INSTITUTION SPONS AGENCY PUB DATE NOTE 60p. IDENTIFIERS · contributions from David Philbrick, OSU Extension Energy Program leader. OSU Extension Energy Program produced the manual

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 388.493 SE 055 780

TITLE Energy Smarts Team Training Manual. A Teacher's Guideto Energy Conservation Activities for Grades 3-8.

INSTITUTION Oregon State Univ., Corvallis. tension Service.SPONS AGENCY Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, Oreg.;

Oregon State Dept. of Energy, Salem.PUB DATE May 93NOTE 60p.

PUB TYPE Guides Classroom Use Teaching Guides (ForTeacher) (052)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Conservation Education; Elementary Education;

*Energy Conservation; *Energy Education;Environmental Education; Group Activities; *LearningActivities; *Student Projects

IDENTIFIERS *Energy Sources

ABSTRACTEnergy Smarts Team members are energy conscious

students who want to save energy at school and at home. Students in aclassroom and their teacher form an Energy Smarts Team. Selectedstudents monitor their building each day at recess, lunch, or afterschool for lights or other electrical equipment that has been lefton. The team members keep a log and leave friendly reminder"tickets." The program is designed to save mcney for schooldistricts, encourage the wise use of natural resources, and toprovide fun activities for students that give them an opportunity tocontribute to their school. This training manual provides a take-homemeter reading activity, an energy poster contest activity, sixadditional energy activities, and procedures and materials thatprovide a starting point for teams to start monitoring their schools.Procedural materials include member agreements, team log sheets,example reminder tickets, participation certificates, and the "TopTen Tips to Try to Tame Terrible Temperature Thieves." Backgroundinformation is provided for -arious energy sources including coal,oil, natural gas, nuclear energy, renewable energy sources,electricity, and food. (LZ)

*****************************:.A*:..**:-%.******************************

*Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.,,,,******************************************************************

*

*

BonnevillePOWER ADMINISTRATION

OREGONDEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

440REGON STATE UNIVERSrrh

ENERGYSMARTS TEAM

Training ManualA teacher's guide to energy

conservation activities for grades 3-8

Adapted by Oregon State University Extension Energy Programfrom materials by John Bezelj, Eugene, Ore., 4) School District

Resource Conservation Teacher on Special Assignment

'PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

3,(4niA/a ci

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER IERICI

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

U.S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice or Educahonal Research and Improvement

EDUCARONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER IERICI

documPnI has Seen reproduced asricenred horn (he person of Organflationonpinaling (I

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Energy Smarts Team Training Manual

Acknowledgments

his manual was written for the OregonState University (OSU) ExtensionService by John Bezelj, resource conser-vation teacher on special assignment in

Eugene, Ore. It describes training Bezelj gives to 4thand 5th grade classes to help them monitor andreduce their school's energy use. Additional activi-ties in the manual are appropriate for grades 3-8.

The manual was adapted for wider use by KasiaGrisso, energy/environment education coordinatorfor the OSU Extension Energy Program, withcontributions from David Philbrick, OSU ExtensionEnergy Program leader.

OSU Extension Energy Program produced themanual with support from the Oregon Departmentof Entrgy, Portland General Electric, NorthwestNatural Gas, the Oregon Department of Education,and a grant from Bonneville Power Administration.

2


Table of Contents

IntroductionThe Energy Smarts Team 5

Who Are Energy Smarts Team Members?

Energy Smarts Team Purpose and Procedures 6

Activity Overview 7

Energy Smarts Team Training Agenda 9

ActivitiesPre-test 0 11

H.T. Rae Simulation 13

Cookie Mining Simulation 15

School Energy Consumption 17

What's a Watt? 19

What's a Therm? 21

Meter Reading 23

Post-test 27

LogisticsEnergy Smarts Team Procedures for Students 29:

Team Member Agreement 10

Log Sheet 31

Examples of Reminder Tickets and Certificates 32

A Few Last Words to Teachers 34

Supporting MaterialsTop Ten Tips to Try to Tame Terrible Temperature Thieves 35

National Energy Foundation Information on Various Forms of Energy 39

113


Introduction

The Energy Smarts Teamnergy Smarts Team members are energyconscious students who want to saveenergy at school and at home. Studentsin a classroom and their teacher form an

Energy Smarts Team. Selected students monitor theirbuilding each day, at recess, lunch, or after school.

Energy Smarts Team members hope to find every-thing dark and quiet. They dislike energy waste andmake sure that lights and equipment not used areturned off. No, they don't unplug refrigerators orincubators.

However, they do turn off lights, overhead projec-tors, radios, or other unused electrical gismos theycome across during their search.

They leave gentle reminders with offenders andpositive notes with those who watch their watts.They keep careful records to document progress.They regularly recognize rooms with perfectrecords.

School District 4J in Eugene, Ore. began its aggres-sive energy conservation program in 1987. Theschool district has achieved significant savings byinstalling energy efficiency measures, includingbehavioral conservation activities. The EnergySmarts Team program, called Watt Watchers inEugene, has brought an awareness of resourceconservation to students and staff and has encour-aged students to make a significant difference inreducing energy consumption at their school.

From this program and other conservation efforts,the Eugene School District saved more than$271,000 in avoided energy costs during the 1991-92school year.

The Energy Smarts Team program has been instru-mental in empowering students and staff to startthinking about using resources wiseiy. It providesactivities for students to observe firsthand theirschool's energy consumption. The program notonly draws attention to a school's energy use, butalso illustrates the cost of that valuable resource.

Who Are Energy Smarts Team Members?Energy Smarts Team members are responsible stu-dents who work independently as well as part of ateam. Teachers choose team members.

What do they do?Energy Smarts Teams monitor their school to helpconserve energy. Each Energy Smarts Team has anassigned area in the school.

Energy Smarts Teams patrol the school checking forunnecessary lights and other wasted energy. Theysometimes keep track of how much energy theirschool uses and how much that energy costs.

How do they work?Energy Smarts Teams keep a log where they recordwhen lights and other electrical equipment havebeen left on or turned off in empty rooms. If peoplein a classroom, work area, or office have forgottento turn off the lights, the Energy Smarts Teammember leaves a friendly reminder "ticket" to helpthem remember the next time. A "Thank You" note'is left when people in the area have remembered toturn off lights and other equipment.

Energy Smarts Teams are important because:The money your district is spending for lightsand equipment left on in empty rooms couldbe put to better use for educational purposes.

Using resources wisely is part of beingresponsible and.taking care of where you live.

Energy Smarts Teams are fun and give studentsan opportunity to contribute to their schooland learn about using resources wisely.


Energy Smarts Team Purposeand ProceduresThe purpose of Energy Smarts Team training is toprovide students with tools and information theyneed to effectively monitor energy use within theirschool building.

Energy Smarts Team activities build teamworkamong participants. They also increase awarenessof energy resource issues.

Team members typically monitor the school once adayduring lunch, recess, or after school. Theywork in pairsnever alone! An adult or experi-enced team member should accompany each teamthe first few times it is on duty.

The teacher or designated sponsor provides logsheets (see p. 31) on clipboards and badges (sometype of I.D. tags) for team members to wear whileon duty.

The school is divided into routes, each including asmall number of rooms to monitor.

Each day, four or five teams pick up a clipboardcorresponding to their route. The same team mightdo the same route at the same time for a week.Scheduling isoup to the teacher. Log sheets can bealtered to meet a teacher's specific needs.

Team pairs pick up their equipment in a specifiedplace, such as the office, and drop it off immedi-ately upon finishing their rounds. It is good to havethem check in with an adult when starting andfinishing their rounds so someone knows wherethey are at all times.

6


Activity Overview

n the following pages is the outline of aprogram used in Eugene, Ore. to trainEnergy Smarts Team members. Thetraining, as done in Eugene, takes about

2-1/2 to 3 hours.

This manual includes a detailed outline of activitiesused during the training, plus additional activities.

Depending on your interests and needs theseadditional activities could be substituted for part ofthe basic training. Or they can be used duringfollow-up meetings with your team. You canmodify any activity to meet your needs.

Here is a brief overview of each activity in themanual along with a summary of its goal.

Energy Smarts Team Pretest/Post-testTake a few minutes and find out how much yourstudents already know and help them focus onimportant concepts. Test again at the end of thetraining to determine how successful the traininghas been.

White Water RaftingAn exercise to familiarize students with the idea ofsimulations. It also serves to loosen up the group.

H.T. Rae SimulationBuilds problem so'ving and teamwork skills. Beginsa discussion and appreciation of finite resourcesand how they can be managed for the greatestbenefit.

Cookie Mining SimulationA fun exercise that ends with the students beingable to eat the cookie. It reinforces the meaning offinite resources and builds an appreciation ofdifferent perspectives and the implications theyhave on management strategies. T; is exerciseprovides information that strengthens graphing andmath skills.

School Energy ConsumptionStarts to build an awareness for how energy is usedin a school. It begins to relate energy use to specificactivities at the school. The material reinforceslessons relating to graphing and developing differ-ent hypotheses.

Electrical PathwaysIn this exercise a poster, not contained in thismanual, is used to motivate a discussion of howelectricity is produced and used. A source for theposter is indicated in the training agenda. Otherresources can be substituted for the poster to helpmotivate a similar discussion.

What's a Watt?A watt-rate meter is used to measure and compareenergy used by typical classroom appliances suchas lights, an overhead projector, radio, etc. A watt-rate meter can be made from an old electric meterby retrofitting it with a standard electrical outlet.Local electric utilities often will donate these. This isan excellent tool for demonstrating the effect ofdifferent measures such as replacing an incandes-cent bulb with a fluorescent one. The watt-ratemeter also helps students develop a feeling for howmuch energy a watt-hour represents and the effecttheir actions as part of the Energy Smarts Team canhave.

What's a Therm?Many of the in-school activities focus on lighting,computers, and other equipment that use electricity.As students apply their knowledge at home and asthey become more sophisticated at school they willincreasingly become involved with space and waterheating and with other appliances that may befueled by natural gas. "What's a Therm?" presentsbackground information and exercises to increase

7


awareness of gas as an energy resource, how it ismeasured, and the relationship between it andother resources.

Meter ReadingThis is a follow-up activity that helps motivatestudents to apply their Energy Smarts Team trainingoutside of school. After instruction at school, thestudents are able to read and record their el,xtricand gas meters at home. Following a week or otherspecified time period, students can compare data.This presents a good vehicle for use of math andgraphing skills and for discussions about energyuse in their homes. It can be the start of the studentbecoming Energy Smart at home too.

Top Ten Tips to Try to Tame Terrible Temper&ture ThievesThis activity grew out of an energy-related studentposter contest. The poster depicts ten typical actionsavailable to Energy Smarts Team members. Thegraphics have been reproduced in the Energy SmartsTeam Training Manual along with a short descrip-tion of the activities. As you and your team discussthem, you may think of other actions that should beadded.

Energy Smarts Team Procedures and MaterialsThese materials provide a starting point for you towork with your team on the steps you want them totake in your building. You are free to use theprocedures and materials used in Eugene that areincluded. You may use them as is or customize andimprove them based on your experience andsetting.

8


Energy Smarts Team Training Agenda(If teachers want their students to take the Energy Smarts Team pretest (pp. 11-12], this might ben good time to do it.)

Note: This is the agenda that Eugene 4j School District used for its Energy Smarts Team training. The manualincludes activities in addition to those described below.

1. Name that energyName tag energy introductions. Participants createcolorful energy name tags (3 by 5 index cards).Include first name and two energy illustrations.Participants introduce themselves and brieflyexplain their energy illustrations.

2. SjmulationsAsk participants to define simulation.

White water rafting simulation.To illustrate a simulation, have participantspretend they are white water rafting. Explainthat we are going white water rafting and askthem to put on their life jackets, making sureto tie both strings. Demonstrate each part ofthis simulation in front of the class. Get youroars out and start paddling. Half of the classmight paddle on one side and half on another.Don't forget to stop for lunch on a big rock!Paddle around dangerous rocks, and perhapspaddle backwards furiously when you get toonear a waterfall.

