]9haile) %y 'fdraic 'earse and]he Doon #eel). Consult page 2K o! the rench #ress Eit . "upra. 2P #o%ert Dwyer Joyce)s %allad can %e read athttp:IIen.wi8ipedia.orgIwi8iIhej4indjhatj"ha8esjthej9arley, accessed April K, [email protected] he parish priest)s denunciation o! the anti-reaty militants as8ing !or the nationali/ationo! land o! wealth o! $reland in "he /ind that +ha;es the <arle! merely alludes to the role o!religion in the $rish !reedom struggle.










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true $rish !reedom lies that way. he emergence o! regional Dalit political parties and the rise to power o! their elected leaders has ushered in a silentre0olution and the third age o! democracyB2 in $ndia, while the Naalite-Maoist insurgents de!ending the rural poor are 0ery acti0e in the district o!*owrah in 4est 9engal. here is no political dream o! %ringing $ndia,'a8istan and 9angladesh under one um%rella %ecause o! the sectarian

politics which plagues their relationship. 9ut it is to %e hoped that greatereconomic cooperation under the aegis o! "AA#C will mitigate political anddiplomatic ris8s. All the three countries are using celluloid diplomacy as ane!!ecti0e tool o! so!t power.

Geetha GANA$AT%#&DO"E1ni0ersité 'aris @, "or%onne 'aris Cité

B2 Christophe Ja!!relot, IndiaVs +ilent (eolution1 "he (ise of the )ower Castes in $orth India &New Uor8: Colum%ia 1ni0ersity 'ress R New Delhi: 'ermanent 9lac8, 2++@.




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A9?#N?*U, Da0id 9. "he D!namics of 2lobal Dominance. New *a0en,C: Uale 1ni0ersity 'ress, 2+++.

9A($9A#, ?tienne. Wu)est-ce 6u)une !rontire . $n Asile, 3iolence, *@clusion en *uro-e1 0istoire, anal!se, -ros-ectie edited %y M. C.Calo/-schopp R A. Cle0enot, @@K-@B@. Gene0a: Cahiers de la "ection des"ciences de lF?ducation, 1ni0ersité de Gen0e et Groupe de Gen0e, B.

9AN?#J??, rina Nileena. Journeys o! No #eturn, ?ile and ra0el inthe 3ilms o! #itwi8 Ghata8.E #ratili-i Decem%er 2+2.http:IIpratilipi.inI2++I+PIourneys-o!-no-return-trina-nileena-%anereeI,accessed April K, 2+@.

C*A1D*1#$, Amit. 'artition as ?ile.E Inde@ on Censorshi- 2P-P&L: 2-P.

C#??GAN, Jim and 'hil 3erguson on the topic, 4as Connolly rightDe%ate on ]he 4ind that sha8es the 9arley)E dated @+ July 2++L.http:IIwww.socialistdemocracy.orgIDe%ateIDe%ate4indhat"ha8eshe9

arley.html, accessed April K, [email protected]", Seena. he Ma8ing o! Modernity: Gender and ime in $ndian

CinemaE. $n Fuestions of &odernit! edited %y imothy Mitchell, PP-HH. Minneapolis: he 1ni0ersity o! Minnesota 'ress, 2+++.

D? O(?DO, "andra Al0are/. (itwi; 2hata;, )es films du <engale. 'aris:()Archnéen, 2+.

D?(?1X?, Gilles and 3éli Guattari. )’Anti9%edi-e. 'aris: ?ditions deMinuit, L2.

3?#G1"ON, Niall. *m-ire. "he (ise and Demise of the <ritish /orld%rder and the )essons for 2lobal #ower . New Uor8: 9asic 9oo8s, 2++B.

OFDONN?((, ?rin. 4omanE and homelandE in #itwi8 Ghata8)s !ilms:Constructing post-$ndependence 9engali cultural identity.E 'um- Cut. A

(eiew of Contem-orar! &edia BL &2++B.




2+B

http:IIwww.eumpcut.orgIarchi0eIcBL.2++KIghata8Itet.html, accessedApril K, 2+@.

€ D#$"C?O$( , Donal. 3raming the $rish #e0olution: 5en (oachFs "he/ind "hat +ha;es the <arle!1E (adical 0istor! (eiew +B &2++: K-K.

G#??N?, Anthony. Decoloni/ation in 9ritish A!rica.E 0istor! "oda!, B2- &2.http:IIwww.historytoday.comIanthony-greeneIdecolonisation-%ritish-a!rica, accessed April K, 2+@.

G1*A, #amachandra. 'er!idy, Sillainy, $ntrigue.E )ondon (eiew of <oo;s @B-2B &2+2: 2-@+.

JA33#?(O, Christophe. IndiaVs +ilent (eolution1 "he (ise of the )owerCastes in $orth India1 New Uor8: Colum%ia 1ni0ersity 'ress R NewDelhi: 'ermanent 9lac8, 2++@.

JAGG$, Maya. 9ra0e New 4orlds.E $n "he 2uardian, march 2++K.http:IIwww.guardian.co.u8I!ilmI2++KImarII%oo8s.!eaturesre0iews,accessed April K, 2+@.

5A5A#, "udhir. Intimate (elations. e@-loring Indian se@ualit!. NewDelhi: Si8ing, H

5*$(NAN$, "unil et al eds. $on Alignment :18, A oreign and +trategic #olic! for India in the "went! irst Centur!. New Delhi: Centre !or'olicy research, 2+2.

5#$"?SA, Julia. (e temps des !emmes. $n )es nouelles maladies del’me. 'aris: 3ayard, @, 2L-@@.

(A(, Ananda ed. "he %@ford Com-anion to Indian "heatre, O!ord:O!ord 1ni0ersity 'ress, 2++B.

(AN?, 3intan R Donal €. Drisceoil eds. #olitics and the Irish /or;ingClass, 5MQ8956RN. (ondon: 'algra0e Macmillan, 2++K.

AND?#"ON, 'erry. A!ter Nehru.E )ondon (eiew of <oo;s @B-K &2+2:2-@P.




2+K

'*$(($'", Michael. Cannes !esti0al wraps with top honours.E "he+-o;esman (eiew, 2 May 2++P.http:IInews.google.comInewspapersnid@BRdat2++P+K2Ridaml4AAAA$9AJRsidJ'MDAAAA$9AJRpgBHHB,LH@B@2B, accessedApril K, 2+@.

'#A5A"*, 9odh. /riting #artition. Aesthetics and Ideolog! in 0indi andJrdu )iterature. New Delhi: Dorling 5indersley '0t (td, 2++.

#AUC*A1D*1#$, Anindya. #esisting the resisti%le: re-writing myths o!

partition in the wor8s o! #itwi8Ghata8.E +ocial +emiotics &-B 2++:BP-BH.

he #e0olutionary Alternati0e, "tanding Outside the 'eace 'rocess.E Irish (e-ublican $ews, March 22, [email protected]:IIrepu%lican-news.orgIcurrentInewsI2+@[email protected],accessed April K, 2+@.

#OU, "u%roto Mihir. "emiosis o! Music in Ghata8)s "elect !ilms.Ehttp:IIwww.academia.eduI2P+P@KI"emeiosisjo!jMusicjinjGhata8sj"electj3ilms, accessed April K, 2+@.

"A#5A#, 9has8ar. &ourning the $ation. Indian Cinema in the /a;e of #artition. Durham, NC: Du8e 1ni0ersity 'ress, 2++.

"M$*, Damon. Our ime o! rou%les 7 $nter0iew with 5en (oach.E <right )ights KP &2++L. http:II%rightlights!ilm.comIKPI8enloachi0.php,accessed April K, 2+@.

"1(?#$, "ara. "he (hetoric of *nglish India. Chicago: Chicago 1ni0ersity

'ress, 2.AGO#?, #a%indranath. %f )oe, $ature and Deotion. "elected "ongs

translated %y 5alpana 9ardhan, New Delhi: O1' $ndia, 2++H.

Fi+o-ra4hy

Irish #eace Congress and Delegates, Documentary, 2.





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C%A$TE" 10

Is one of the <orlds oldest de!ocracies under threat

/ co!'arati*e look at the constitutional or+anization of

the United 1in+do! and Ireland !i+ht tell us <hy

Ab!tract: he 1nited 5ingdom ran8s amongst the world)s oldest democracies andhas, through its colonial empire helped to spread western democratic traditionsaround the world. he article as8s i! 9ritish democracy is now under threat andwhether that threat comes !rom the !lei%le unde!ined character o! the systemitsel!. his is done %y comparing the 15)s constitutional structure with that o! itsclose neigh%our $reland. he role o! the three %ranches o! go0ernment in each

urisdiction is eamined in order to as8 whether the 15)s eecuti0e %ranch has %ecome too dominant, there%y leading to a potentially dangerous concentration o! power. he article considers that the $rish constitutional structure, modelled closelyon the 4estminster model, has nonetheless a0oided the challenge presently !acingthe 15, mainly through the eistence o! a written constitution, a democraticallyelected head o! state and reliance on a system o! 0oting %ased on proportionalrepresentation.

")!u+) (e #oyaume uni !igure parmi les plus 0ieilles démocraties du monde etil a contri%ué < répandre la tradition démocrati6ue occidentale < tra0ers son empirecolonial. Cet article pose la 6uestion de sa0oir si la démocratie %ritanni6ue estmenacée et si la menace pro0ient de la nature !lei%le et non dé!ini du systmem=me en comparant la structure constitutionnelle %ritanni6ue a0ec celle de son0oisin plus proche, l)$rlande. (e rle des trois %ranches du gou0ernement danscha6ue uridiction est eaminé a!in de 0oir si le rle de la %ranche eécuti0e duroyaume uni est de0enu trop puissant résultant dans une concentration de pou0oirsdangereu. ()article soutient 6ue la structure constitutionnelle irlandaise 6ui

s)inspire étroitement du modle du 4estminster a su é0iter la di!!iculté < la 6uelle!ait !ace le royaume uni gr>ce principalement < l)eistence d)une constitutionécrite, < un che! d)état démocrati6uement élu et au recours < la représentation

proportionnelle.