H.T. Rae simulation.Divide participants into problem-solvinggroups and read aloud the H.T. Rae story (p.14) or show it on an overhead transparency.Encourage groups to suggest possiblesolutions to the problem presented in thestory. Have groups share one or two of theirsolutions with the rest of the class. Read theending of the story.

Cookie mining simulation.See pp. 15-16.

(Possible break. You may want to use this time to tourthe boiler room and observe the heating system of thebuilding.)

3. School energy consumptionShow participants how to interpret data on the piechart (p. 17) and line graph (p. 18). Ask participantsto guess what energy uses different slices in the piechart represent. Also ask them to deduce whyelectricity use is less during summer months.

4. Electricity pathwaysTo stimulate discussion about electricity producers,use the Electricity Serves Our Community posteravailable for $3 each plus shipping and handlingfrom the National Energy Foundation, 5160 WileyPost Way, Suite 200, Salt Lake City, Utah 84116,telephone 801-539-1406. Emphasize similarities ingeneration of electricity from many differentproducerssolar, fossil fuels, wind, hydroelectric,geothermal, and nuclear.

Have participants brainstorm a list of devices atschool that use electricity. List them on the chalk-board and categorize them according to use, e.g.,electricity used to heat, electricity used to light,electricity used to perform work.

5. What's a watt?Have participants do activities suggested on pp. 19-20. Use the watt-rate meter to show participantsactual electrical consumption of electrical devicessuch as a 100 watt bulb, compact fluorescent bulb,hair dryer, electric drill, overhead projector, radio,etc. Point out the relationship between electricalconsumption and generation of heat. Discuss watt,kilowatt, and kilowatt hours. Calculate the cost ofusing lights for one year.

6. Energy Smarts Team proceduresand agreements

Read and discuss Energy Smarts Team proceduresand agreements (pp. 29-30). Train participants inhow to use the Energy Smarts Team log. Make uphumorous scenarios to present to participants. Havethem mark their Energy Smarts Team log appropri-ately.

7. Tickets and certificatesMake your own "Positive tickets," "Gentle Remind-ers," and "Perfect Energy User Certificates." (Seepp. 32-33 for ideas.)

8. Evaluation.To close the workshop, use either "What did youlearn" questions or the post-test on pp. 27-28.

9


Name

Class

School

Date

Energy Smarts Team Pretest

1. It pays to turn off the lights in a room as soon asit is empty for more than

a) 1 second.

b) 1 minute.

c) 5 minutes.

d) 15 minutes.

2. On a cool sunny day, the best idea is to

a) open the shades and turn on the lights.

b) close the shades and turn on the lights.

c) open the shades and turn off the lights.

d) close the shades and turn off the lights.

3. An incandescent light bulb is the most commontype used in homes. When it is on it

a) is warm to the touch and looks like this:

b) is warm to the touch and looks like this:1-

c) is hot to the touch and looks like this:

d) is hot to the touch and looks like this:

4. Which light bulb uses the most electricity?

a) a 70 watt incandescent.

b) a 70 watt fluorescent.

c) They both use the same.

5. Which light bulb produces the most light?



c) They give off the same amount.

6. A school can lose energy right down the drain!All drips being equal, the most expensive leakyfaucet

a) is a cold water faucet.

b) is a hot water faucet.

c) is a warm water faucet.

7. If someone asked you which was longer, a 40centimeter snake or a 2 foot long snake, you wouldhave to convert them both to the same units. It

,works this same way with energy: Electricity thatlights a bulb, oil that bums in a furnace, and heatyour body gives off can all be converted to Btu. ABtu is about the amount of heat energy in

a) one wooden kitchen match.

b) one firecracker.

c) one average fireplace log.

d) one gallon of gasoline.

8. Electricity is measured in

a) therms.

b) watts.

c) gallons.

d) pounds.

.11


3.000,000

2.500.000

2.000.000

1,500.000

1 .000,000

500.000

0

Any School USAMonthly Consumption of Electricity

3

1988

i" 5

1989 1990

5

1991 1992

9. This graph shows how much electricity wasused at Any School USA during a 5 year period. Inwhich month did Any School USA use the mostelectricity?

a) January 1989.

b) July 1991.

c) March 1990.

d) January 1992.

10. Many tools and appliances besides overheadlights use electricity in schools. Name three com-mon items found at school besides lights that useelectricity.

a)

b)

c)

1 2


H.T. Rae SimulationGrades 4-6Subjects: science and social studies

Activity:ivide participants into problem-solvinggroups. Read aloud the H.T. Rae story(p. 14) or show it on an overheadtransparency. Encourage groups to

brainstorm solutions to the problem. Participantsmay either write down or draw their solutions.

Ask each group to share one or two solutions thatrepresent the general feeling of the entire group.The instructor records suggestions on the board oron a large sheet of butcher paper.

The ending to the story is read or shown on theoverhead projector. The instructor asks the classwhich solutions suggested by the class might reallywork.

Once participants realize that the astronaut group,the Uoy, really represents the majority of us,participants often change their minds about whatsh uld be done to solve the problem.

Solutions suggested by other students"Lock them up in a space jail and throw away thekey."

"Confine them to their own space and only givethem enough food to barely exist."

"Tell them what they are doing wrong and warnthem that if they don't change they'll be punished."

"Train them about recycling and other things thatwill make them understand how to improve."

"Force them out of the spaceship into space and letthem deal with what it's like out there."

"Torture them by only giving them a few crumbs toeat until they learn their lesson."

"Do the same to them.... Take their food, mess uptheir air and water.... Maybe they won't be so meanif they saw how it felt."

H.T. Rae questions for discussion1. Shall we lock up all people who pollute air andwater?

2. Many people drive automobiles. What shouldbe done about people who pollute air with theirautomobiles?

3. What shall we do with people who generategarbage? After all, most garbage is disposed of in away that pollutes. Using landfills to bury garbageand incineration to burn garbage each presents adifferent pollution problem.

4. What about people who waste electricity?Leaving electrical appliances and devices on whenthey're not being used wastes energy. More energymust be produced when we waste it. Producingenergy is expensive and uses earth's valuableresources.

5. Ask other questions that draw attention to thefact that each of us pollutes and wastes resources tosome extent.

13

Energy Smart.; Team Training Manual

The H.T. Rae storyThe H.T. Rae is a large spaceship that contains'werything required for a long mission to explorethe universe. Garden plots with fertile soil provideenough food for the astronauts during their voyage.The ship also has the ability to continually purifyair and waterrecycling these elements for theastronauts' use. The ship, however, has only alimited amount of natural resources on board.

Acquiring additional resources would not be apossibility for the astronauts. Wise use of naturalresources on board is important if the ship isexpected to have enough for its entire voyage.

The H.T. Rae is fully equipped to support everyoneon board, but each of its systems must be carefullymaintained, as there is no extra water, air, soil, food,or other resources. Successful maintenance of theentire ship and its systems depends on carefulbalance of each element and on cooperative behav-ior of all astronauts.

On board the H.T. Rae are many groups of astro-nauts. Most groups work well together and helpone another for the good of the ship. One of thesegroups, the Uoy, is well-known for wanting morefood than their own areas can produce. They buy,and sometimes take, some of the other astronauts'resources. They don't use resources wisely. In fact,they have been known to throw away their foodand waste. This pollution has created a problLmwith the ship's clean water supply.

The Uoy have often been known to burn theirexcess waste, polluting the ship's air supply. Thisgroup of astronauts has really had quite an effect onthe rest of the ship.

What should be done?

14

NV/

(Read the following after the group finishes the H.T. Raesimulation.)

H.T. Rae is Earth spelled backwards. The spaceshiprepresents Planet Earth. Uoy is you spelled back-wardsthis is to point out that we, as humanbeings, are often guilty of using more naturalresources than we need. We are often guilty ofthrowing away and burying or burning our waste,which pollutes our water anclir.

All of the air, water, soil, and natural resources wewill ever have are on Earth now. We breathe thesame air the dinosaurs breathed and drink the samewater they drank. We are rapidly using up naturalresources that have taken millions of years to make.We are the astronauts on Spaceship Earth, and it isour responsibility to keep the ecosystem in balancefor future generations of inhabitants and to use ournaturai resources wisely.


Cookie Mining SimulationGrades 4-6Subjects: science, math, and social studies

oal deposits, like many naturalresources, are unevenly distributedthroughout the world.

a Mining, like other methods used to extractnatural resources, affects the environment tovarying degrees.

Many factors need to be considered whenmaking decisions regarding the wise use ofnatural resources.

Background:At present, coal provides nearly 20 percent of totalUnited States domestic energy needs. This trans-lates to nearly 3 tons per person each year. Atpresent rate of use, world coal supplies will lastslightly more than 70 years.

Fifty years ago when most coal mining was donemanually, underground mines accounted for 96percent of coal produced each year, while surfacemining accounted for only 4 percent. Today, surfacemining has increased to nearly 60 percent.

Before a company can surface mine, it must gatherinformation about the site regarding growingconditions, climate, soil composition, vegetation,wildlife, etc. With this information, the companymust post a bond for each acre of land it mines toensure that it will be properly reclaimed.

What you'll need:Large, soft chocolate chip cookies, napkins,and paper clipsone of each for everystudent.

Butcher paper or large graph paper.

Optional: juice or milk.

What to do:1. Give each student a cookie, a napkin, and apaper clip. They are not Li eat the cookies until theexercise is over.

2. Ask students to suggest what the napkin,cookie, chocolate chips, and paper clip represent inthe simulation. (Answers: napkin represents space,the universe; cookie, the earth; chocolate chips, coal;paper clip, mining machinery.)

3. Suggest that students pick a role to play in thesimulation. Tell them not to divulge their role atthis time. Possible role choices include:

I it

The president of a coal companyemphasis onmining a maximum amount of coal as aprimary responsibility.

An extremely environmentally conscious personemphasis on taking care of the earth and itsresources as a primary responsibility.

A iniddle-ofthe-roaderperson who tries tostriL. an even balance between profits andenvironment.

15


Number of chips found before mining

Studentname

Rosie

# ofchocolate chips

16

Larry 19

Joe 13Cindy 20Malcolm 18

Carmen 16

Louie 16

Shawn 19

Susan 18Billy 19

Cecile 18

Juan 21

Abby 17

JoAnne 17Charlie 20Total # chips 267Avr. * chipsper student 18

4. Instruct students to count how many visiblechunks of coal are in their earth. Students may turnthe cookie over to include any surface coal visibleon the bottom. Record the average number ofvisible chips on butcher paper or graph.

5. Instruct students to begin "mining" their coaldeposits. Students will mine their coal depositsfrom the perspective of the role they chose earlier.

6. Have students place their coal deposits in onepile and the earth's crust in another. Have studentscontinue "mining" until most appear finished.When students finish, have them record the totalnumber of pieces of coal mined on the butcherpaper or graph.

16

7. Quickly walk around the room asking studentsto guess the role of a particular student. (A cookiemined by a president of a coal company mayappear to have most of the coal mined, with theearth appearing disturbed significantly. Anothercookie may appear nearly untouched, with only oneor two chocolate chips "mined." This causesminimal impact on the earth. This cookie may bemined by a student taking the role of an environ-mentalist.) Ask students to explain why they chosetheir particular role.

8. Before students are allowed to eat their cookie,instruct them to put their "earth" back together.Encourage them to try, even if their cookie lookslike a pile of crumbs.

9. Discuss the following points with the class:

There are more coal deposits than could beseen on the surface.

"Mining" the deeper coal took more time andwas more trouble than mining coal near thesurface. (It takes energy to get energy.)

Coal deposits were unevenly distributed.Some students had more coal deposits thanothers. Why?

Once the earth is disturbed by mining, it isdifficult to restore to its original state.

What can be said about the employment ofpeople versus the effect on the earth ofobtaining those resources?

10. Allow students to eat their cookie. Provide juiceor milk if desired.

22

0. 20:Ec.) 18

to' 16

8 14.co 12

10

E 8z6

0:91 4

2a

Average perstudent before

mining

Chips mined - Coal Chips mined - Chips mined -"Middle of the

Roeder"

Co. President Extremely

Environmentally

Conscious Person

Li

st: . : a

. . . . . .

, . . . . .

.

'

E n

II

a: .

a 5

,:.

II

I

r

r

VIP

' V


3,000,000

2,500,000

2,000,000

1,500,000

1,000,000

500,000


co)1988

-3

1989 1990

-)1991

--D

1992

Ask students to interpret data on the line graph. Ask them to deduce why electricity use is less duringsummer months.

18


What's a Watt'?Grades 3-8Subjects: science and math

Concept:

onservation reduces our energydemands.

The cost of electricity to run different electricaldevices varies.

Objectives:Students will be able to determine how manywatts an elPctrical appliance uses by timingthe dial of a watt-rate meter and by readingelectrical consumption information printed onthe appliance.

Students will be able to identify whichappliances in their daily lives use more powerand which appliances use less.

Students will be able to state ways they cansave energy in their daily lives.

Background:Electricity is brought to a house througl-r a three-wire cable. An electric meter connected to thehousehold circuit breaker or fuse box shows howmuch electricity is used. Two live wires bringelectricity from the fuse box to power outlets (plug-ins), utility boxes (lighting), and wall switches. Eachlive wire is at a voltage of 120 volts relative toground and 240 volts relative to each other. Thethird wire, or neutral, is brought to a grounding barin the circuit breaker box, or attached to a coldwater pipe as well as to all power outlets, utilityboxes, and wall switches. Every appliance pluggedinto an outlet also has a ground connection. Theappliance ground is connected to the metal orplastic case of the appliance.

At each power and lighting outlet no current flowsuntil a lamp or appliance is plugged in andswitched on. However, there is always a voltage atthat point whether current flows or not. It is like awater tap; the pressure is always there althoughthere is no flow until it is turned on.

You will find the ,watt-rate meter a useful addition toyour classroom energy equipment. Your local utilitycompany may help you obtain a meter.

Activity:This exercise uses a watt-rate meter to show stu-dents how energy is measured in our homes, andhow different appliances use different amounts ofenergy. A watt-rate meter is a device that measureselectrical consumption.

What you'll need:Watt-rate meter, clock with second hand, variouscommon appliances or devices with a wide range oflevels of energy consumption. Examples include a100 watt incandescent bulb, compact fluorescentbulb, hair dryer, electric drill, overhead projector,radio, fan, hot plate, and portable electric heater.

What to do:1. Time one revolution of the watt-rate meter dialusing a 100W bulb. This data should equal 120seconds for all watt-rate (electrical) meters. It can beused as a standard for students studying appli-ances.

2. Help students understand that the faster the dialgoes, the more power (watts) is being used. There-fore, half the time needed for 100 watts would equal200 watts and twice the time would equal 50 watts.

3. Using the watt-rate meter, show studentselectrical consumption of many common electricalappliances and equipment in the classroom. Switchappliances several times (e.g., from hair dryer tooverhead projector) so students can see how speedof the dial changes.

19


4. Have students determine how many watts perhour different electrical appliances and equipmentuse. They can do this by timing revolutions of thedial and then calculating watts for that period oftime. The 100-watt time is the starting point forcalculations. Explain that all watt-rate meters,including the ones in their homes, measure watts atthe same speed.

5. Have students re,cord their findings in a chartwith three colurn;7g. In the first column, write thename of the appliance. In the second column,record the number of seconds it takes for the dial toturn one time. Since they know that 100 watts takes2 minutes (120 seconds) for one revolution, theythen can fill in the third column with the number ofwatts the appliance uses. Have them compare theirfindings with the chart below:'

One turn of the dialin seconds

Watts

7.5 160011.25 120013 100015 80030 40045 30060 20075 17590 150

105 125120 100240 50

6. Point out the relationship between increasedelectrical consumption and the generation of heat.(A hair dryer is a good example.)

7. Discuss watt, kilowatt, and kilowatt-hours.

8. Show students that each appliance has electricalconsumption information imprinted somewhere onthe appliance.

9. Calculate the cost of using the lights in a class-room for one year.

Example:42 lamps per room X 34 watts each =

42 X 34 = 1428 watts or 1.428 kilowatts (1 kilowatt100 watts)

20

1.428 kilowatts per hour X 6 hours =

8.568 kWh (kilowatt-hours) X $0.03 per kilowatthour =

$0.26 per day per classroom

$0.26 X 175 days of school per year = $45 per yearper classroom just for lights.

(Note: The 3 cents per kWh rate is the rate custoiner payfor electricity in Eugene, Ore. in 1993. This rate needs tobe modified for specific areas. In Rhode Island, forexample, customers pay 26 cents per kWh. All conditionsbeing the same, it would cost a typical classroom inRhode Island $389.84 per year just for lights.)

10. Discuss the two results conservation measuresofferusing valuable resources wisely and savingmoney.

11. Discuss ways students can conserve energy intheir daily lives. Some facts about conservation thatmay be useful to use in discussion include:

Heat is measured in Btu (British thermalunit)a common measuring unit of energy.One Btu is the amount of heat needed to raise1 pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit. OneBtu is approximately equal to the amount ofheat generated from one wooden kitchenmatch.

The ballasts that charge the gas.insidefluorescent lights are much more energyefficient then they were 25 years ago. In fact,energy used by a ballast manufactured 25years ago would use about 15 minutes worthof electricity; In other words, many years agoit would be beneficial to leave the lights on ina room if you would return within 15 minutes.Many people still believe that leaving thelights on saves energy. Today's ballasts are soenergy efficient, they require less than asecond's worth of energy to ignite the gasinside a fluorescent tube. It does save energyto turn off the lights even if you're going to begone for only a few seconds.

12. A lot of energy is used to heat a school. Discusssome ways to help save energy on heating both athome and in school.


What's a Therm?Grades 5-8Subjects: science, math, and social studies

Concept:bility to visualize the amount ofenergy represented by a therm:what it does, how much ittypically costs, how it compares to

other energy units.

What we know about long-term availability ofnatural gas and possible environmentalconsequences from its use.

Options for conserving natural gas.

Background:Natural gas is a combustible gas found in nature inunderground reservoirs of porous rocks, eitheralone or in association with crude oil. Most com-mercial natural gas in the United States isnonassociated gasgas that is independent of crudeoil deposits.

Natural gas is measured in cubic feet. The largestconstituent of natural gas (70 to 90 percent of thevolume) is methane. Other components includeethane, propane, butanes, and some larger mol-ecules.

On average, the heating value of commercialnatural gas is 1,000 Btu/cubic foot. Heating valuefor a specific sample varies depending on theamount of gases haying a higher heating value(such as ethane) and the amount of inert gases,which lower the heating value. Pipeline quality gasis required to have a minimum heating value of 900Btu/cu ft.

In the United States before the 1870's, natural gaswas considered largely a curiosity. In 1872, the firstiron pipeline in the United States was built to carrynatural gas 5-1/2 miles for use in Titusville, Pennsylvania. By the 1920's, natural gas productionreached 80 billion cubic feet a year. In the 1930's,pipelines carried natural gas from Texas to theMidwest, and the fuel became important for heatingand cooking.

By the 1960's, more than 500,000 different chemicalcompounds were being made from natural gas andoil. These chemicals are used in detergents, drugs,fertilizers, paints, plastics, synthetic rubber, nylonand rayon.

In 1991, 21.58 trillion cubic feet of natural gas wasused in the United States. Of this, 4 percent wasused in transportation, 14 percent in commercialbuildings, 14 percent by electric utilities, 24 percentin homes, and 44 percent in industry.

Natural gas reserves in the United States andCanada were estimated in 1991 to be 338.7 trillioncubic feet.

Improving efficiency:You can save energy if you get more benefit fromeach unit of fuel you use. For natural gas, you canimprove efficiencies by reducing the amount ofenergy needed for a given benefit, by improvingcombustion efficiency, by increasing transfer of heatproduced to the desired application, and by im-proving control so energy is used only whenneeded.

Natural gas and global climate change:Methane and the carbon dioxide generated whennatural gas is burned contribute to "greenhousegases." Burning a therm of natural gas releasesabout 11.8 pounds of carbon dioxide into theatmosphere.

Use of natural gas as an energy source in Oregonwas estimated to contribute 4.8 million tons ofcarbon dioxide in 1988 (about 8.5 percent of allgreenhouse gas emissions in Oregon in 1988).Without actions to reduce increases, this is expectedto grow to 6.2 million tons by 2005 (about 12.8percent of the total in 2005). The actual increase islikely to be larger as these figures do not include theuse of natural gas to produce electricity. SomeOregon utilities are turning to significant numbersof combustion turbines (which use natural gas toproduce electricity) to meet electricity needs in thenear term.

Natural gas measurement:One cubic foot of commercialnatural gas (on average)

One kilowatt-hour (kWh)of electricity

One therm of natural gas

*British thermal unit

1,000 Btu*

3,412 Btu

l00,000 Btu

21


Questions:1. Natural gas bills typically are based on thenumber of therms used. Electricity use is based onthe number of kilowatt-hours (kWh). How manycubic feet of natural gas are in a therm? How manykWh represent the same amount of energy as atherm of natural gas?

2. How many cubic feet of natural gas would beburned to deliver the same amount of energy as in1 kWh of electricity?

3. How much does your household pay for a kWhof electricity? If natural gas is available in your

community, how much do people pay for a thermof natural gas? In terms of energy available, whichis the better buy?

4. If consumption of natural gas in the UnitedStates were to remain at 1991 levels, and assumingno imports or exports, how many years would ittake before known North American gas supplieswould be exhausted?

5. A 100 watt light bulb left on for 24 hours usesenergy equivalent to how many therms?

6. Savings opportunity:Draw a line between each action and the appropriatr explanation as to why it saves energy.

A. Home insulation

B. Replace a pilot light with an electric ignition

C. Clean furnace filters

D. Sealed and insulated ducts

E. Anticipatory controls

22

1. Allows proper airflow through the heatexchanger and back into the home. Withoutproper airflow, more heat goes up the chimney.

2. Less heat is required if the heat that isproduced at the furnace is delivered where it isneeded in the home. In traditional forced-airfurnaces typically 25 to 30 percent of heat is lostin ducts between the furnace and the room whereheat is wanted.

3. Reduces the requirements for space heatingand cooling.

4. Uses less energy by using energy only whenit is actually needed.

5. As rooms get close to the desired tempera-ture the flame stops and final heating is providedby the residual heat in the furnace. This helpsminimize the amount of heat lost up the chimney.

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Meter ReadingGrades 5-8Subjects: science and math

etermine how much energy (electricityand/or natural gas) each family uses inone week by reading their powermeters. You do this by reading the

electric and/or gas meter every day at the sametime each day.

Prepare by going over instructions in "How to ReadYour Electric and Gas Meter" (p. 24).

Give each person a copy of the "Meter ReadingWorksheet" (p. 25). Go over it together.

(Note: Some electric and gas nteters may have five facesinstead of four.)

Each participant then reads their electric and/or gasmeter every day for one week and records thereading on the "Meter Reading Record" (p. 26).They should be sure to read it at the same time eachday.

At the end of one week have each participantcalculate how much energy (natural gas and/orelectricity) their family used. To determine theamount, subtract the first reading from the last, andconvert to common units such as Btu. Have thestudents share and discuss their results.

Possible discussion topics:Why do the amounts differ from household tohousehold?

How might weather affect energyconsumption?

How might the number of people in thefamily influence energy consumption?

How might the size, age, insulation/weatherization, etc. of homes influence energyconsumption?

What were some ways your family usedelectricity and/or natural gas during theweek?

Make a line graph of each household's daily energyuse. Possible discussion topics:

Does the energy use differ from day to day? Ifso, why?

Which day did your family use the mostenergy? Why?

Suggest ways to conserve energy.