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"he JE ran;s amongst the world’s oldest democracies and has throughits colonial em-ire -la!ed a ;e! role in s-reading the western democraticmodel around the world1 0oweer, it is contended that <ritish democrac!,built -artl! on the unwritten rules, conention and custom ma! be underthreat1 "he author see;s to demonstrate this b! com-aring the JE’sconstitutional structure with that of its close neighbour Ireland1 "he Irishconstitutional structure, modelled closel! on that of /estminster hasaoided some the challenges -resentl! encountered b! the Jnited Eingdom1

It is -ro-osed to consider the two s!stems com-aratiel! =A> and thereafterto identif! the -articular dangers facing democrac! in the JE =<>1

he 1nited 5ingdom)s &15 modern democratic traditions date %ac8 the@th century when Norman 5ings !irst summoned parliaments, put in placethe !oundations o! the common law system and accepted legal restrictionson the eercise o! monarchical power %y signing the Magna Charta. $relandas a !ormer constituent mem%er o! the 15 shared in that system and later,upon gaining independence, put in place a similar constitutional structure.*owe0er, the two systems are not identical and !undamental di!!erenceseist %etween them the most important o! which %eing the !act that $relandis a repu%lic with an elected 'resident whilst the 15 remains aconstitutional monarchy.

A.

The 4oitica in!titution! o6 the 9 and Ireand Despite the unprecedented le0els o! cooperation %etween the $rish and

9ritish go0ernments leading to the esta%lishment o! a peace deal in the North o! $reland, it is important to remem%er that the two states remainindependent political entities with separate political institutions.2 $t is

proposed & to !irst loo8 at the respecti0e constitutions o! each country %e!ore &2 %e!ore loo8ing at the speci!ic nature o! their respecti0e politicalinstitutions.

. he 9ritish and $rish Constitutions

A constitution is the name gi0en the rule%oo8 that de!ines therelationship %etween the di!!erent powers o! state. $t is o!ten said %y non- urists that ?ngland has an unwritten constitution. *owe0er, although

Good 3riday Agreement &also 8nown as 9el!ast Agreement, April H.2 he island o! $reland is a di0ided entity with the North o! $reland !orming part o! the1nited 5ingdom and the "outh a separate repu%lic.



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seducti0e %y its simplicity, this statement remains !undamentally incorrect.$ndeed, it is important not to con!use the notions o!:

- a codi!ied Constitution, i.e. a %ringing together in one document thelaws organi/ing the o!!ices o! state, !or eample the $rishConstitution

- a written constitution, i.e. the eistence o! constitutional laws inwritten !orm, %ut not codi!ied in a single document

- an unwritten constitution made up o! unwritten rules ha0ingconstitutional status, i.e. accepted practice that, although ne0er!ormally recorded, is accepted as %inding.@

he rules ma8ing up the 15 Constitution are !or the most part written,although there are also unwritten rules enoying constitutional status. hus,rather than saying that the 15 has an unwritten Constitution it is pro%a%lymore correct to say that the 15 constitution is uncodi!ied.

a he 15 ConstitutionAs the 15 has no codi!ied constitutional document, its Constitution

comes !rom a num%er o! sources including:- fundamental documents: the Magna Charta is an eample o! a

!undamental document ma8ing up 15 constitutional law. heimportance o! the Magna Charta lies in the !act that it !orced 5ingJohn to accept that there was a system o! law eisting parallel to thethrone and that the Crown had to respect this law.B 1nder theheading o! !undamental documents also comes the PH 9ill o!#ights, 0esting so0ereignty in the 'arliament and setting out therights o! 15 su%ects under the newly created constitutional

@ 3or eample in the 1nited 5ingdom it is con0ention that the Wueen will appoint as 'rimeMinister the leader o! the political party enoying the support o! the maority o! the *ouse

o! Commons.B "igned at #unnymede June K, 2K %y 5ing John, pro%a%ly one o! the most importantclauses o! the Magna Charta created a committee o! 9arons who could meet at any timesecurity re6uired it and impose their will on the 5ing through !orce i! necessary. Ci0il 4ar!ollowed its signing, as John immediately reneged on his promises. 1nderstanding thethreat that the document posed to the then monopoly o! power enoyed %y church and state,the 'ope also %ecame in0ol0ed, descri%ing it as a shame!ul document signed underconditions o! !orce. *owe0er, the genie was out o! the %ottle and a!ter John)s death, thenew 5ing &*enry $$$, still a child, was !orced to agree to a re0ised 0ersion o! thedocument.



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monarchy.K - constitutional statutes ado-ted b! the JE #arliament : some o! the

laws adopted %y the 'arliament are considered to %e constitutional incharacter. he more important include the:

• Act o! "ettlement &L+, 7 esta%lishing inter alia that only persons o! the 'rotestant !aith can accede to the throne.

• Acts o! 1nion, L+L and H+ - where%y "cotland and$reland respecti0ely %ecame part o! the 1nion and lost theirindependent parliaments. he e!!ect o! %oth Acts o! 1nionhas %een partially o0erturned %y New (a%our)s policy o!de0olution in 4ales,P Northern $reland and "cotland, underthe Go0ernment o! 4ales Act, Northern $reland Act &Hand "cotland Act &H all pro0iding !or 0arying degrees o!de0ol0ed go0ernment !or the home countries.

• 'arliament Act & - restricting the power o! the *ouse o!(ords. 'ursuant to this Act the *ouse o! (ords) power to0eto %ills coming !rom the *ouse o! Commons was %roughtto an end, e!!ecti0ely esta%lishing the dominance o! theCommons o0er the (ords.

• "tatute o! 4estminster &@ 7 creating legislati0e e6uality!or the sel! go0erning dominions ma8ing up the

Commonwealth.L

• *uman #ights Act &H - applying the ?uropean

Con0ention on *uman #ights, &K2 directly in 15 law.• *ouse o! (ords Act & - where%y the *ouse o! (ords has

seen the num%er o! hereditary peers sitting in the *ousereduced to ninety-two lords, the heirs o! which will no longerenoy an automatic right to sit in the (ords.H

- the laws created b! the judiciar!: these laws are sometimes re!erredto as case law or the common law. 'erhaps one o! the most

K Drawn up in the contet o! the glorious re0olutionE and the in0estiture o! 4illiam o!Orange as 5ing a!ter the !orced a%dication o! James $$.P here was ne0er an Act o! 1nion !or the 4elsh 'arliament, which pro%a%ly eplains theinitial hesitant response o! the 4elsh to de0olution.L Namely, at the time, Canada, Australia, New!oundland, New Xealand, "outh A!rica andthe then $rish 3ree "tate.H here are many more Acts o! 'arliament o! constitutional importance and this list iso%0iously open-ended.







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against its adoption.H $! the reaty ultimately %ecame part o! $rish law, it is %ecause the $rish people chose to adopt it, not %ecause they were !orced todo so. he powers o! the $rish 'arliament are restricted, as i! it acts outsideo! the Constitution the adopted legislation is su%ect to control %y the courtsunder the heading o! udicial re0iew. he 15 courts, gi0en that ultimateso0ereignty resides in 'arliament, do not ha0e e6ui0alent power under thisheading.

2. 'olitical institutions in the 15 and $relandhe political institutions in $reland and the 15 are similar, due to

$reland)s historically close lin8s with the 1nited 5ingdom. *owe0er,

di!!erences %etween the two systems do eist and one should not %econsidered a car%on copy o! the other. he 15 system has slowly e0ol0ed!rom monarchy to constitutional democracy. he result is that eisting

powers, !or eample those o! the monarchy, are !re6uently restricted %ycon0ention rather than %y any epress rules to that e!!ect. hus there eists adelicate %alance %etween the di!!erent institutions and possi%ly an o0er-concentration o! power in the o!!ice o! prime minister, which in the 15 isnearly presidential in its scope.

9y contrast, the creators o! the $rish system had a %lan8 can0as withwhich to wor8 and as a result were in a position to put in place a modernsystem %ased less on con0ention and more on repu%lican tradition, withclear rules delineating the relationship %etween the di!!erent powers o! state.

Nowhere is this distinction clearer than in the case o! the monarchy in the15 and the o!!ice o! 'resident in $reland.

H he re6uirement to ha0e a re!erendum on the (is%on reaty results !rom Crott! 1 An"aoiseach ZHL\ $# L@. he $rish "upreme Court ruled that the "tate cannot rati!y a?uropean reaty without !irst amending the national Constitution i! the reaty contains oneor se0eral pro0isions which alter the essential scope or o%ecti0esE o! the original?uropean Communities. 3or !urther analysis, see generally G. *ogan and G. 4hyte, '1&1

Eell!. "he Irish Constitution &Du%lin: (eisNeis 9utterworths, Bth

ed., 2++@ C. Costello,$reland)s Nice #e!erendaE in *uConst , 2++K, @KL M. Cahill, $reland)s ConstitutionalAmenda%ility and ?urope)s Constitutional Am%ition: he (is%on #e!erendum in Contet,Ein 2erman )aw 'ournal , -+ &2++H: G. 9arrett, 9uilding a "wiss Chalet in an $rish(egal (andscape #e!erendums on ?uropean 1nion reaties in $reland R the $mpact o!"upreme Court JurisprudenceE, in *JConst , 2++, @2. G. *ogan, he (is%on reaty andthe $rish #e!erendumE in *uro-ean #ublic )aw, K-2 &2++: P@. Although the democratic character o! the 0ote appro0ing the (is%on reaty can %e6uestioned, as it was only accepted at the second attempt at a time when the $rish peoplee!!ecti0ely had an economic gun to their head.



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a

*ead o! "tate 7 MonarchyI'resident9oth the 15 and $reland are similar inso!ar as they %oth ha0e *eads o!