23


HOW TO REM) YOUR ELECTRICAND GAS METERNal Ile:

How To Read Your Electric MeterThe dials are like watch faces lined in a row(every other dial moves counterclockwise).The reading fo? a ftve dial meter would be

Date.

16,064. The reading for a four diameterwould be 8,084.

8 DIAL METER4 DIAL METER

WRITE 1 WRITE\i

MOTE 0 WRITE 8 WRITE 4

Notice that when the pointer is between two numbers, you should record the lower of thetwo numbers.

When the pointer seems to be direOtly on anumber, look at the dial to the right, if thepointer on-the right side dial has passed"0,"then write down the number the pointer

seems to be on; if the pointer on the rightside dial has not passed "0." then writedown the previous lower number on the dintyou are recording.

How To Read Your Gas Meter

4Take the number the firstpointer has Just passed...

4And the number the thirdpointer bas just passed...

5And the number the seoondpointer has just passed...

fs

And the number the secondpointer has Just passed...

Add two zeros 454600Thie is the meter reading (in cubic feet ages).

From National Energy Foundation, 1986, Energy 6: Multidisciplinary activities for the classroom developed bythe National Energy Foundation especially for teachers. Used with permission.

24 2 J


"METER READING WORKSHEET"Name: Date.

Read the following ratters and record your answers in the space below each.

Electric Meters Gas Meters

9 1

:31111.6) 1(461111Ps

25


METER READING RECORDName.

ARE YOU SAVING ENERGY? A good way tofind out is to keep a record of the electricityor natural gas you use before and afterbegin.ning your conservation effort. Thechart below will help you record yourprogress. 1. Draw the positions of the

0 Electric Meter

DAY 1

DAY 2

DAY 3

DAY 4

DAY 5

DAY 8

DAY 7

26

Date.

hands of the meter on the dials each day atthe same time. 2. Write the number in thespace below each dial and on the line at theright. 3. Subtract the readings on (Ley onefrom day two. Repeat each day for sevendays.

0 Natural Gas Meter

Meter Reading Day 1

Reading Day 2Reading Day 1Energy used




Reading Day 8Reading Day 5Energy used.



Name

Class

School

Date

Energy Smarts Team Post-test

1. It pays to turn off the lights in a room as soon as 5. Of all the things that schools do, most energy isit is empty for more than used for

a) 20 minutes. a) heating.

b) 15 minutes. b) cooling.

c) 5 minutes. c) lighting.

d) 1 second. d) hot water.

2. One way to save energy on lighting is 6. Which of the following is an energy waster?

a) to use incandescent bulbs whenever possible. a) a closed door when the heat is turned on.

b) to use sunlight when possible. b) a water faucet that doesn't leak.

c) to use light bulbs with more watts. c) a dark, empty room.

d) to keep the window shades closed. d) an empty room with a radio on.

3. A fluorescent light bulb is the most common 7. If someone asked you which was heavier, a 40type used in schools. When it is on, it pound monkey or a 2 kilogram tomato, you might

have to convert them both to the same units beforea) is warm to the touch and looks like this: answering. It works the same way with energy. The

electricity that lights a bulb, the oil that burns in afurnace, and even the heat your body gives off canall be converted to Btu. A Btu is about the amountof heat energy in

a) one wooden kitchen match.

b) one firecracker.

c) one average fireplace log.

d) one gallon of gasoline.

8. Use of electricity is measured in

b) is warm to the touch and looks like this:

c is hot to the touch and looks like this:

d) is hot to the touch and looks like this:

-1

4. Which light bulb uses the most electricity?



c) They both use the same.

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a) therms.

b) kilowatt hours.

c) gallons.

d) pounds.

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3,000.000

2.500.000

2.000.000

1,500.000

1,000.000

500.000

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1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

9. This graph shows how much electricity wasused at Any School USA during a 5 year period. Inwhich month did Any School USA use the leastelectricity?

a) January 1989.

b) July 1992.

c) March 1990.

d) January 1992.

10. There are many things that people can do tosave energy in schools. Besides turning out lightswhen leaving the room, give three other energysaving tips.

a)

b)

c)

28


Energy Smarts Team Procedures for Students

Pick up your I.D., clipboard, and logsheet from your teacher or other desig-nated person. Energy Smarts Teammembers should always carry their I.D.

while on duty.

2. Do not bring your friends along or allow otherstudents to enter the classrooms. Only qualifiedEnergy Smarts Teams may monitor electrical use atyour school.

3. Inspect your assigned area and record informa-tion neatly and in the appropriate place on the log.

4. Work quietly, quickly, and politely in rooms inwhich people are working.

c. Return I.D., clipboard, and log sheet to theirproper places, and check back in with your teacheror other designated person.

6. At the end of each month, tally results from logsheet and give a progress report to each classroom.Certificates are great for classes that do an excellent job!

29


Energy Smarts Team Member Agreement

I have read the Energy Smarts Team procedures, and I understand them. I agree to assume all respon-sibilities of the Energy Smarts Team of my school. I will follow all Energy Smarts Team procedures andwill do the best job possible.

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Examples of Reminder Tickets and Certificates

OopsLights On

32

The Wizard waswatchin3, too bad30t.A. weren't.


Perfect Energy User Certificate

Congratulationson one week of

perfect Watt Watching!

from the Energy Smarts Team

3 J 33


A Few Last Words to Teachers

Help team members get started. Accom-pany them on their first few roundsmonitoring the school.

2. Check in with team members fre-quently. Ask them to help each other.

3. Celebrate initial successes. Showing them youcare makes it all worthwhile. Throw a party! Orgive small tokens in appreciation of a job well done.

4. Have fun!

34


Top Ten Tips to Try to Tame Terrible Temperature Thieves

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1. Keep doors closed.Twenty-five percent of electricity used by schools isused by the heating system. Heating and coolingsystems are designed to heat and cool the buildingsefficiently. The system has to work hard to heatadditional air because warm air is leaving throughan open door. Doors that open out into a hall allowwarm air to heat the halls, creating further demandfor heat in the rooms. Doors that open to theoutside heat up the outdoors. It would take a heckof a heating system to heat up the entire outdoors.

If you are too warm, tell your custodian or call yourbuilding's heating person. Of course the reverse is

3

true during the cooling season. Trying to cool offthe room by opening the door doesn't work andwastes energy. If your building is unbearably warmor cool, please let appropriate people know.

2. Keep windows closed.The same explanation applies to windows. Win-dows are often near univents in buildings. Whenthe heating system is running in the morning, andhot bodies arrive, some rooms get too warm.Opening the windows allows warm air coming outof the univents to leave on the Airgone Express. Thethermostat will turn on the heat in the room andmore warm air will be called for by the system. Thatwarm air will, of course, flow right out the window.Again, let the appropriate person know your needs.

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3. Turn off lights and other equipmentwhen not needed.

Twenty-eight percent of electricity used by schoolsis used by lights. In 1959 when the Dodgers playedthe White Sox in the World Series, ballasts wererelatively inefficient. Ballasts are gismos that ignitegas inside fluorescent lights. Ballasts of that eraused a lot of energy to ignite fluorescent lights. Infact, the energy used by a ballast manufactured 25years ago would use about 15 minutes worth ofelectricity. In other words, many years ago it wouldhave been good td leave the lights on in a room ifyou 1,,sald return within 15 minutes. Many peoplestill believe that leaving lights on saves energy.

35


But today's ballasts are so energy efficient theyneed less than a second's worth of energy to ignitethe gas inside the fluorescent tube. It saves energyto turn off the lights even if you're going to be gonefor only a few seconds.

Seep .4hermosiats unobstructed .

4. Keep thermostats unobstructed.Thermostats are only as intelligent as we let thembe. New.technology has yet to produce a thermostatcapable of reading minds. One high school coachwanted his locker room very warm. He placed aplastic bag full of ice on top of the thermostat. Thethermostat tried to do its job by continually sendingmore heat to the locker room. The locker room wasnice and toasty, but energy use skyrocketed.

If you have a coffee pot or other heating device nearthe thermostat, it will be fooled into thinking thatthe room is warm enough and will not send forheat. You can see how the saying "It's not nice totrick Mother Thermostat" originated.

5. Keep vents clear.Posters, filing cabinets, boxes, coats, and otherobjects blocking the vents prevent heating andcooling systems from operating efficiently. If thethermostat is calling for heat and the heat can neverreach the thermostat because it's obstructed, theheat will continue trying to pour out of the vent andwill continue doing so forever without muchsuccess.

36

; 41

u

5 Keep ve.nts dtokr.

It's like being in the Twilight Heat Zonethat placein space where a heating system knows it's doingits job of putting out heat but is never able to reachthe optimum temperature.

-P111^.4

*1.4.05: otttorAkeli.

6. Dress appropriately.Wearing clothing appropriate for the weather willmake us all comfortable without the need forextreme heating and cooling. Summer clothing inlate fall might cause some to feel cold. Warmclothing will help prevent the chill that creeps infrom November through March. So put away thosesummer clothes until June. Put on a sweater in-stead.

30


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4-herinostot

7. Place thermometer near thermostat.Thermostats are often not accurate. Many thermo-stats read 3 to 5 degrees off the actual temperature.If you look at the thermostat before you.decidewhether you are too hot or cold, you might beinfluenced by what you think the temperature is.Get a thermometer for your room and place it nearthe thermostat. See if your thermostat is accurate.The thermostat should be set to keep the tempera-ture between 68 and 70 degrees. If your thermostatreads 68 and the temperature is really 73 degrees,your room will be too warm.

Conversely, if the thermostat reads 68 and the roomtemperature is really 63, your room may feel toocold. In other words, don't believe everything athermostat saysask for a second opinion. Afterall, thermostats never go on to receive an advanceddegree.

8. Arrange room for optimum comfort.If you are always too warm and your desk is nearthe univent, move to a cooler spot in the room. Ifyou're always cold, move away from the windows.Even if windows are not open, on a cold day thetemperature near them will be cooler than any-where else. Unfortunately, air movement is not anexact science yet. The center of a room is the mostcomfortable. If possible, arrange the room consider-ing these factors.


9. Let the sun shine in.Use the sun's heat and light whenever possible.You'll save energy by using fewer lights on a bright,sunny day. You'll also allow some heat in if the sunshines directly into your room. If it's terribly coldoutsidebelow freezingheat gain probably willnot compensate for heat loss through the windows.

38

10. Call your heating person if you're notcomfortable.

No one should be uncomfortable at their workplace.Your heating person is willing to do whatever ittakes to make you comfortable. The problem maybe as simple as adjusting the thermostat to makesure the temperature it registers is accurate. Ratherthan opening and closing doors and windows tomake your area comfortable, let an expert see ifsomething else can be done to make you comfort-able. After all, energy is a terrible thing to waste!


The Importance Of Energy

Introduction

Stated simply, energy is the ability to dowork or produce change. Like manyother normally-occuning facets of ourlives, we tend to take energy for granted.But its importance should not beoverlooked, because nothing happenswithout energy.

For example, the act of reading thispage requires a complex energy chain.The light which illuminates the words Isenergy. Energy was necessary to run themachine that printed the page. The inkand paper were produced by energy. Iteven takes energy to turn these wordsInto meanings In the human mind.

While energy is responsible for makingordinary events such as these possible.Its true value is far greater and morebasic. In many ways, we depend onenergy for our very existence.

Without energy. It would be impossibleto produce the food we eat, process andpackage it, deliver it to stores and, fOrthat matter, consume and digest it.

Similarly, energy is essential to producewarmth, shelter, clothing and othernecessities of We. To perform its lairs,tant work, energy may appear in any ofseveral forms.

What are theforma of energy?

Energy is all around us, al of the time. Itmay, however, be known by differentnames, depending on its source. Light,wheiler it comes from tile sun or froma lIght.sub. is radiant energy. Gravita-tional ertow is the force whict. holdsotiects to th.: earth. Food and fuel

contain stored chemical energy, whileollects which are hot contain thermalenergy. A machine with moving parts Lssaid to have mechanical energy.Charged objects are Mied with electricalenergy. And radioactive objects containnuclear energy.

Another important concept of energy Isthat it may change forms. Imagine, forinstance, that you have a battery-powered robot that sweeps the floor.When you switch it on. It starts tosweep. What happened is that thechemical energy in the battery producedelectrical energy In wires, which wasconverted to mechanical energy In themoving parts of the robot.

What are thesources of energy?

Sunlight, fuel of all types, wind andwater are among the list of usableenergy soirees.

While energy is present in many sour-ces, It may not be working all of thetime. Energy In motion Is called kineticenergy. Whenever you see somethingmoving or happening, you know thatkinetic energy is the force involved.Water flowing over a dam, a personnmning, a machine in operation are allexampies of kinetic energy.

Energy that Is not in motion, but couldbe. Is known as potential energy. Forexample, a piece of firewood containsstored, or potential, energy that is readyto be used.

Without plentiful usable energy sources,lifc as we know it would grind to a hail

Is energy important?

Throughout history, the Importance ofenergy has become abundantly clear todeveloping civilizations. What it comesdown to Is this: a nation that has manysources of energy Is usually highlyprodtxtive and successful A nation thatcan't meet its energy needs has a hardtkne surviving.

That's why energy conservation and thedscovery of new ways to use energy willcontinue to be major Issues of our time.The world Is only as safe and secure asits energy supply.

(Adapted from Energy Readings, partof the New York Energy EducationProject. with permission of the NewYork Power Pool.)

Notes:

From National Energy Foundation, 1992, Teach With Energy!: Fundamental Energy, Electricity and ScienceLessons for Grades 4-6. Used with permission.

d BEST COPY AVAILABLE 39


Coal

L

How is coal formed?

Coal is classified by geologists as amineral. But most minerals. IB(e salt oriron ore, were formed by Inorgankmatter. Coal, on the other hand, camefrom organic matterplants, that liv".1about 300 millon years ago.

During the Pennsylvanian Period inearth's history. the earth was coveredwith huge swampy forests of giant ferns.reeds and mosses. which grew tallerthan our tallest trees today. As theseplants died and fell into the swampwater, new plants grew to take theirpace: and when these plants died, sthlothers grew. In time, there was a thicklayer of dead, decaying plants in thewater.

The surface of the earth also changedand dirt washed into the water coveringthe dead plants, preventing them fromcompletely decomposing. More plantsgrew but they too died and fell into thewater, forming a separate layer of deaddecaying plants. which over time wasalso covered by sediments, preventingcomplete decomposition. After millionsof years many layers had formed, oneon toP of the other.The weight of the overlying layerscompressed the lower layers of pantmatter forming peat. Heat and pressure.caused by the overlying sediments,produced chemical changes In the peat,forcing out oxygen and hydrogen lemingbehind rich carbon depositscoal.

Geologists estimate that a layer ofplants 20 feet thick may have been

required to form a coal seam one footthick. Coal seams vary In thickness,ranging from only a few Inches thick tomore than 100 feet In thickness.

Where is coal located inthe United States?

Coal represents the United States mostabundant energy source. The U.S. Geo-logical Survey has identified 1.7 trilliontons of coal resources In the UnitedStates. If yet undiscovered, tut likelydeposits are added. potential reservesmay be as high as 4 billion tons. TheWorld Energy Conference estimated thatthe coal I eserve of the United Statesaccounts for two-thktis of the freeworld's total and nearly 28 percent ofthe total world recoverable coal. Bycomparison, Saudi Arabia has about 23percent of the world's proven petroleummsemes.

The United States has about 490 bilionshort tons of demonstrated reserves,which by definition are potentialy mineabie on an economic basis with existingtetnology. At current domestic con-sumption ievels, this Is enough coal tolast 300 years.Measurable quantities of coal are foundin 36 states, and in 31 states the coalis ccosidered mineable. At present, coalmining occurs in 26 states, includingarea5 of Appalachia. the Midwest, theCentrdl and Northwestern Plains states,the Rocky Mountains and the PacificNorthwest.

COAL RESERVES IN THE UNITED STATES

How is coal mined?

As was the case 50 years ago, mostcoal is produced from two major typesof mines underground and surface.But Lhe methods for recovering coalfrom the earth have undergone drasticchanges in the past 25 years. as aconsequence of technological advances.

Fifty years ago when most coal miringwas done manually, underground minesaccounted for 96 percent of the coalproduced each year. Today, almost 60percent Is produced from surface mines.Most underground mines In the UnitedStates are located east of the Missis.sIppi River, although there are some inthe West, particularly in Utah andColorado.

More than two-thirds of the coal pro-duced underground is extracted bycontinuous mining machines in the room.and-pfliat method. The continuous min-ing machine contains tungsten bits on arevolving cylinder. The continuous minerbreaks the coal from the face and thenconveys it to a waiting shuttle car whichtransports It to the conveyor belt to bemoved to the surface. No blasting Isneeded. After advancing a specifieddistance, the continuous miner isbacked out and roof bolts are put inplace. The process Is repeated until thecoal seam Is mined.

Another method, called longwal mining.accounts for about 20 percent otproduction. This method involves pullinga cutting machine across a 400 to 600foot long face (longwall) of the coal

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seam. This machine has a revolvingcylinder with tungsten bits that shear offthe coal. The coal falls into a conveyorsYstem which carries it out of the mine.The roof is supported by large steelsupports, attached to the longwarfmachine. As the machine moves for-ward, the roof supports are advanced.The roof behind the supports is allowedto fail. Nearty 80 percent of the coal canbe removed using this method. Theremaining 11 percent of undergroundproduction is produced by conventionalmining which uses eviosives to breakup the coal for removaL

Half of the mineable surface coal in theUnited States is located it the West. tutsignificant amounts are also present inAppalachia and midwestern states. Sur-face mining Is used when the coal seamIs located relatively close to the surface.making underground mining ImpracticaL

Before a company can surface mine, itmust gather information about the siteregarding growing conditions, climate.soli composition, vegetation, wildlife,etc. With this information, the companythen applies to the federal governmentfor a permit to mine. The companymust post a bond for each acre of landit mines to assure that It will be properlyreclaimed.

Most surface mines follow the samebasic steps to produce coal. First,bulldozers clear and level the miningarea. The topsoil is removed and storedfor later use in the reclamation process.Many small holes are driied through theoverburden (dirt and rock above the coalseam) to the coal seam. Each is loadedwith explosives which are discharged.shattering the rock In the overburden.Giant power shovels or draglines clearaway the overburden until the coal Isexposed. Smaller shovels then scoop upthe coal and load It onto trucks, whichcarry the coal to the preparation plant.Once the coal is removed, the land isregraded to the desired contour and thetopsoil Is replaced. Native vegetationand/or trees are planted. Coal compan-ies operating surface mines rnustcomply with strict requirements andregulations of the Federal Strface Min-ing Control and Reclamation Act. Acrucial part of the surface mining pro.cess is restoring a mined slte toacceptable ecological conditions, whichmeans it must bt made as produ %Aveas It was prior to mining. There arefarms, parks. wilderness and recreationareas on what were once surface mines.

The malor stigma with the coal Industrytoday is the abandoned or "orphan"mines of the early coal mining years.

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41


These orphan mines are systematicallybeing reclaimed under the Surface Min-ing Act. The Surface Mining Act taxescoal producers at the rate of 35 cents aton for surface mined coal. 10 cents aton for lignite mined coal, and 15 centsa ton for underground mined coaL Thetax is paid to the government and Isused to reclaim the orphaned mines.

How Is coal used?

Coal has four major markets: electricutilities, industrial/retail users, the steelindustry and exports.

Electric utilities use more than 86percent of the coal produced in theUnited States. Upon close examination.it is clear that price has been a majordeciding factor in coars increased use.More than 57 percent of the electricitygenerated in the United States comesfrom coal.ln an electric power plant, coal, like oiland natural gas, Is burned to.produceheat. The heat is uaed to change waterinto steam. The steam then turns theblades of a turblne, spinning the genera-tor. producing electricity. Before the coalis burned it is crushed and pulverized tothe consistency of face powder.

Coaf s second largest market Li indus-trial and retail users. Among the Indus-tries using coal, the largest consumersare chemical manufacturers, users ofstone, clay and glass, paper mills.primary metal industries and the foodindustry. Industry uses coal as a chemi-cal feedstock to make dyes, insecti-cides, fertilzers, explosives, syntheticfibers, food preservatives, ammonia, syn-thetic rubber, fingernail polish, medFeines. etc.

The third largest market is the iron andsteel Industry, where coal is used tomake coke. Coke Is derived frombituminous coal through heating Inairtight ovens. The lack of air preventsthe coal from burning and convertssome of the solids to gases. leavingcoke.

The fourth segment to market isexports. The top five foreign marketsare Canada. Japan. Italy. Netherlandsand Braa. O.S. coal distributed toforeign countries In 1988 totaled 95million short tons (76 million to over-seas destinations and 19 million toCanada). Major reasons for the decline

in United States' coal exports from theail-time high of 112.5 mIllion tons in1981 axe stiff competition In the interna-tional marketplace and worldwide eco-nomic conditions.

How does burning cosiaffect the environment?

Coal is a chemically complex fuel.Whenever it is burned, gases are givenoff and particles of ash, called 'fly ash."are released. The sulfur In coal com-bines with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide.which can be a major source of airpollution If emitted In large enoughquantities.

Today, many of the effects of coatburning have been reduced significantlyor eliminated. Three basic methods areused to reduce the quantity of pollutantsresulting from coal combustion.

The first, a pre.combuseon method forremoving contaminants from coal. Lscoal cleaning or "coat benefication." Incoal cleaning the coal Is crushed andscreened from impurities. Further pro-cessing utilizes the different gravities ofcoal and impurities to separate them Ina liquid medium. Coal cieaning canremove the pyritic sulfur. which canreduce sulfur content by as much as 30percent.The second, a post-combustion method,uses flue gas desulfurIzatIon systems.commonly called scrubbers. Accordingto the Seethe Power Research institute,scrubbers can remove more than 90percent of the sulfur dioxide emissionsfrom coal combustion. The flue gas issprayed with a slurry made up of waterand an alkaline agentusualty ilme orlimestone. The sulfur dkixide reactschemically, fonning calcium sulfate orcaklum sulfite. This is removed anddisposed of as a wet skidge. There areairrenty 134 scrubbers operated by theelectric utiLiy indusby in the UnitedStates.

The final method for reducing or elirr4nating pollution from coal combustion isthe use of electrostatic prectpitators orbaghouses 'Mitch are used to remove flyash. In electrostatic precipitators theparticulate matter Is given an electricalcharge. The charge attracts it to acollector plate. where the particles wecollected, preventing their dscharge intothe atmosphere. In a baghouse. theparticulate mattes Is fatered out as itpasses through a sertes of filters, similarto a household SIKULIM cleaner.

The two major environmental concernstoday dealing with the use of coal we:lnaeases In atmospherk carbon dioxidelevels and acid rain. Much remains to belearned about the relationship betweenfossil fuels (coal. 01. natural gas) andthe environment. It Ls berieved thatcombustion has parttly contributed tothe Increase in atmospheric carbondioxide levels. Increased atmosphericcarbon dioxide levels may result Inwarmer climates due to the "greenhouseeffect." The increase in atmosphericcarbon dioxide prevents heat fromescaping from the earth, thus warmingthe atmosphere.

The combustion of coal also appears tocontribute to acid raln, although precisemeasures of the scope and seriousn...ss ofacid rain are not clear or well understood.What is clear Is that further study of thephenomenon is necessafy.

There is an interesting riddle to the acidrain phenomenon, and that is that acid raindamage has occurred during periods whensulfur dioxide discharges have declined orremained stable (sulfur dioxide Is consi-dered to be the principal cause of acidrain).

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Oil

What is on?

Oil is naturally occuning and is oftenreferred to as petroleum. Crude oil orcrude is unrefined oil or petroieum.