"tate that ser0e primarily a sym%olic role. *owe0er, as we shall see, theo!!ice o! 'resident in $reland, as a result o! its democratic legitimacy and theeistence o! a codi!ied constitution clearly setting out its powers, has alarger and more de!ined role. Conse6uently it %etter !ul!ills its modern-day

primary !unction o! acting as a %ra8e on the eercise o! power %y the other %ranches o! state.

5> JE 9 "he &onarch! Normally the eistence o! a monarchy would imply that a state is not

democratic, especially when, as is the case in the 15, the Wueen apparentlyhas a power o! 0eto o0er legislation adopted %y the 'arliament and is alsotitular head o! the Church o! ?ngland. *owe0er, as is !re6uently the casewith 15 constitutional law, all is not 6uite what it seems. he Wueen isconsidered a constitutional monarch and her powers are thus limited

pursuant to the terms o! the 15 Constitution. $n reality, the monarchy)s powers are now mainly ceremonial and may %e considered under a num%ero! precise headings.

• 0ead of +tate: the Wueen is the *ead o! "tate in the 15. Coins andnotes %ear her image and the state %rings actions in her name.2+

4hen she tra0els a%road she represents the 15. Sisiting diplomats present their credentials to her and she signs international treaties on %ehal! o! the 9ritish people. On the ad0ice o! the prime minister, sheis responsi%le !or con!erring honors such as 8nighthoods andappointing go0ernment ministers, %ishops o! the Church o! ?ngland,

peers o! the realm and udges.• Consultatie role: the 'rime Minister meets e0ery wee8 with the

Wueen in order to discuss go0ernment policy and, more generally,the a!!airs o! state. he Wueen has no real power o0er the !ormationo! go0ernment policy and has %een said to ha0e the right to %econsulted, the right to encourage and the right to warn.E2 Moreo0er,

!or a %ill to %ecome an Act o! 'arliament, the Wueen must gi0e her#oyal Assent. $n reality this is only a !ormality and pursuant toconstitutional tradition it is inconcei0a%le that the Wueen would

2+ 3or eample, all criminal cases in which the "tate is prosecuting are %rought in theWueen)s name: (eginaE.2 4illiam 9AG?*O, he ?nglish ConstitutionE, !irst pu%lished in HPL.



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withhold her assent.22 Nonetheless, com%ined with a right o! wee8lyconsultation, it allows the monarch a certain indirect in!luence o0ergo0ernment policy that should not %e underestimated.

• Ceremonial role: the Wueen summons and dissol0es parliament %y#oyal proclamation and she also opens and prorogues eachindi0idual session o! parliament. hus, each year she tra0els !rom9uc8ingham 'alace %y horse-drawn coach to the *ouses o!'arliament and plays out a pu%lic ritual much lo0ed %y the 9ritish

people. "he is also *ead o! the Church o! ?ngland and is o!!iciallyre!erred to as the #rotector of the aith. As we ha0e seen, pursuantto the Act o! "ettlement L+ the 9ritish monarch must %e o!'rotestant !aith. $n a modern country made up o! millions o! citi/enso! di0erse religions or indeed pro!essing no religious !aith, thisre6uirement clearly ma8es the monarchy less representati0e.

:> Ireland 9 "he #resident1nder <unreacht na h*ireann, the president is elected %y direct 0ote o!

the $rish citi/ens e0ery se0en years. Candidates must %e nominated %y 2+mem%ers o! 'arliament or %y the Councils o! !our County Councils. 2@ he'resident is the head o! state and, as with the Wueen, !or most part acts onthe ad0ice and authority o! the go0ernment. 3or eample, the 'resident

appoints the prime minister, re!erred to as An "aoiseach &herea!ter the"aoiseach on the ad0ice o! parliament and then appoints go0ernmentministers on the ad0ice o! the "aoiseach. 9e!ore a %ill can %ecome law, itmust %e presented to the 'resident !or his signature. *e then promulgatesthe law %y ha0ing a notice pu%lished in Iris %ifigiul .2B he supremecommand o! the de!ense !orces is 0ested in the 'resident and commissionedo!!icers ta8e their commissions !rom him. he 'resident is also the nominalhead o! international a!!airs and conse6uently it is to the 'resident that

22 $t is accepted con0ention that the Wueen would ne0er withhold her consent, and indeedwere she to do so it might well pa0e the way !or the end o! the monarchy in the 15.

*owe0er, this con0ention as to the non-use o! the royal assent is relati0ely modern inconstitutional terms and pre0ious monarchs eercised the power which the royal assentactually gi0es. he last monarch actually to do so was Wueen Anne in L+L, although latermonarch used its threat to ha0e legislation altered.2@ he present 'resident o! $reland is Michael *iggins, elected !or a !irst term o! o!!ice in2+. 're0ious 'residents include: Douglas *yde &$rish nationalist and writer, "ean O)Ceallaigh &political leader, ?amonn de Salera &political leader, ?rs8ine Childers,Cear%hall o) Dalaigh &lawyer, 'atric8 *illary &politician, Mary #o%inson &lawyer, andMary McAleese &1ni0ersity lecturer.2B he O!!icial Ga/ette.



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diplomats present their credentials and it is he who, on the ad0ice o! thego0ernment, accredits $rish representati0es a%road. 3inally, as is the casewith the Wueen, the 'resident must %e 8ept in!ormed %y the aoiseach onmatters o! international and domestic policy.

hus, the $rish 'resident, li8e the Wueen per!orms a mainly ceremonialrole. *owe0er, unli8e the 9ritish monarch, the 'resident has a num%er o!real powers that are in no way limited %y con0ention and ha0e to do with hisepress role as guardian o! the Constitution.

• (efuse to sign a bill and send it to the +u-reme Court for reiew. <unreacht na *ireann en0isaged the 'resident as more than ust amere ceremonial head o! state. hus, when presented with a %ill !orsignature, the 'resident may choose to re!er the %ill to the "upremeCourt !or a re0iew o! its constitutionality. $! the "upreme Court !indsthat a pro0ision o! the %ill is unconstitutional, the law must then %esu%mitted to the $rish people in re!erendum, who will then decidewhether the %ill should pass into law or not. his power issigni!icant, i! we loo8 at the issue o! emergency powers and the6uestion o! detention without trial. $n the past, the $rish 'resident hasre!erred legislation see8ing to etend to se0en days the period o!detention a0aila%le to the $rish police !or re0iew %y the $rish"upreme Court and when as8ed, the Court !ound such legislation to

%e unconstitutional.

2K

• (efer a bill for referendum. $! a maority o! the +eanad and not lessthan a third o! the Dail2P petition the 'resident not to sign a %ill ongrounds that it contains a proposal o! such national importance thatthe will o! the people ought to %e ascertainedE, the 'resident canchoose to re!use to sign the %ill until:

- a re!erendum has %een held on the 6uestion or- a general election is called and the %ill is once again

presented !or signing %y the newly elected Dail .his is a signi!icant power that allows the *ead o! "tate to re6uire are!erendum on legislation which, although pro%a%ly constitutional, is

nonetheless contro0ersial in character.

2K $n the 15 attempts to increase the period o! legal detention to what many would consideran incredi%le long fort!9two da!s has !or the moment %een delayed in the *ouse o! (ords.*owe0er the Wueen or the courts are in reality powerless to pre0ent its adoption, i! the %illis reintroduced %e!ore the new 'arliament.2P he Dail and the +eanad ma8e up the two houses o! parliament in $reland re!erred to asthe *ouses o! the %ireachtais.



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•

Conene an emergenc! meeting of either or both 0ouses of the%ireachtais. he 'resident has the power to con0ene a meeting o!either or %oth *ouses o! the %ireachtais where there is anemergency o! national importance that re6uires consideration.2L

• (efuse to dissole the Dail . he 'resident, at his a%solute discretion,may re!use to dissol0e the Dail where a sitting "aoiseach has lost themaority in the Dail and has re6uested 'resident !or a dissolution o!the parliament. $nstead, the 'resident may re6uire the Dail tonominate a successor !or the aoiseach. his power has ne0er %eenused %ut it is presumed that the 'resident may choose to eercise itwhere there has %een a series o! costly elections and where the'resident considers that the loss o! the Dail maority is lin8edspeci!ically to the personality o! the outgoing "aoiseach.2H

hus, although the Wueen and the 'resident are a%o0e all ceremonialheads o! state, the 'resident o! $reland enoys real powers that are in no wayconstrained %y con0ention and thus the o!!ice ser0es a use!ul !unction intempering the powers o! the other institutions.

% he *ouses o! 'arliamentI*ouses o! the%ireachtais

9oth the 15 and $reland share a %icameral system. $n the 15 the houses

o! 'arliament are made up o! the *ouse o! Commons and the *ouse o!(ords. $n $reland, the *ouses o! 'arliament, re!erred to as the *ouses o! the%ireachtais, and are made up o! the Dail and the +eanad .

5> JE 9 "he 0ouses of #arliamentAs we ha0e seen, 'arliament in the 15 is di0ided into two cham%ers:- the *ouse o! Commons 7 made up o! democratically elected

commonersE called Mem%ers o! 'arliament &M's and- the *ouse o! (ords.

he main !unctions o! the two houses wor8ing together are to:- adopt laws

2L 'rior to eercising any o! the a%o0e three powers the 'resident must !irst consult withand ha0e the opinion o! the Council o! "tate, not unli8e the Wueen)s 'ri0y Council. heCouncil o! "tate is made up o! the aoiseach, "anaiste &deputy prime minister, the Chie!Justice, 'resident o! the *igh Court, the Ceann Comhairle o! %oth *ouses o! %ireachtais &*ouse "pea8ers and pre0ious 'residents. he 'resident is not %ound to !ollow theiropinion, %ut consultation must ta8e place.2H here was tal8 o! it %eing used at the %eginning o! the H+)s when successi0e 3ianna3ail and 3ine Gael go0ernments !ell repeatedly.