Oil is a mixture of hydrogen and carboncompounds referred to as hydrocarbons.-.'housands of different hydrocarbonsmake up crude oiL The simplest orbasic hydrocarbon unit (molecule) ismethane or natural gas (C1-14). Hydrocar-bons occur as liquids, gases or assolids like gilsonite. The longer hydro-carbon chains are more lately to beSquids.

It is thought that petroleum originatedfrom tiny marine plants and animals(biotic material) that inhabited the earthin prehistoric times. Through time, thetiny marine plants and animals wereburied by ocean sand and slit. Overtime, the pressure and heat transformedthe biotic material Into petroleum.

As the biotic material changed from asolid to a gas or a liquid, it began tomigrate, being propelled by water orcapillary action through the porousmarine sediments. In some instances,the petroleum migrated to the earth'ssulfate. Petroleum migrates upwarduntil it is trapped by a non-porous rockstructure called a cap. This specificgeologic formation Is referred to as a"trap." it is these subterranean trapsthat are sought by the oil industry.Petroleum,then,is associated with por-ous sedimentary rock layer.; and fossilized marine life.

How is crude on refined?

At a refinery, aude oil is distilled orseparated into its components or frac-tions. Distillation involves boiling thepetroleum, *awing off the vapors, andthen condensing the vapors. The differ.ern hydrocarbon compounds that makeup petroleum vaporize at differenttemperatures: thus when they arecondensed,they separate out into dilTer-ent fractions. Fractions represent thediverse range of products that can beobtained from petroleum.

How is oil located ?

One of the most accurate explorationmethods Is seismic technology. In seis-mic technology, sound waves, createdby explosives detonated either on theearth's surface or underground, are sentinto the earth and are reflected back bythe rock layers. The reflected soundwaves are recorded by seismographs.Seismographs are similar to instru-ments used to measure earthquakes.The reflected sound waves are receivedby geophones, which transmit thesound waves to a seismograph locatedin a truck. The particular rate at whichthe sound waves are reflected create apicture of the underground geology andpossible location of oil traps.

Even after the seismic picture is assimi.lated and analyzed by geophysicists.there is no guarantee of discovering oil.At best, the seismic picture can provideonly a guess to what lies beneath us.

Occasionally, oil companies drill for oilIn areas where oil or natural gas has notbeen discovered. Wells drilled in thisfashion are known as wildcat" wells.

What processes areinvolved in oil drilling?

Before exploration can begkr. energycompanies need to obtain permits anddrilling rights from landowners. Leasesmight be purchased, a a developmentagreement reached, with the landowneroften receMng royalties if oil Isdiscovered.

Before drilling equipment can bebrought on site, preparatory work isrequired, such as road bolding, landclearing or housing development forworkers:

In 1859, Edwin Drake, a retired railroadengineer, tried to drill for oil. He used arig that punched or pounded a hole691/2 feet deep. The pounding pulverizedthe rock and soil, which was removed byflushing the hole with water. Today'sprimary form of drilling is rotary drilling.Dill bits are used to grind or borethrough the rock. As the drill bit Islowered Into the earth. pipe stems are

added to the top. Drinng usually runs24 hours per day until the well iscompleted. The average well today runsa mile deep. On the Overthrust Belt(Utah and Wyoming). it Is common tofind was drilled between 8.000 and15.000 feet deep because of the foldedand faulted rock layers.

An important part of the drilling processIs the "livid," a mixture of water, day.and chemical additives which is pumpedInto the well during drilling. This con-stantly circulating liquid cools the drillbit and carries debris out of the well, ftalso prevents the ddfled area humcollapsing around the drill pipe andserves to control the natural pressureswithin the well

Most onshore rigs are portable andinclude tall derricks that handle thetools and equipment that descend intothe well. Offshore drilling may be donefrom bottom-based platforms, drillships, or submersbie platforms. Each isself-contained with its own set of equip-ment. Workers and suppliers are ferriedby boat or helicopter to the rig.

Gushers whatcaused them?

Alter petroleum is discovered, the under-ground pressure forces it to the surface.The days of the -gushers." when oilwould explode to the surface, are gone.Each well contains blowout preventerswhich automatically shut off the flow ofgas or oil should well pressure change.preventing gushers, protecting the envi-ronment, and preserving the predousfuel.

How I. ontransported to market?

Three-fourths of the domestic crude oiland a third of the refined products in theU.S. are transported by pipeline. Over1.2 trillion miles of pipeline connectprodualon sites with refineries and thepetroleum market

Crude from the Overthrust Belt (Utahand Wyoming) is transported by pipelineto refineries serving the Midwest and

443


OIL AND GAS FIELDSIN ME UNITED STATES FROM THE AMERICAN GAS ASSOCLATION

Western markets. Other major pipelinesrun between Texas and the Northeast-ern U.S.

Probably the most famous pipeline isthe trans Alaska pipeline, which carriescrude from the north slope of Alaska. toValdez in Southern Alaska. The transAlaska pipeline transports 1.9 millionbarrels per day. 25 percent of thenation's oiL

Much of the foreign crude used In theUnited States Is brought to Americanports by tankers. These -super tankers"are over a thousand feet long and havea capacity to transport more than twomillion barrels of crude.

On a regional basis, semitank trucksand raikoad cars haul petroleum pro-ducts to consumers or industries thatdevelop and manufacture petroleum-related products.

Where do we obtain oll?

Oil discoveries In the U.S. since the aembargo in 1973 are numerous. Theyinclude the Overthrust Belt of Utah andWyoming. the Louisiana Trench and itssubsequent development into the Gulfof Mexico; and fields off the Texas andCalifornia coasts, as well as new fields InArctic Alaska.

Oil or natural gas Is produced In 33 of the50 states, with Texas still the teader inproduction. Other top producing statesinclude Alaska. Louisiana, and California.

The largest producers of crude oil and nat-ural gas liquids in 1987 were the U.S.S.R..the United States. and Saudi Arabia.

How is oll used?

Oil has become an Integral part of oursociety. Much of our high standard ofliving can be traced to the use ofpetroleum.

At the turn of the century. It wasrelatively simple to pinpoint the majoruses of petroleum. Grease was themajor lubricant and kerosene the majorilluminant. Coal, eventually to be dis-placed by petroleum, was the majorenergy source for heating.

In the 1900s, America became the landof the horseless carnage The advent ofthe internai combustion engine to propelthe automobiie provided a use for whathad been a waste product A therefinerygasoline. Gasoline quicklybecame an important product of petro-leum as automakers adapted engines toutiltre thls practical fuel.Today, about 6,000 products are pro-duced, wholly or In part, from petro-leum. Among the products derived frompetroleum are gasoline. aviation gaso-line, jet fuels (highly-refined kerosene),kerosene (now used mostly for cooking,space heaters and farm equipment),diesel fuels (for heavy equipment), fueloils (for residential and commercialheating, manufacturing processes, andindustrial steam and electrical genera-

tion), petroleum coke (almost purecarbon which burns with little or noaSh). and liquefied petroleum gas (prkn-anly propanes and butanes obtainedfrom refined natural gas). Other pro-ducts Include lubricating oils. greases,waxes, asphalt. nylon stockings, pies-tks. fertilizers, shoe polish, washingpowders. medicines, photographic fikrt,pesticides. Insecticides, and waxedPa Per-

What environmentalsafeguards exist?

The ofi industry Is regulated by majorfederal laws including the Federal WaterPollution Control Act, the Clean Air Act,the National Environmental Policy Act,and the Federal Land Management andPolicy Act. These laws govern theamount of emissions that can enter theatmosphere from refineries, the% amountof poliutants that can be discharged intowaters, roadbuliding, and land restora-tion after drilling.

Energy companies have been very dili-gent in making certain they leave aquality environment. But accidents dooccur. The 1969 Santa Barbara on spill,the 1981 Mexico oil spill In the Gulf ofMexico. and the 1989 oil spill nearValdez. Alaska provide examples of thedamage that can occur to theenvironment.

Less obsious environmental damageresults from burning petroleum andnatural gas.

Automobiles, the primary petroleumconsumer In the country, emit carbonmonoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur andnitrogen oxides into the atmospherefrom the combustion of petroleum.Industry and homes also emit sulfurwhen fuel oils are combusted.

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44

Natural Gas


Introduction

Of the energy sources available, Ameri-cans reiy on natural gas to supply about26 percent of their energy needs. Thlsranks natural gas second in use only tooV which supplies about 43 percent ofAmerica's energy needs. Natural gasprovides about 42 percent of our indus-trial needs. Nearly six out of every 10homes is heated with natural gas and Inmost cases, is used for cooking, dyingclothes, and healing water. Businessesma industries use natural gas in manyways. from cooking la restaurants tofueUng high temperature blast furnacesfor the manufacturing of steel. In fact,natural gas affects everything we do anduse.

What is natural gas?

Natural gas has been defined as natu-rally occurring hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon gases found In the porousgeological formations beneath theearth's surface. It Is made up of about90 percent methane, with smallamounts of ethane. propane, butane,carbon dioxide and nitrogen.

What are the originsof natural gas?

Conventionally, It has been acceptedthat natural gas Is a byproduct of thebreakdown of marine organisms and/orterrestrlal plant debris which accumu-lated In vast deposits on the bottoms ofancient lakes, rivers and seas. Overtime, the deposits were buried by layersof sediment consisting of mud, sandand rock With each additional layer ofsediment the pressure on the organicdeposits Increased. As pressure andhcat from the buildup of sedimentsincreased, chemical changes in theorganic deposits took place and acomplex, tarlike substance called kero-gen was formed. As temperatures con.tinued to increase and the kerogencontinued 'cooking." more complex

compounds of carbon and hydrogenknown as oil were formed. Natural gasis generated at the same time as is oil:however, peak generation occurs whenoil begins to break down because ofhigh geothermal temperatures. e.g.greater than 205"C (400'F). This rangeof petroleum (oil and natural gas)generation is called the petroleumwindow.

As natural gas molecules form, theymigrate out of the shaiey "source rock"into more porous areas such as sandstone. From there, they eventually maketheir way to either the earth's surfacewhere they escape into the atmosphere,or they ere trapped when their migrationpath is biocked. In the latter case,impermeable rock layers prevent themolecules from migrating farther and anatural gas accumulation occurs.

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In contrast to the biological explanationof the origin of natural gas, the 'deepgas theory" speculates that natural gasIs derived from non.biologkal materialsthat forrned the earth billions of yearsago. The brainchild behind the deep gastheory is an American named ThomasGold of Comell University. In 1979.Gold published the first papers tocontend that, "on earth, as on otherplanets, most hydrocarbons wenformed from non-biological sources."The theory proposes that the earth Ismade up of primordial materials thatcombined together In space billions ofyears ago 'Oren the basic structure ofthe earth evolved. The materials mebelieved to still be buried far below the

earth's crust, where they have beentrapped for 4.5 binion years. Cracks andfissures in the earth's crust allow thegases to migrate into reservoirs and tothe surface. In this manner, ft Is believedthat the supply of hydrocarbons pro.diced from the primordial material wereinstrumental in the creation of theearth's atmosphere.

The deep gas theory further proposesthat oil molecules are capable of sunitv-Mg greater temperatures and pressuresfound tens of miles beneath the earth'ssurface, and that many of the hydrocar.bons that migrate up to the two-to-three-mlle depths do In fact break up intomethane gas. This would explain thepresence of both oil and gas found attwo-to-threemile depths and furthertheorizes that a much greater supply ofoil is present in "deep welts" whichrange in depth from 50,000 to 60,000ftet and more.

Much of the deep gas theory evolved outof our growing understanding of how theuniverse and planets are formed. andfrom information supplied by the 4 aceprogram. For example, when it waleamed that many planets containeohydrocarbons in their atmosphere, withlittle li<elihood of ever supporting plantor animal life, the deep gas theorybecame more credible.

How is natural gas located?

For thousands of years. humans haveknown of the existence of natural gasand have been able to find it easily insmall quantities near the surface of theearth. But as the reedits, available supp-lies became scarce. man was forced tosearch deeper into the earth. By analyz-Mg what was already known about thelocation and geological formations inwhich deposits were found, it wasdetermined that natural gas would mostlikely be found In areas containingsource rock. "porous" resemoir rockand favorable trapping mec:hanismssuch as "migratkm blocks." Based onthis knowledge, new methods evolvedthat would help locate other areas mostlikely to contain accumulations. At first.fairly simple surface methods includinggeologic mapping. surveys and aerialphotographs where used. But over time

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45


more sophisticated methods were developed. Some of the methods used todayinclude (1) magnetic measurement ameasure of the magnetic field of base rockto determine how much sediment Is lyingabove it; (2) satellite Imagery, which helpsIdentify surface structures and patternsthat aid in the search for probableunderlying hydrocarbon deposits;(3) gravity rnapping, which determinesthickness of the basin orsedimentary rock layer and helps identifybase rock topography; and (4) seamicsound wave reflection, which measwesthe time to various rock units thatreflect acoustic energy. These reflectionsare plotted in terms of time andamplitude creating a 'slice of the earth"view.

Once a trap with economic potential isidentified, a dr% site Is selected. A drillrig Is contracted to bore through thelayers of rock to the desired level, or"target horizon." The rig uses an engineto turn a table. which turns a pipe thathas a drill bit attached on the end. Witheach rotation of the table, the bit at theend of the pipe digs deeper into theground. During the process, which gen-erally takes a few weeks, &filing mud(bentonite clay with barite added forweight) is circulated through the drillpipe and well bore. The mud cools andlubricates the bit. It also cleans the holeof cuttings and leaves a thin cakearound the well bore to prevent cavingof rock fragments and loss of water tothe formation. The mud is 'weighted" toexceed any expected subsurface pres-sure. Should a reservoir of natural gas.oil or water that contains higher thanexpected pressures be encountered.more dense mud Is Immediately added.If this cannot be done In time, then thewell is "shut in" using the surfaceblowout prevention system. TNs systemis a series of valves that allows thedriller several options to close off thewell depending upon just how deep thehigh pressure zone was encountered.The drilling mud is then weighted andcirculated through the drill pipe and wellbore until the natural gas. oil or water-cut mud Is removed and the pressurezone is under control. If the targethorizon contains commercial quantitiesof hydrocarbons (oil and/or natural gas),the well is completed for production. Ifthere is no discovery, the well Is pluggedand abandoned and the site restored tonatural conditions. About one out ofeight "wildcats" (wells in unprovedareas) resuit in a significant discovery.

How is natural gasprocessed and distributed?

Once natural gas has been found, it isnecessary to process it and distribute itto users. Hundreds of years ago theChinese used bamboo to pipe naturalgas directly from their wells to theircooking pots. And In the eary 1820sWilliam Hart, the first person to developa practical use for natural gas inAmerica, used hollow logs to bringnatural gas from shallow wells to streetlamps and small nearby businesses. Butas Hart and others continued to pioneerthe uses for natural gas. ft was foundthat higher quality natural gas and morefunctional and durable distribution net-works were needed. As a result. hollowlogs soon gave way to steel and castiron pipes. Today. natwal gas reprocess .ing plants are used to turn hundreds ofthousands of cubic feet of unrefinedwellhead natural gas Into commercial.high quality natural gas.

Before natural gas is distn'buted. it mustfirst be sent to a processing or "strip-ping" plant where It is cleaned andseparated. At the processing plant, thenatural gas Is first sent through aseparator where secondary byproductsincluding as. impurities and heavierhydrocarbons such as butane. ethaneand propane are removed. Most of thesebyproducts are reprocessed, packagedand sent to market for a variety ofdifferent uses.

As natural gas leaves the processingplant It enters a compressor stationwhere It is pressurized for transmission.As the pressure is increased, thevolume of nature gas Is reduced andmore natural gas can be filled Into thesame unit space, and the pressureneeded to move natural gas through thepipelines is achieved. As natural gasflows through the pipeline, some pres-sure is lost due to fluid friction causedby the natural gas rubbing against theInside walls of the pipe. This toss ofpressure Is made up at compressorsub-stations located about every 50-to-100 miles along the transmission pipe-Ines. Along the pipelines are valvesused to control pressure and cut off flowIn an emergency such as a break in theIns or a Ilre.

During the summer months vthen peakdemands are much lower, natural gascan be stored in empty wells, under-ground caverns. and in liquified form instorage tanks.

How safe is natural gas?

There are a number of properties ofnatural gas which make this energyform extremely safe. First, unlike otherhydrocarbon fuels, natural gas is lighterthan air. This permits It to dissipate intothe air if a leak occurs. Other hydrocar-bons like propane. ethane and butaneare heavier than air and will "puddle" Vleaks occur.

Secondy, natural gas has a highercombustion temperature than otherfuels. Natural gas ignites at 649"C(1,200°F) compared to as low as 371°C(700'F) for some other fuels.A third Inherent property of natural gasthat helps provide a safety barrier is theflammabirrty range previously mentioned.If the exact requirement for mixingnatural gas and oxygen are not met,combustion cannot occur.

Although natural gas is safe whenproperty used. It exhibits certain charac-teristics that make it potentially danger-ous. First, if natural gas and the mixtureof oxygen are not properly balancedwhen lit, incomplete combustion miloccur and carbon monoxide mil beproduced. Second. If a teak occurs andsupplants all the available oxygen.asphyxiation may occur.

Because of the potential hazards. It INimportant that cae user know how tosafely use natural gas and care fornatural gas appliances. One of the firststeps to prevent accidents from occur-ring Is to ensure that natural gasappliances and equipment have beenproperly instalted, ac4usted, vented andinspected. Other safety precautions thatshould also be taken Include thefollowing:

1. Follow manufacturer's instructionsfor the Installation, operation andmaintenance of gas equipment andappliances.

2. Keep flammable materials (paints,solvents, cloth, paper) away fromappliances.

3. Provide proper ventilation In areasaround furnaces, water heaters, dry-ers. ranges. etc. Many new applian-ees use an eiectronic ignition Insteadof a pliot light.

4. Perform or have performed routinemaintenance on appliances to keepthem clean and in proper workingorder.

5. If the flame goes out, turn the gasoff, ventilate the area and notify thenatural gas company.

46


6. Teach children how to use appliancessafely and to recognize the smell Ofnatural gas.

7. When lighting a flame, always strikethe match first then turn on thenatural gas.

8. Keep fire extinguishers In the vicinityof appliances with open flames.

If a natural gas leak is detected, the follow-ing safety precautlons should be takenimmediately.

1. Open windows and doors to ventilatethe area.

2. Get everybody outside then call thenatural gas comport, or other autho-rized personnel for assistance. (Thetelephone call should bt made fromoutside the home. A spark from anelectric switch or telephone couldignite the natural gas.)

3. Avoid flames and don't turn on or offelectrical equipment or appliances.Never look for a natural gas leak witha lighted flame or match.

4. Your natural gas can be turned off atthe valve next to the natural gasmeter. A quarter turn of the valve ineither direction will shut the naturalgas off; the raised part of the valvewill then be crosswise to the pipe.

5. If there is only a faint odor, itprobably means a pilot light Is outon an appliance. Check the pilotlights on all appiances. To relightthe pilot ltght, follow the Instructionsin the owner's manual. If you stillcan't find the source or are unsure ofhow to rellght the pilot light, call thelocal natural gas company.

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447

11111.


Nuclear Energy

What is nuclear energy?

Nuclear energy is derived from atoms.Atoms are particles that make upmatter and are composed of neutrons,protons and electrons. The neutronsand protons are clumped together toform the center or nucleus of the atom.while the electrons orbit the nucleus.

Nudear energy Is the energy inside thenucleus of the atom which binds thenucleus together. A change in thenuclear composition of the atom resultsin a release of energy.

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How is nudear energyreleased from an atom?

Nuclear energy Is released from an atomthrough nuclear fission or nuclearfusion. In the fission process, com-monly used in today's nuciear reactors.a nucleus of a target material such asuranium-235 Is bombarded by a neutronwhich is absorbed. The absorbed neu-tron causes the atom's nucleus to splitapart or "fission" Into two atoms oflighter weight, releasing energy. newtrons and radioactivity. Fission, then Isthe splitting of atoms. Fission reactionsproduce enormous amounts of heatwhich turns water Into steam for gener-ating electricity. The heat Is producedfrom the colision of fissioned particleswith other atoms.

In the second process of releasingenergy from the atom, the nuclei ofatoms are)olned through 'fusion,"resulting in the creation of a thirdelement, a free neutron, and nucleus.Heat Is ptbduced when the free neutroncollides with other atoms. The sun andstars get their energy from the fusion of

hydrogen to produce heEum. Scientistshave been attempting to imitate thisprocess for many years. but it requiresextremely high temperatures. Althoughsdentists have been unable to develop acontainer capable of holding suchediemely hot material, one of the morepromising efforts involves containing thematerial within a magnetic field. while itis being heated to the required temperalure. The United States anticipates theeventual construction of fusion powerplants.

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What is a chain reaction?

When an atom undergoes fission, heat.neutrons and two lighter atoms teeproduced. The released neutrons ereabsorbed by new atoms causing themto fission, releasing more heat arid moreneutrons. Repeating this process overand over is a chain reaction.

Why do we use uranium?

Uranium, which is naturally radioactive,occurs In nature as either uranlum-235or uranium-238. (The number refets tothe element's atoll* mass or thenumber of protons plus neutrons In thenucleus.) Less than 1% of naturallyocculting uranium Is uranium-235, withmore than 99% being urankun-238. It Isuranium-235 which fissions, releasingenergy. Uranium-238, on the other

FREENEUTRON

How is fissionaccomplished in anuclear reactor?

Nuclear reactors are composed of threeprincipal parts: reactor vessel, coreand control rods. The reactor vessel, atank-like container weighing more than500 tons with steel wails, six to nineinches thick, Is located at the base ofthe reactor buil:Eng. The core, located atthe bottom of the reactor vessel, holdsthe fuel assemblies. Control rods areinsetted into the core to regulate therate of fission. The control rods are ableto do this because of their cadmium orboron composition (materials thatabsorb neutrons). The absorption ofneutrons controls the rate of fission. Toclow the reaction, the control rods areinserted farther into the core. Ttisdecreases the number of neutrons thatcollide with uranium atoms, thus slow-

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Ing the reaction. The actual operation ofthe core Involves the consumptbn ofuranlum-235, the subsequent creationof fission by-products and the produebon of plutonium. Energy released byfission is transferred to water. turning itto steam. From this point on, nuclearpower plants operate just lire fossil-fueled power plants.

REACTOR VESSEL

What is spent fuel?

When the fuel assemblies can no longerefficiently sustain a fIssbn reaction(approximately three years). they areremoved from the core. The 'spent fuel"as it Is called, contains unused nuclearfuel and radioactive nuclear waste. Thespent fuel Is stored in pools of water atthe nuclear power plant, until it can bereprocessed Or disposed of. Water isused to cool the fuel and absorbradiation.

How do you isolate andstore radloadive wastefrom land, water and air?

Several methods are being developed toIsolate and safely store radioactivenuclear waste. One method proposedinciudes reprocessing the spent fuel.The used fuel would be transported toreprocessing plants where the stillunused nuclear fuel would be separatedfrom the radbactive material that needsto be safely stored.

The kw-level or high-level material can befused Into a glass or ceramic solid. whichIs Impervious to air and water, and buriedin deep, stable, underground geologic for-mations. These storage areas would beconstantly monitored.

In the future, radioactive wastes will bestored In federal repositories.

What is radiation?

Radiation is a naturally occurringphenomenon which is the result of animbalance In the number of neutronsand protons In the nucleus of the atom.The imbalance results in an unstableatom, which emits energy or radiation.Three forms of radiation are: alphaparticies, which can be stopped by asingie sheet of papen beta particles.which are stopped by a thin sheet ofaluminum: and gamma rays, which arestopped by several Inches of lead orabout three feet of concrete. The inten-sity of the natation depends on thespeed at which the particle or raytravels. Thus, gamma rays are moreradioactive than alpha particles as theytravel at a greater speed.