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-

to !inance the wor8 o! go0ernment %y 0oting laws allowing thego0ernment to raise taes

- protect the rights o! indi0iduals- implement ?uropean directi0es into 15 law2 - act as a watchdog as regards go0ernment policy and, more generally,

discuss and de%ate the maor issues o! the day. his is perhaps themost important !unction o! the *ouses o! 'arliament.

he *ouse o! Commons, re!erred to as the lower house, is the moreimportant o! the two *ouses o! 'arliament. $t is made up o! M's !rom?ngland, 4ales, "cotland and Northern $reland. 1nli8e the *ouse o! (ords,M's are elected to the Commons %y direct 0ote o! the people@+ !or up to a

maimum period o! !i0e years, a!ter which time they must see8 reelection.@ raditionally, the decision as to how long a parliament will last rests withthe prime minister. Normally, the prime minister calls an election %e!ore theend o! the !i0e year period, at the time he considers it is most li8ely that his

party will win reelection.@2 Once his decision is ta8en, the prime ministergoes to see the Wueen who must then dissol0e the 'arliament on the 'rimeMinister)s recommendation. *owe0er, under the recentConser0ati0eI(i%eral Democrat coalition agreement there is now a !i0e year!ied-term parliament in place and any earlier dissolution will re6uire amaority o! KK.@@ his constitutional amendment concerning the *ousemaority needed to call a general election was de0eloped to meet thechallenge o! coalition go0ernment and is a good eample o! the !lei%le

2 $t is estimated that o0er H+ o! commercial legislation adopted in ?urope comes !rom9russels. O%0iously this has led to a signi!icant decline in the importance o! national

parliaments.@+ M's are elected %y 15 citi/ens o0er eighteen years o! age.@ he period o! time during which the *ouse o! Commons sits is called a -arliament andeach parliament can last up to !i0e years. ?ach parliament is di0ided up into sessions, eachsession normally lasting a year. Again, the Wueen has the ceremonial duty to summons and

prorogue e0ery session o! 'arliament. A!ter 'arliament is summoned, the Wueen reads out aspeech declaring the policies the go0ernment intends to adopt during the session in

6uestion. he opening o! each session in0ol0es the Wueen parading through (ondon in rich pageantry %e!ore arri0ing at the *ouses o! 'arliament. Once the Wueen has opened asession o! 'arliament then %usiness %egins.@2 he new coalition go0ernment has attempted to put in place a !ied !i0e-year parliament

%y increasing the maority needed at parliament to %ring the go0ernment down !rom thetraditional simple maority see discussion %elow.@@ Conser0ati0eI(i% Dem 'act 7 point P z2http:IIwww.latri%une.!rIactualitesIeconomieIinternational I2+++K2 tri%+++K+HP+KIretrou0e/-le-pacte-de-la-coalition-li%-dems-tories-en-0.o.html, accessed AprilK, 2+@.



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nature o! the 15 constitutional system. (egislation changing the terms o!the dissolution o! the *ouse o! Commons was simply introduced as part o!coalition negotiations and passed %y the su%se6uent parliamentary maority0ote o! those who negotiated its terms. 4hile not 6uestioning the actualcharacter o! the legislation, which indeed ma8es sense when 0iewed !romthe 0iewpoint o! a coalition go0ernment, what could 6uestioned is whetherit is ad0isa%le to ha0e in place a constitutional system in which such!undamental changes can %e introduced as part o! negotiations %etween two

political parties see8ing power.he *ouse o! (ords is the unelected upper house o! the 15 'arliament.

he role o! the *ouse o! (ords is similar to that o! the *ouse o! Commons,

although it is generally considered as complementary to the lower house.1nli8e M's !rom the Commons, mem%ers o! the *ouse o! (ords do notrepresent constituencies and are appointed %y the Wueen acting on thead0ice o! the 'rime Minister. "ince the creation o! the two *ouses o!'arliament in the Bth century, the *ouse o! (ords has steadily lost power tothe *ouse o! Commons o0er the centuries,@B culminating in , when the*ouse o! (ords lost its power o! 0eto o0er legislation coming !rom the*ouse o! Commons. Now the (ords can only delay the adoption o!legislation coming !rom the lower house:

- in the case o! regular legislation, i! the *ouse o! Commons adopts a %ill in two successi0e sessions, the %ill may %e presented !or theMonarch)s royal assent, e0en i! the *ouse o! (ords 0otes against it

- in the case o! money %ills, the *ouse o! (ords may only delay their passage !or one month.

1p until the introduction o! re!orms %y the (a%our 'arty,@K the *ouse o!(ords was dominated %y hereditary peers. *owe0er, in a %id to ma8e thesecond house more representati0e o! the general 9ritish pu%lic, thehereditary peers were e!!ecti0ely a%olished. Now the *ouse o! (ords ismade up o! two types o! (ord:

- lords temporal, made up o! li!e peers and a small num%er o!remaining hereditary peers. he latter are no longer hereditary peers

in the sense that their seat will not pass to their heirs upon theirdeath@P

@B he emergence o! two separate houses dates !rom the reign o! ?dward $$$ &@2L-@LL,who was the !irst monarch to agree that there should %e no taation without the agreemento! 'arliament.@K *ouse o! (ords Act, .@P Originally the *ouse o! (ords was dominated %y hereditary peers, lords who inherit thetitle !rom relati0es. *owe0er, under recent re!orm the num%er o! hereditary peers has %een





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o! whether de0olution is ad0isa%le or not, the manner o! its eecution hasled to an im%alance where%y the citi/ens o! "cotland, 4ales and Northern$reland are represented %oth in their local assem%liesIparliaments and arealso represented in 4estminster, which is made up o! M's !rom all theregions ma8ing up the 15. *owe0er, ?nglish citi/ens, who ma8e up thelarge maority o! 9ritish citi/ens, are only represented in 4estminster. $nthese conditions, an interesting side-e!!ect o! de0olution has %een toindirectly promote separatist sentiment in ?ngland. he !ailure to ha0e a

policy in place to deal with this situation gi0es the impression that New(a%our de0olution policy, li8e the re!orm o! the *ouse o! (ords, wasde0eloped somewhat on the hoof and was not necessarily thought through in

great detail.B+

Assem%ly was esta%lished under the Good 3riday Agreement in H and unli8e in the caseo! "cotland and 4ales, de0olution has had the primary aim o! %ringing a%out a peace!ulconciliation %etween the North)s warring !actions. he Assem%ly has %een suspended onnumerous occasions as a result o! a !ailure o! 1nionists and Nationalists to agree, %ut on HMay 2++L !ull power was restored to the de0ol0ed Assem%ly amidst much hope !or an endto 0iolence. (i8e "cotland and now 4ales, the North o! $reland has an independentlegislature and eecuti0e. he head o! the ?ecuti0e is re!erred to as the 3irst Minister. heAssem%ly has power to legislate in trans!erred mattersE made up o! those powers noteplicitly retained %y the 'arliament at 4estminster. 4estminster)s reser0ed powers are

di0ided into Yecepted mattersY, which it retains inde!initely, and Yreser0ed mattersY, thatmay later %e trans!erred to the Northern $reland Assem%ly, all going well. he trans!erred powers include, inter alia, health, education, agriculture, enterprise and trade, !inance,social de0elopment and culture. he "cotland Act H esta%lished de0olution !or "cotlandand sets out the role o! the "cottish 'arliament and delimits its legislati0e competence. Asin the case o! 4ales and Northern $reland, the 'arliament o! the 15 at 4estminstercontinues to constitute the supreme legislature o! "cotland, %ut signi!icant powers ha0e

%een de0ol0ed to the "cottish 'arliament concerning a%o0e all domestic policy, includinghealth, agriculture, ustice, education. 1nli8e 4ales, the "cottish 'arliament has also %eengranted limited ta raising powers. As in 4ales, limited de0olution, !or the moment atleast, appears to ha0e gi0en "cots a taste !or increased separation o! "cotland !rom the 15and there is tal8 o! a new re!erendum on the matter in the near !uture.B+ $n its 2++2 ?lection Mani!esto, the (a%our 'arty spo8e o! an intention to create regional

assem%lies in ?ngland to recti!y the im%alance created %y partial de0olution. *owe0er, this,not inaccurately, has %een reected %y some as glori!ied local go0ernment and not thede0olution that has %een enoyed %y the 15)s other regions. he Conser0ati0e 'arty hasspo8en o! the 4estminster 'arliament turning into an ?nglish 'arliament where only?nglish M's can 0ote, once the matter under consideration is a purely ?nglish one. hissolution seems unnecessarily complicated. 'erhaps the o%0ious solution would %e to

pro0ide !or a separate ?nglish 'arliament and then consider the 4estminster 15'arliament as a sort o! !ederal entity. *owe0er, whether ?nglish 0oters, especially ?nglishconser0ati0e 0oters would %e ready !or such a !ormal %rea8ing up o! the 15E %ased!undamentally on the Acts o! 1nion with "cotland and $reland is 6uestiona%le. he !ormer



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:> Ireland Z 0ouses of the %ireachtaisAs in the 15, legislati0e power in $reland is organi/ed on a %icameral

%asis. he @L Constitution esta%lished two new houses o! parliamentcalled the Oireachtais, made up o! Dail *ireann and the +eanad *ireann.B he Dail , the lower house, is made up o! PP mem%ersB2 and is elected %ydirect 0ote o! $rish citi/ens.B@ he +eanad , the upper house, comprises P+mem%ers and is elected in the !ollowing way ele0en are nominated %y the"aoiseach,BB three are elected %y the National 1ni0ersity o! $reland, three %ythe 1ni0ersity o! Du%lin and the remaining !orty three mem%ers are elected

%y !i0e panels: the Cultural and ?ducational 'anel, the Agricultural 'anel,

the (a%our 'anel, the $ndustrial and Commercial 'anel and theAdministrati0e 'anel. ?ach panel contains the names o! persons with8nowledge and practical eperience o! the interests represented %y the

panel. As with the *ouse o! Commons, the Dail sits !or a maimum periodo! !i0e years and is dissol0ed and con0ened %y the 'resident. +eanad elections are triggered %y the dissolution o! the Dail and must ta8e place notlater than ninety days a!ter the dissolution o! the latter.

As in the 15, the lower house, the Dail is the more important o! the twoassem%lies. he +eanad plays a reduced role in the legislati0e process, as itsrestricted electoral college would imply.BK $t can delay the adoption o! %ills,as can the *ouse o! (ords, %ut the power o! the +eanad in this regard is

'rime Minister Gordon 9rown has stressed that he opposes Conser0ati0e mo0es towards?nglish 0otes !or ?nglish M's %ut has commented 0aguely that one has to consider theYe0olution o! the constitutionY. According to 9rown:

ou hae to be sensitie to the needs of MN -er cent of the -o-ulation who are our *nglish -artners in the union as well as the needs of the rest of the union1 /e haedealt with the -roblems that -eo-le felt in /ales and $orthern Ireland and +cotlandabout not haing more deolution in their affairs but if there are issues that we haeto deal with in the future so that the MN -er cent feel all their concerns hae beenlistened to and addressed, we will do so &+cotsman $ews-a-er , 2@ June, 2++L.

B he Dail is located in (einster *ouse.B2

he $rish ?lectoral Commission recommended a reduction in the num%er o! Ds to KHmem%ers in 2+2.B@ he deputies are re!erred to as "eachtai Dalai &Ds.BB he name gi0en the 'rime Minister in Gaelic.BK his is the normal status o! upper houses in countries that are not !ederal states. $n many!ederal states, !or eample, Germany, the 1nited "tates or "wit/erland, %oth *ouses aremore or less on an e6ual !ooting enoying complementary powers. 3or eample, the 1"*ouse o! #epresentati0es has the sole power o! impeachment and the eclusi0e right to

%egin legislation on ta, whilst the "enate has the power to control 'residentialappointments and must agree to !oreign treaties.



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slightly less than that enoyed %y the (ords. As in the 15, the go0ernment isresponsi%le to parliament and controlling the go0ernment o! the day is oneo! their central !unctions !unction.BP $ndeed, the o0erall general organi/ationo! the *ouses o! the %ireachtais is 0ery similar to the 15 model. *owe0er,the rules go0erning the election to the legislature are di!!erent and worth acloser loo8 especially as depending on the electoral system employed thecharacter o! the legislature changes and conse6uently its a%ility to controlthe go0ernment o! the day.

1nder the !irst-past-the-post system employed in the 15,BL the country isdi0ided into one-mem%er constituencies.BH he elector then eercises his orher 0ote %y placing an Ê against the name o! the candidate o! his or her

choice. he candidate with the most crosses then wins the seat, i.e. a simplemaority system. he system does promote strong and sta%le go0ernment, asthe largest party will normally recei0e a !ar greater num%er o! seats than its

proportion o! the 0otes would tend to usti!y. 3urthermore, the simplicity o!the system !or the 0oter is ad0antageous, allowing !or 6uic8 counting o!0otes. he transparency o! the democratic process is thus heightened.*owe0er, the system !a0ours the de0elopment o! two-party politics andconse6uently discourages smaller parties !rom participating in elections.

BP $n particular it controls pu%lic spending. *owe0er, there is a strong tradition o!

clientelism or what is more colour!ully re!erred to a gombeenism in $reland and many Ds&the name gi0en mem%ers o! parliament appear to spend most o! their time in clinicsattempting to see8 the %ene!its o! go0ernment patronage !or mem%ers o! their constituency.On this see om Gar0in he destiny o! the soldiers: tradition and modernity in the politicso! de Salera)s $reland,E in #olitical +tudies 2P-@ &LH: @2H 7 @BL.BL *owe0er, this system only applies to general elections to 4estminster. 4hen inopposition in the H+s and +s, (a%our loo8ed at the 6uestion o! electoral re!orm andset up its own wor8ing party, chaired %y (ord 'lant, to loo8 at the options, including0arious systems o! proportional representation. he 'lant Commission #eport in @ ledto di!!erent methods %eing employed at di!!erent elections once (a%our came to power.?lections to the "cottish 'arliament and 4elsh Assem%ly use the Additional Mem%er"ystem. his in0ol0es most o! the representati0es %eing elected 0ia !irst past the post with aYtop-upY 0ote rewarding parties that win many 0otes %ut !ail to win seats. $n the ?uropean

elections, 0oters in ?ngland, "cotland and 4ales use a closed list system under which 0otesare cast !or a party and the 0ictorious candidates come !rom a pre-ordered party list. Northern $reland employs the single trans!era%le 0ote system in multi-mem%erconstituencies !or %oth the ?uropean and Northern $reland Assem%ly elections. Soters ran8the candidates in order o! pre!erence and 0otes !rom candidates eliminated are trans!erredto second then third pre!erences, and so on. *owe0er, not surprisingly, the !ormer 'rimeMinister Gordon 9rown, wished to 8eep the present system in place !or 4estminsterelections as it had ensured (a%our three electoral wins in a row.BH 3or parliamentary elections, the 15 is di0ided up into PK constituencies - H in

Northern $reland, B+ in 4ales, L2 in "cotland and K2 in ?ngland.



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22B

his indirectly leads to a reduction in 0oter choice, as a 0ote !or a smaller party will normally %e without any e!!ect.B his indeed is the wea8ness o!the simple maority electoral system. $t results in a situation where M's are!re6uently elected without an o0erall maority and thus go on to representconstituencies, the maority o! which did not 0ote !or them. his can resultin 0irtual disenfranchisement . 3or eample, in the recent national electionso0er hal! a million "cots 0oted conser0ati0e, %ut yet only one orycandidate was returned to 'arliament in 4estminster.K+ $n the same way, the(i%eral Democrats 'arty secured 2K o! the national 0ote %ut only securedH o! the actual seats in 'arliament with other smaller parties nearly loc8edout o! 'arliament entirely.

he system in $reland see8s to o0ercome these pro%lems through use o!the proportional representationE &'# system.K 1nder '# the state isdi0ided into constituencies returning three or more candidates.K2 ?ach 0otercasts his 0ote in order o! choice !or the di!!erent candidates going !orelection in a gi0en constituency. Sotes are then counted %y the 6uotasystem, where%y a candidate to %e elected must register a !ied 6uota o!0otes polled.K@ Once a candidate is elected, the surplus 0otes the candidaterecei0ed, i.e., those 0otes o0er the !ied 6uota, are distri%uted according tothe second pre!erence 0otes %y way o! a second count. $! on redistri%utionnone o! the remaining candidates reaches the 6uota, the candidate with the

B 3or eample, in the 2++K 15 general election the go0erning (a%our party won @K.@ tothe Conser0ati0e partyFs @2.@ and the (i%eral DemocratsF &(i% Dems) 22., yet (a%oursecured @KP parliamentary seats to the Conser0ati0esF H and the (i% Dems) P2. 4ith sucha large maority, the 'rime Minister ony 9lair, as head o! the eecuti0e has %een a%le toadopt any policy he considers appropriate and despite signi!icant %ac8%ench re0olts. heincredi%le maority possessed %y the (a%our 'arty, in proportion to their percentage shareo! the 0ote renders the system 6uestiona%le.http:IIwww.electoralcommission.org.u8IelectionsIresultsIgeneraljelectionsIu8-general-election-2++K, accessed April K, [email protected]+ 2++ 15 general election where despite gaining P.L o! the national 0ote, theConser0ati0e 'arty only won one seat, seehttp:IIwww.electoralcommission.org.u8IelectionsIresultsIgeneraljelectionsI and

http:IIen.wi8ipedia. orgIwi8iI'oliticsjo!j"cotland. Accessed April K, [email protected] 'roportional representation was introduced into $reland %y the Go0ernment o! $relandAct, 2+ and continued to %e the system o! choice as set out in the @L Constitution.K2 he largest constituencies return a maimum o! !i0e parliament mem%ers and the smallerthree mem%ers.K@ he manner in which the 6uota is set is 6uite complicated %ut is arri0ed at on the!ollowing %asis: $n a constituency returning @ Ds, the 6uota is the smallest whole num%erthat eceeds the !igure o%tained when we di0ide the total num%er o! 0otes cast in thatconstituency %y & @ on this see James D O)Donnell, 0ow Ireland is goerned &Du%lin:$nstitute o! 'u%lic Administration, PK.



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22K

least 0otes is eliminated and the latter)s second pre!erence 0otes are thendistri%uted amongst the remaining candidates, and so on until the election o!all the representati0es !or the constituency in 6uestion ta8es place. '# has anum%er o! clear ad0antages:

- it leads to the elector ha0ing a wider choice o! candidates as smaller parties are more li8ely to enter the race

- it promotes the representation o! these parties in go0ernment, as inthe a%sence o! a clear maority the dominant party will ha0e to !orma coalition go0ernment. hus go0ernment %ecomes morerepresentati0e and %etter controlled %y the legislatureKB

- it !orces Ds to loo8 a!ter all their constituents, as second and third

pre!erence 0otes may %e needed to secure election in the !uture andthe presence o! other Ds in their constituency promotescompetition.KK

*owe0er, the '# system can lead to insta%ility and !re6uent elections, asone political party rarely dominates go0ernment.KP *owe0er, although this isa possi%ility, it does not necessarily ha0e to %e the case.KL he main 0alue o!'# is that %y its tendency to deny mainstream parties !ull maorities, itensures that the role o! the legislature is rein!orced, as the eecuti0e %ranchcannot rely on large maorities to !orce go0ernment policy through

parliament.KH #ecently the 15 attempted to tac8le the pro%lems raised %y the !irst-past-

the-post system. he Conser0ati0e (i%eral Democrats Coalition 'act leadingto the !ormation o! the present 15 go0ernment contained a proposal tointroduce legislation pro0iding !or the introduction o! a di!!erent 0otingsystem re!erred to as Alternati0e Soting &AS. 1nder this system, the same

KB he price !or this can %e less sta%le go0ernment.KK O! course this can also %e considered a disad0antage as it naturally promotes clientelism.KP 3or eample, the H+)s in $reland were characteri/ed %y considera%le insta%ility as an$rish electorate appeared di0ided on the 6uestion Charlie *aughey, leader o! ianna ail .Gi0en su%se6uent re0elations a%out *aughey)s !inancial dealings, howe0er, the country

was pro%a%ly !ortunate to ha0e a0oided the spectre o! a 'rime Minister o! suspect honestyleading a strong maority, which *aughey)s ianna ail would ha0e enoyed under the!irst past the post system.KL "ince LB, $reland has %een ruled !re6uently %y coalition go0ernments. During this

period, during which $rish society underwent 0ast change, there was no insta%ility ingo0ernment with perhaps the eception o! a period in the early H+s where the insta%ilityit could %e claimed was lin8ed not so much to the eistence o! a '# system %ut the di0isi0echaracter o! the a%o0e-mentioned Charlie *aughey.KH On the role o! the legislature to control go0ernment in Montes6uieu)s separation o!

powers, see discussion %elow.



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22P

constituency %oundaries were to %e used and 0oters were to continue to electone person to represent them in parliament, as is presently the case.*owe0er, rather than mar8ing an F^F against their pre!erred candidate, underthe proposed AS system each 0oter would ran8 their candidates in an ordero! pre!erence, noting FF net to their !a0orite, a F2F %y their second choiceand so on. $! a candidate recei0ed a maority o! !irst place 0otes, he or shewould %e elected ust as under the present system. *owe0er, i! no singlecandidate recei0ed more than K+ o! the 0ote, the second choice 0otes !orthe last placed candidate were to %e redistri%uted. he process was then to

%e repeated until one candidate recei0ed more than K+ o! the 0otes. healternati0e 0ote is not actually a proportional system, %ut a maoritarian

system. $n !a0our o! the AS 0oting system, it should %e noted that:- etremist parties would %e unli8ely to gain eaggerated

representation and coalition go0ernments would %e no more li8ely toarise than they are under present system

- elected M's would ha0e the support o! a maority o! theirconstituents and the system would thus pre0ents M's %eing electedon a minority o! the 0ote. $n 2++K, only @B o! 9ritish M's wereelected %y more than K+ o! their constituency 0ote

- it remo0es the need !or negati0e 0oting. ?lectors can 0ote !or their!irst choice o! candidate without the !ear o! wasting their 0ote.

*owe0er, when the choice was put to the 15 electorate on K May, 2+,15 0oters 0oted o0erwhelmingly against its adoption.K As is !re6uently thecase in democracies, it is hard to 8now whether this 0ote re!lected a realreection o! the AS 0oting system or an indirect reection o! the (i%Demruling party championing its introduction.

c he go0ernment 7 eecuti0e %ranchAlthough the Wueen and 'resident o! $reland are heads o! state o! their

respecti0e countries, real eecuti0e power lies with their respecti0ego0ernments. Generally spea8ing, the role o! the go0ernment is to de!inenational policy and lead the country. At the same time it must respect and

protect indi0idual rights and also the prerogati0es o! the legislati0e power.$ndeed, it is this %alancing act that is at the heart o! Montes6uieu)sseparation o! powers. $n per!orming this role, the eecuti0e %ranch o! %othcountries enoys signi!icant powers. 3or eample, although the power to

K $n a poor turnout PL. o! 0oters reected the proposal. 3or an in-depth analysis o! theelection see http:IIen.wi8ipedia.orgIwi8iI#esultsjo!jthej1nitedj5ingdomjAlternati0ejSotejre!erendum,j2+, accessed April K, 2+@.



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legislate is 0ested %y %oth the $rish and 9ritish Constitutions in theirrespecti0e parliaments, in reality their legislati0e %ranches !re6uently merelyru%%er stamp go0ernment policy. his is all the more true should thego0ernment enoy a large maority in parliament, which it normally does inthe 15 under the direct 0oting system.

5> 2oernment in the JEAs we ha0e seen, it is the !unction o! go0ernment to shape and

implement policy !or the country. here are !i0e %asic themes togo0ernment action in the 15:

• #resering order : ensuring law and order is one o! the!undamental roles o! go0ernment. Acti0ities coming underthis heading include ensuring national de!ense, ustice andeternal a!!airs in general.

• /elfare: in the pro0ision o! health care, social insurance,social protection and local ser0ices, the go0ernment is a%o0eall loo8ing to the wel!are o! the nation)s citi/ens.

• Administration: in today)s modern society there has %een aregulatory eplosion where%y nearly e0ery acti0ity or actionis su%ect to control at go0ernment le0el. his has sometimes

%een re!erred to peorati0ely as the de0elopment o! a nanny

stateE and certainly go0ernment appears increasingly willingand sometimes epected to control e0ery aspect o!interaction in society today.P+

• *conomic deelo-ment : increasingly go0ernments arere6uired to act 0irtually as agents trying to attract %usinessesto their country. $n this contet, the 15 go0ernment hasde0eloped as an Anglo-type social model so as to %eattracti0e to %usiness and yet pro0ide the general populationwith relati0ely high le0els o! social protection.P

P+

$ndeed, part o! present Conser0ati0e leader Da0id Cameron)s election policy was todemonstrate that in go0ernment the ories would see8 to delegate %ac8 to localcommunities the power o! determination o0er the organi/ation o! local acti0ities, schools!or eample. his proposal has !ailed to ha0e !ound any traction in the period sinceCameron has %een in power with many ories 6uestioning whether there is the local will ora%ility to manage local !acilities on a local part-time %asis.P 3or the sa8e o! simplicity social models in democratic ?uropean countries %ro8en up into!our main groups:

- the Continental model, typi!ied %y 3rance and Germany. 9rie!ly, this system ischaracteri/ed %y generous unemployment and pension %ene!its. Jo% protection





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o! which are tele0ised. A%o0e all, Wuestion ime is aimed at allowing theOppositionPB to eercise limited control o0er the go0ernment. o do this, it!orms a shadow ca%inet with a shadow a prime minister and shadowgo0ernment ministers. he role o! the Opposition is to comment ongo0ernment policy and to propose alternati0e policy where it considers itnecessary. $n this way it see8s to ma8e the go0ernment answera%le !or the

policies proposes to adopt.

:> 2oernment in IrelandGo0ernment in $reland is modeled on the 15 system %ut is limited %y the

Constitution to !i!teen mem%ers. Ministers must come !rom the Dail,

although an optional maimum o! two may %e chosen !rom the +eanad1PK ?ach minister heads a go0ernment department and together they ma8e upthe Ca%inet which, as in the 15, operates on the principle o! collecti0eresponsi%ility.PP he go0ernment is headed %y the "aoiseach appointed %ythe 'resident upon the nomination o! the Dail1PL Once appointed, the"aoiseach then appoints the "anaistePH or deputy prime minister and theother mem%ers o! the go0ernment.P he $rish go0ernment, as in the 15, isalso assisted %y an Attorney General who, although not a !ormal mem%er o!the go0ernment, ad0ises the latter on the legality o! its acts and representsthe state in legal proceedings.

Although %oth the 15 and $rish Constitutions pro0ide !or the sole andeclusi0e power !or ma8ing laws to %e 0ested in their respecti0e

parliaments, as we ha0e seen, in reality the legislati0e process in eachcountry is dominated %y the go0ernment. his o! course is a negation o!Montes6uieu)s separation o! powers and potentially can lead to an a%use o!

power %y the go0ernment. his is all the more in the case o! the 15, gi0enthat there is a lac8 o! counter%alancing powers such as an empowered

president or truly representati0e upper-house to challenge go0ernment

PB he second largest party in the *ouse o! Commons.PK here are howe0er another !i!teen unior ministers.PP

his is also the case in the 15 and means that once go0ernment policy is decided it must %e o!!icially supported %y all ministers without any pu%lic indication o! dissent.PL he 'resident nominates the aoiseach upon the nomination o! the Dail and in this way

presidential powers are constrained not so much %y con0ention as in the 15 %ut %y epressmechanisms aimed at sharing powers in a %alanced moderate way.PH he "anaiste acts in the "aoiseach’s place as deputy 'rime Minister in case o!incapacitation o! the latter.P he actual appointment is made %y the 'resident. Although the aoiseach has the powerto nominate the mem%ers o! the go0ernment, they can only %e dismissed %y 0ote o! theentire go0ernment.



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policy. $ndeed, it is these and other im%alances discussed %elow that ha0eopened the 15 democratic process to the threat o! undue concentration o!

power.

=3 S4eci6ic chaen-e! 6acin- 9 de+ocracyAs we ha0e seen, power in the 15 and $reland is 0ested in the eecuti0e,

legislati0e and udicial %ranches o! go0ernment.L+ *owe0er, underMontes6uieuFs theory power was not ust di0ided %etween di!!erent %rancheso! go0ernment,L power is also supposedly organi/ed so that each %ranchcan control and chec8 the other.L2 his aspect o! the theory o! the separationo! powers does not appear to wor8 !ully in practice in either the 15 or

$reland. $n %oth countries, the legislati0e %ranch is in reality dominated %ythe go0ernment, through the application o! a strict party whip at legislati0ele0el.L@ $n reality this means that the go0ernment dominates the legislati0e

%ranch, to the etent that !re6uently the latter can nearly %e considered anagent o! the !ormer. his distortion o! the separation o! powers is !urtheraggra0ated in the 15 %y a num%er o! !actors that we do not see in $reland.

A%sence o! a codi!ied constitution3irstly, the a%sence o! a codi!ied constitution in the 15 in reality means

that there are !ew limits placed on go0ernment and, in particular, on the prime minister as regards the adoption o! policy. As there is no codi!iedconstitution esta%lishing a supreme law o! the land which may only %emodi!ied %y re!erendum the 15 parliament is truly so0ereign. *owe0er, asit is the go0ernment and in particular the prime minister that controls

parliament, in reality it is the prime minister who is the %ene!iciary o! thisso0ereignty, with the conse6uence that there is little limit on the eercise o!

prime ministerial power. O! course a general election must %e held at leaste0ery !i0e years and so the go0ernment is ultimately answera%le to the

L+ 9ased on Montes6uieu)s separation o! powers in his cele%rated %oo8, De l’es-rit deslois, LKH &"pirit o! (aw, Charles de Montes6uieu set out his 0ision where the ecess

concentration o! power is pre0ented through the introduction o! mechanisms where%y each %ranch o! go0ernment is permitted to partially control the other. L his in itsel! was not new, (oc8e and indeed Aristotle had %oth ad0ised that a%solute

power 0ested in one %ranch o! go0ernment necessarily led to corruption and tyranny.L2 his is sometimes re!erred to as the system o! chec8s and %alances.L@ 9y party whipE is meant that legislati0e mem%ers %elonging to the ruling party ingo0ernment are !orced, !re6uently under threat o! epulsion &o! the political party to 0otein !a0our o! go0ernment policy. his threat is all the more threateningE in systems usingthe !irst past the post 0oting systems as it is nearly impossi%le to %e elected to parliament i!one is not a mem%er o! an esta%lished party.





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le0el can o!ten %e eclusion !rom party mem%ership, which is e!!ecti0ely a parliamentary death sentence in a direct 0oting system, as it is net toimpossi%le !or independent mem%ers o! parliament to %e elected in such asystem. Moreo0er, the eclusion o! minority parties cannot %e good !orgo0ernment. "ince the end o! the L+s up until 2++ minorityE groupsha0e %een star0ed o! representation at national le0el.LL 'arties such as theGreens or the 15 $ndependence 'arty &15$' or the !ar right 9ritish

National 'arty &9N' are 0irtually non-eistent at national le0el. hisremains the case, despite the !act that immigration, en0ironment andmistrust o! 9russels ran8 high amongst the concerns o! 9ritish 0oters. ruethe !irst-past-the-post system can guarantee strong go0ernment. *owe0er

perhaps representati0e rather than strong go0ernment should %e the !irst aimo! any democratic system.LH

$n contrast, ecessi0e prime ministerial power is limited in $reland %y theapplication o! a system o! proportional representation, where%y it is lessli8ely that any one party will dominate go0ernment su!!iciently to %e a%le togo0ern alone. he introduction o! coalition partners re6uires a dilution o!

party policy and results in more representati0e go0ernment, as indeed itsname suggests.L 3or eample, ianna ail, in the past the traditionallydominant $rish political party, has !re6uently had to !orm coalitions in orderto %e a%le to eercise power. Despite securing a larger percentage o! the0ote in the 2++L $rish general election than did (a%our in the 2++K 15general election, 3ianna 3ail nonetheless had to rule in coalition with the$rish Green 'arty. his has meant that it had to alter its policy su!!iciently soas to ensure the support o! its coalition partner.H+ $n this way, prime

LL $nterestingly, (a%our itsel! would appear to recogni/e the danger o! such a situationconse6uently one o! the !irst gestures o! the then newly elected 'rime Minister Gordon9rown was to o!!er go0ernment posts to non-la%our mem%ers, much to the annoyance o!(a%our %ac8%enchers.LH $t is true that the 2++ election results ha0e returned a hung parliament !or the !irst timesince LB. *owe0er, this is the eception that pro0es the rule &whate0er that means andthe although the 'arliament is hung, it is hanging %etween three parties with similar

economic policies and thus the true %ene!its o! a representati0e proportional representationsystem continue to %e denied the 9ritish pu%lic as !ringeE parties such as 15$' and theGreens continue to ha0e no input into go0ernment policy.L ?0en i! the 3ianna 3ail 'arty has dominated $rish politics since its !ormation, the threat o!

pluralist parliament as encouraged %y the '# system has !orced successi0e 3ianna 3ailgo0ernments to de0elop and em%race %road %ased mani!estos and thus indirectly national

politics %ecomes more representati0e.H+ $n the 2++L general election, 3ianna 3ail polled B.P o! the 0ote whilst 3ine Gaelscored 2L.@, (a%our +., "inn 3ein P., Green 'arty B.L, 'Ds 2.L andindependents P.L. he partial in0ol0ement o! the Green party in go0ernment, despite their



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ministerial domination is tempered %y the operation o! '#, instead o! %eingrein!orced as it is under a system o! direct 0ote. Moreo0er, in a '# systemindependent mem%ers o! parliament stand greater chance to %e elected andthus party mem%ers are more willing to 0ote against go0ernment policy,8nowing that they can continue to sur0i0e politically outside the partystructure.

@ A%sence o! credi%le upper house No matter how lauda%le New (a%our)s intentions to democrati/e the

*ouse o! (ords may ha0e %een, !or the moment the re!orm process appearsonly to ha0e rein!orced eecuti0e power. 'rior to (a%our)s re!orms the

*ouse o! (ords was primarily made up o! a miture o! hereditary peers andli!e peers. hese were a single-minded %unch and although primarily o!conser0ati0e character they could not %e relied upon %y any go0ernment,Conser0ati0e or other, to automatically %ac8 go0ernment policy.H 9yremo0ing most o! the hereditary peers and lea0ing the (ords dominated %ygo0ernment-appointed li!e peers, prime ministerial control o0er the upperhouse has, i! anything, actually %een rein!orced. $t is ineplica%le that the

proposed re!orm o! the *ouse has spent an ineplica%le num%er o! years inthe doldrums, despite the !act that the *ouse o! Commons has already 0otedto ha0e an elected *ouse o! (ords.H2 his proposal was in !act later reected

%y the *ouse o! (ords itsel! H@ and the re!orm has %een le!t hanging in no-man)s land. his is an un!orgi0ea%le way to manage constitutional re!orm.Gi0en the 0ast power o! the o!!ice o! prime minister in the 15, it isnecessary to ha0e a !ully !unctioning second house to act as a possi%le %ra8eon the eercise o! this power. $nstead, through the o0er representation o!go0ernment-appointed li!e peers, it has nearly %ecome another toolrein!orcing power !or the prime minister. 9y reecting hereditary peers

%e!ore ha0ing something to put in their place, the (a%our 'arty, in reality

o%taining only B.L o! the 0ote, meant that they had some e!!ect on the en0ironmentalcharacter o! 3ianna 3ail policy in go0ernment.

http:IIwww.oireachtas.ieIdocumentsIpu%licationsI?lectoralj*and%oo8.pd!, accessed AprilK, [email protected] he go0ernment o! Margaret hatcher was de!eated more than ++ times in the *ouse o!(ords.H2 *ouse o! Commons 0ote March 2++L promoting a second house in which the maority o!mem%ers were elected %y direct 0ote o! the 15 population as opposed to %eing appointed

%y the 'rime Minister.H@ *ouse o! (ords 0ote, March 2++L. he (ords are, it would seem, 8een to a0oideradication and thus !a0our an appointed house in which they will %e allowed to 8eep theirseats.



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hampered the *ouse o! (ords) a%ility to carry out this !unction at a periodwhen its 9lair)s prime ministerial power was at its /enith and in need o!rein!orced parliamentary control. ?0en though the Conser0ati0eI(i% Dem

pact !or go0ernment proposed to introduce a *ouse o! (ords elected %y the0ote o! 15 citi/ens under a system o! proportional representation, onceagain the present go0ernment appears to ha0e shied away !rom introducingany re!orm in the present parliament.HB he $rish +eanad, enoying strongerdemocratic roots than the *ouse o! (ords in theory at least, is %etter

positioned to act as a %ra8e on go0ernment policy.HK

B he Monarch)s powers restricted %y con0ention

As we ha0e seen, under <unreacht na h*ireann, the $rish 'resident haseceptional powers where%y he can hold up the adoption o! legislation andre!er it !or re0iew to the $rish "upreme Court or alternati0ely re!er it to the

people !or a 0ote %y re!erendum. $n this way, the udiciary or the people can %e %rought into play %y the 'resident as a means o! controlling the eerciseo! go0ernment power. he 'resident can also con0ene an emergencymeeting o! the *ouses o! the %ireachtais or re!use to resol0e the Dail . Allo! these powers are a necessary attempt to %alance the powers eercised %ythe eecuti0e %ranch.HP $n comparison, any powers the monarchy in the 15enoys are limited %y con0ention. 1nderstanda%ly, it is di!!icult to imaginethe Wueen, gi0en her unelected status, re!using the royal assent and %loc8inglegislation adopted %y a 'arliament elected %y the people. *owe0er, it isnecessary that some o!!ice ha0e these powers i! %alance is to %e maintainedotherwise the power o! the go0ernment and in particular the o!!ice o! primeminister remains unchec8ed and e!!ecti0ely %ecomes a repository !or the

HB Conser0ati0eI(i% Democrats) 'act 7 'oint nV. P z @http:IIwww.latri%une.!rIactualitesIeconomieIinternationalI2+++K2tri%+++K+HP+KIretrou0e/-le-pacte-de-la-coalition-li%-dems-tories-en-0.o..html, accessed April K, [email protected] Although in the contet o! the recent $rish !inancial meltdown there is tal8 o! eradicatingthe "eanad in a %id to sa0e money.HP he power to re!er legislation !or re0iew %y the "upreme Court has %een eercised %y

$rish 'residents. his has occurred especially in the case o! the adoption o! emergencylegislation where the eecuti0e see8s to limit ci0il rights in response to a threat to society.$n LP a!ter the 8illing o! the 9ritish Am%assador to $reland "ir Christopher ?wart-9iggs

%y '$#A, tough emergency legislation was proposed %y the go0ernment o! the day. hethen 'resident Cear%hall O)Dalaigh re!erred the legislation to the "upreme Court !orre0iew. Mem%ers o! the then go0ernment o%ected, leading the 'resident to resign, which inturn was a contri%uting !actor to the go0ernment losing the net general election. 're0iousre!erral in @ also concerned the adoption o! emergency legislation !ollowing the

%eginning o! 44$$. $t is particularly rele0ant, in a 15 contet, that re!errals ha0econcerned the adoption o! emergency legislation limiting ci0il rights.



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partially unused powers o! the other %ranches. hat the 15 system is to %eadmired !or ha0ing achie0ed a gradual, predominantly peace!ul, hando0er o!

power !rom a%solute monarch to the *ouses o! 'arliament to the *ouse o!Commons is not %eing 6uestioned.HL *owe0er, in reality, much o! this

power has now passed !rom the Commons to the go0ernment and in particular to the o!!ice o! prime minister. Clearly, %alancing the needs o! amodern democracy with the need !or sta%ility and 8eeping past traditions in

place is a di!!icult process. *owe0er in a situation where 'arliament doesnot !ully control the eecuti0e %ranch, it is necessary to ha0e some othermechanism in place to ensure that a%uses o! power do not occur. $! the

position o! Monarch, !or whate0er reason, is an unsuita%le 0ehicle !or the

eercise o! such control, then an alternati0e mechanism must %e esta%lished.he eistence o! a go0ernment !ree to adopt any type o! legislation itconsiders necessary, without any e!!ecti0e domestic %ased controlmechanism in placeHH is in particular an in0itation !or the a%use o! power. $tis true that %y adopting the *uman #ights Act, H,H incorporating the?uropean Con0ention on *uman #ights &?C*# into 15 law, somemeasure o! control has %een put in place. *owe0er, although go0ernmentministers, de0ol0ed assem%lies, local authorities and other pu%lic %odies aresu%ect to the pro0isions o! the ?C*#, its pro0isions are not consideredsuperior to parliament and so it is still possi%le !or a go0ernment controlling

parliament to maintain legislation in place that contra0enes the pro0isions o!the Con0ention.+

K Growth in the adoption o! secondary legislation3inally, the power o! the 15 eecuti0e has %een rein!orced %y an

increased trend in the use o! secondary delegated legislation. 1se o! suchtechni6ues has led to a !urther reduction in the power o! the legislati0e

%ranch. 3or eample, legislation is !re6uently adopted in the !orm o!

HL he eecution o! Charles $ has not %een !orgotten %ut this uncharacteristic %out o!etremism, as much religious as ideological was to a certain etent counter%alanced %y

in0iting his son to return to the throne a num%er o! years later.HH Other than 0oters at general election.H ?ntering into !orce 2 Octo%er 2+++.+ $t is not contended that it is the aim o! the 15 go0ernment to depri0e the 9ritish peopleo! their rights, howe0er, di!!erent %ranches o! power ha0e di!!erent priorities and a di!!erent0ision o! what circumstances re6uire and !or this reason to pre0ent any potential a%use,

power should %e sprin8led o0er many di!!erent %ranches rather than accumulated in one. "econdary legislation, also called delegated legislation or su%ordinate legislation is lawmade %y ministers under powers gi0en to them %y parliamentary acts &primary legislationin order to implement and administer the re6uirements o! the primary Acts.



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s8eleton actsE, which ha0e no actual su%stanti0e law content, and insteadmerely pro0ide Ministers with power to act, as they consider necessary, ingi0en circumstances. ?0en more worryingly, we ha0e seen the de0elopmento! what has %een termed *enry S$$$E clauses, where%y Ministers areempowered to modi!y the pro0isions o! primary legislation without ha0ingto consult parliament. No one dou%ts the e!!iciency o! such powers, %ut inreality they represent a usurpation o! legislati0e power %y the go0ernmentand, added to the other elements listed a%o0e, ha0e led to the de0elopmento! a 'residential-li8e o!!ice o! prime minister, capa%le o! acting with little orno restraint.

Concu!ion'erhaps surprisingly, gi0en the a%o0e-mentioned wea8nesses, !or the

moment the democratic system in the 15 appears to wor8 reasona%ly well.his is mainly %ecause go0ernment !or the most part has chosen not toeploit its wea8nesses.2 *owe0er, relying on constitutional con0ention,good intentions, esta%lished practice and e0en good manners as a means o!de!ending democratic principles is perhaps o0erly optimistic and thusinad0isa%le. Although the healthy and humoristic echanges o! 'rimeMinister)s Wuestion ime appear to signal the eistence o! a soliddemocracy, in reality such per!ormances are mere theatricals, i! notunderwritten with clear rules delineating the di0ision o! powers.@ o

paraphrase the old adage, ecessi0e power will e0entually lead to a%use.$ndeed, the e!!ecti0e neutering o! the 15 legislati0e %ranch %y the eecuti0ewas pro%a%ly an underlying !actor in the recent epenses scandal, asmem%ers o! a demorali/ed house, with little else to do other than ru%%erstamp go0ernment policy, put their not inconsidera%le intelligence toward

personal gain, and in this they were indulged %y an eecuti0e %ranch 8een to

2 Although it could %e said that the decision o! the 9lair go0ernment to go war in the"econd $ra6i 4ar in the !ace o! signi!icant pu%lic opposition was an eercise o!o0erreaching prime ministerial power. *owe0er, the author would pre!er not to open up

that particular can o! worms.@ $ndeed, $an Duncan "mith, a !ormer ory leader, dismissed 'rime Minister Wuestionime as a non-e0ent as regards its e!!ect on pu%lic opinion and said that it is merely ameans o! shoring up party support & $ewsnight , 99C H June, 2++L. $ndeed, upon

%ecoming leader o! the opposition, "mith epressly attempted to drop the humoristicapproach o! his predecessor *ague and to promote an actual discussion o! policy. *owe0er,he soon disco0ered that no one was listening and reali/ed the necessity to turn up thehumour i! only to try and 6uell dissatis!action amongst his own %ac8%enchers. he !act thathe was largely considered humourless did not help his case and pro%a%ly partly led to his

%eing replaced.



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placate a wea8ened legislati0e %ranch.B he eistence o! a codi!iedconstitution, an acti0e 'resident, restricted use o! secondary legislation, arepresentati0e upper house, a more representati0e 0oting system and astronger udiciary does not mean that $reland enoys a %etter system o!democracy than the 15.K *owe0er, what it does mean is that in times o!tur%ulence, the constitutional system in $reland might %e considered %ettere6uipped to deal with the threat o! o0er-reaching power.

3or centuries, the 15 has %as8ed in the light o! %eing one o! the world)soldest !unctioning democracies howe0er, it may %e time to wa8e up and as8i! the system is not in need o! some re!orm. $n most states, codi!ied writtenconstitutions enshrine the separation o! powers. $n the 15 this is achie0ed

a%o0e all %y tradition and a general con!idence in the pro%ity o! the rulingelite. $t is contended here that it is time that proper sa!eguards, such as acodi!ied constitution, were put in place to ensure an orderly and structured

%alance o! power. he price o! !reedom is, as we all 8now, eternal 0igilanceand whilst it is true that the result o! the recent 15 general election has ledto some proposals !or constitutional re!orm it is inappropriate that the matterhas %ecome a hostage to the respecti0e %argaining powers o! political partiessee8ing power. he issue is !ar too !undamental and important to %ecome

B hat the role o! the *ouse o! Commons needs to %e re!ormed is clear !rom the 4right

Committee #eport on this matter, which the coalition partners ha0e promised to implementin !ull in their coalition pact. http:IIwww.parliament.the-stationery-o!!ice.co.u8IpaIcm2++H+IcmselectIcmre!hocILIL.pd!, accessed April K, [email protected] $ndeed, the last !ew decades ha0e demonstrated that some $rish politicians ha0e had, inthe past at least, an unhealthy relationship with %usiness accentuated %y the !act that 3ianna3ail has dominated $rish political and social li!e !or decades. *owe0er, %ecause o! thesa!eguards re!erred to a%o0e, the $rish political system appears, !or the moment to ha0e

%een a%le to weather these storms. $ndeed, gi0en that 3ianna 3ail ha0e %een in power nearlycontinuously since the party)s creation up to 2+ with short %rea8s in the B+s, L+s andH+s the le0el o! corruption in $rish li!e is relati0ely low with the country rated P th in the?1 in ransparency $nternational)s always contro0ersial 2++ corruption inde. $n the 2+$nde $reland)s position dropped to th pro%a%ly re!lecting the %an8ing scandals that ha0econtinued to roc8 the country. $t could %e cynically argued that gi0en the $rish tolerance !or

its politicians recei0ing dig-outsE &"aoiseach Ahern)s popularity ratings amongst the $rish pu%lic actually rose during a period where it was demonstrated that he recei0ed loansE!rom %usiness !riendsE, characterised %y him as a dig outE a dig out can %e de!ined asassistance gi0en to help a person in %ad !inancial straits and thus somehow apparently more

usti!ia%le, it appears the $rish people epect or at least tolerate cronyism in its politicalclass and thus howe0er un!ortunate it cannot really %e characteri/ed as a !ailure o! thesystem not to ha0e stamped it out as itIwas not considered a pro%lem One can only hope,

%ut it %y no means de!inite that such tolerance has !aded as $rish citi/ens !ace the prospecto! repaying the conse6uences o! such !inancial irregularities !or the !oreseea%le !uture withthe accompanying cuts in pu%lic spending that such repayment implies.



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the plaything o! those who %ene!it directly !rom the changes they introduce.A democracy, as old and hallowed as the 4estminster constitutional systemo! go0ernment deser0es %etter than this.

$atric< G"IFFIN1ni0ersité 'aris ?st Créteil Sal de Marne

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