What safety precautionsare taken at nuclearpower plants?

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission(NRC) Is responsible for the regulationof nuclear power plants In the U.S. TheNRC goes to great lengths to preventnuclear accidents. The NRC requiresnuclear plant operators to undergo threeor more years of extensive training andexamination. The NRC also administersstrict construction. maintenance andsafety regulations.

Nuclear power plants are monitored forradiation and are designed with safetysystems which lake control" In event ofan accident. Other safety features ofnuclear plants are: cooling systemswhich pump water into th e. core to keepit cook the containment building, a largedome-shaped thick-walled steel and con-crete building which can prevent theescape of radiation should a problemdevelop; and an automatic procedurewhich inserts the control rods into thecore to stop the chain readlon.

Because of the dilute quantities ofuranium-235 used in commercialnuclear reactors, nuclear explosions areimpossible. It requires at least 90%uranium-235 or plutonlurn-239 to p.mduce a nuclear explosion similar to thatof nuclear weapons.

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Renewable Energy Sources

Introduction

Energy is essential in our society. Energylights arid heats our homes, offices andfactories. It powers the machines ofindusby and transportation. The clo-thing we wear, the food we eat, thebuildings In which we Ilve and work, andeven the systems we use tocommunicateal depend on energy.

For generations. our society has beenenjoying the benefits of plentiful. Inex-pensive. and easily available energyfossil fuels. But these fuels, such ascoal, oil and natural gas, are finite. Assupplies have become scarce andexpensive to extract, the search hasIntensified for alternative energysourcessources of energy other thanfossil fuels.

How is the sunan energy source?

The most obvious and virtually limitlessenerw source is the natural fusionreactor which the earth revolves aroundin spacethe sun. In terms of human-kind's resIdenze on earth, the sun is anobject that will last forever, continuouslyradiating energy that makes life on ourplanet possible. Although the earthintercepts only a small fraction of thetotal energy emitted by the sun, theamount received is thousands of timesthe present enerw requirement of theworld's human populetion.

The surface of the sun, which radiatesenergy in the form of heat and Ight, Iscalled the photosphere- The sun's inte-rim Is composed et dean pass (7014hydnigen sod 711% hallam) and hightemperabots (27 Wien eerses rednottsR/15 dooms Ceiba). Theneed end light enemy Is pesducedthrough a thermonuciear reection(fusion) In which hydrogen Moms arefused together to form helium.

Of the sun's energr that reaches theearth's atmosphere. 30 percent Isreflected beck Into outer space. 47percent is absorbed by the earth'sIntim' end convened Ws haat snow

23 percent drives the hydrological(water) cycle, less than one percentcreates winds and ocean currents, andorgy 0.03 percent Is captured by plantsand used in photosynthesis. The 0.03percent of the sun's energy captured byplants provides all the world's foodenergy and produced the stored fossilfuel energy (coal, ofi. natural gas). Thus.the sun is the primary source of allenergy on earth.

The sun's position in the sky has amake effect on the soiar energy receivedby the earth. In order to collect and usesolar energy efficiently, one must beknowledgeable of the sun's movements.both daly and seasonally.

What is solar radiation?

Solar radiation is a form of electromag-netic radiation, just as x-rays. lightwaves, microwaves, television waves andradio waves. However, solar radiationaffers from heat flow radiation. Thisdifference is Important to solar enerwtechnologies.

First, coior is an important factor insolar radiation, but is not In radiationheat flow. Black or dark-colored objectsabsorb solar radiation and becomehotter, while white or light-coloredobjects reflect solar radiation. Cokr hasno effect on radiation heat flow. Light-and dark-coiored objects will absorb thesame amount of heat energy fromradiation heat flow.

The second most Important difference Isthat solar radiation passes throughtransparent materials (dass. plastics).whereas radiation heat firm cannotThus, transparent materials trap heatellefff.

How I. the sun'senergy harnessed?

Three primary processes exist by whichsobr energy can be put to practical use:photochemkal, photoelectrical, and pho-bothermaL The photochemical process.

cated photosynthesis, uses solarenergy to unite carbon dioxkle, water.and nutrients from the soli to createcarbohydrates (chemical potentialenergy) and moven. The coal, oil andnatural gas we use today probablyresulted from photosynthesis that tookplace eons ago.

In the photothermal process, lightenergy (shortwave radiation) is trans-formed into heat energy (iongwave radia-tion). As light energy strices an object.It Is either absorbed, reflected or trans-formed into heat energy. The heatenergy Is then either radiated away fromthe object. canied off by alr or water(convection) or conducted to surround-ing objects.

Photothermal technologies-inciudc pas-sive and active solar energy systems,power towers and Ocean ThermalEnergy Conversion (OTEC) systems.

The photoelectrical process convertslight energy into electrical energy. Itinvolves the use of photons (lightenergy) to excite the outer (valence)electrons of atoms, causing the elec-trons to move, producing an electricalcurrent. Photoeiectric technologiesinclude photovoltaks.

What is wood energy?

Chemical potential energy Ls producedby plants through photosynthesis and isstored as biomass. The chemical poten-tial energy of biomass Is released whenthe plants decay or are bumed.

Wood is one of the most abundant enduseful fon-ns of biomass on this planet.Trees are a renewabie resource whichtoday cover over 30 percent of theearth's land surface. If 100 million acresof this could be used to produce woodfuel. the United States could reduce itsoil consumption by 15 percent, anequivaient of 900 million barrels of oll.Even though trees take 50 to 100 yearsto reach maturity, we can use thisvaluable resource forever If we grow andharvest trees with care and planning. Inour grandparents day, wood played amafor role as a fuel resource, account-Ing for 90 percent of the United States'enerw supply. In terms of fuel usetoday, wood accounts for less than five

50t.)


percent of the United States' energyconsumption.The most ambitious plan for the use ofwood fuel is the "energy plantation."These are large tracts of land devoted tothe productico of trees for use In nearbyelectrical generating plants. It is estimated that a 1,000 megawatt plantwould require between 200 and 600square miles of woodland in order tohave a sifficient supply of wood fuel.However, there are problems with large-scale use of wood. Uriess the harvest-ing of trees Is done carefully aidproperly. the soil can become seriouslydepleted of nutrients and eroded. Also,there are simply too many of us and wewant far more energy than our parentsor grandparents did; so wood cannotfully satisfy our energy needs. There arealso air pollution problems with burningwood in heavily populated areas.

What are biofueis?

Biofuels are derived from plants, whichcapture the sun's energy aid convert itto biomass (chemical potential energy)through photosynthesis. Ellofuels aredistinguished from fossil fuels, which arealso of biological origin. but are non-renewable. Biomass. in the process ofbeing eaten, burned or decayed,transfers its energy to the rest of thelying world. There are many proposalsfor biomass energy plantations. Oneidea calls for the growing of sea kelp inoffshore waters of California and Peru toproduce 1.8 billion tons of dry marinealgae per year. This biomass would thenbe converted to methane, which couldmeet 17 percent of the current UnitedStates' natural gas demands. Somefarmers are already growing crops toconvert into ethanol, which when com-bined with gasoline makes gasohol.Gasohol is a mixture of 10 percentethanol and 90 percent gasoline. Gaso-hol is one way of stretching fossi fueJsupplies.

The advantages of blofuels over otherfuel sourci.s are; domestic productloewould have a favorable economicimpact, a favorable impact on theenvironment (biomass Is low in pollut-ing sulfur), and the energy produced isrenewable. There are, however, problemswith the energy plantation concept largeland areas would be converted to singlecrop stands which are susceptible todisease and pest outbreaks; by centraliz-ing energy production, the energy planta.

tion requires elaborate electricitytransmission grids.

How is refuse anenergy source?

One type of biomass that has potentialas an energy source Is organic waste orrefuse (garbage). Although still considered a problem rather than a resource.there is little doubt that refuse will beused more and more as raw materialsfor conversion and recycling. Refuse canalso be converted to other useful formsby composting (decaying organic mate-rials in carefully constructed pies toproduce a soli conditioner and fertilizer)or anaerobic digestion (decaying organicmaterial in airtight containers to producemethane, liquid fertilizer, or distilled toproduce ethanol). However, we mustremember that it takes energy to pro-duce the Items that become our refuse.Conservation using less paper, plas-tics, fabrics, aluminum, etc. savesmore energy than conversion andrecycling.

How Is wind anenergy source?

Wald is a form of kinetic energy createdin part by the sun. About two percent ofthe sun's energy that reaches the earthIs converted to wind energy. The atmos-phere is heated during the day by thesun and at night it cools by losing itsheat to space. Wind is the reaction ofthe atmosphere to the heating andcooling cycles, as well as the rotation ofthe earth. Heat causes low pressureareas, and the cool of the night resultsin high pressure areas. This processcreates wind when air flows from highpressure areas Into low pressure areas.Wind energy has been used forhundreds of years. The windmills ofEurope and Asia converted the kineticenergy of the wind into mechanicalenergy, turning wheels to grind grain.Today wind-ckiven generators are usedto convert the kinetic energy of windinto electrical energy. Wind-driven sys.tems consist of a tower to support thewind generator. devices regulating 'Jena,

ator voltage, propeller and hub system.tail vane, a storage system to storeelectricity for use during windless days,and a converter which converts thestored direct current (DC) into alternat-ing current (AC).

In the year 2000. wind could generatefrom seven to 10 percent of the totalelectricity produced In the Unked States.Farms In rural areas across the nationalready find wind generators a viableenergy supplement However, the costof a wind system that provides energy atour present rate of consumption isexpensive for a single family. The mostambitious proposals to harness windpower involve the construction of wind"farms" where hundreds of wind tur-bines will produce electricity.The main problem with wind energy isthat it is not constant or predictable, ithas a load factor of only 25 percent andis only 35 percent efficient. Many areasdo not have enough wind to makegeneration feasible, while some loca-tions are susceptible to gates whichwould destroy or damage the system.Icing can also be a problem in coolerclimates. Wind systems also take uplarge areas and can be quite noisy. Ifthese problems can be overcome, windenergy could be an optimum energyalternative, due to the fact that k isrenewable and environmentally safe.

What is hydropower?

Hydropower is a form of solar energy.The sun's energy drives the hydrologiccycle by evaporating water from lakesand oceans and by heating air. The hotair then rises over the water carryingmoisture to the land. The cycle con-tinues when the water falls as precipita-tion and flows back to lakes andoceans.The potential energy of water located atdevations above sea level is one of the"purest" forms of energy available. Itcan provide energy without producingpollution. It is relatively easy to controland can be converted to electricity withan efficiency of 75-85 percent. As aresult, large and small rivers around theworld With the appropriate topographyhave been dammed and waterwheelsaid water turbines Installed to capturethe kinetic energy of the feting orflowing water.

Hydroelectric installations require theconstnrction of dams to increase thereliability of the energy amiable from a

51


stream. The darn also regulates the flowof water and creates water pressure atthe bottom of the dam. The waterpressure is proportional to the depth ofthe reservoir created by the dam. Thegreater the water pressure, the greaterthe power.

Water from the reservoir flows throughthe darn in pipes called penstocks tothe powerhouse. in the powerhouse thewater preSsure is applied to a turbinewhich spins a generator to produceelectricity. After the water has movedthrough the turbine. it Is released intothe river below the dam.

Hydroelectric power is cost-effective andproven. However, there are drawbacks.The damming of a dyer or stream has acritical and sometimes Irrever-Obleimpact on the long-term ecologia9balance of that river or stream. Damsalso encourage an accumulation of siltand can be a hazard in earthquakezones. However, dams create a betterenvironment for some animals andplants, provide new recreational areas.and can control natural disasters suchas floods and erosion.

How are ocean tidesan energy source?

The potential energy of graveycausedby the relationship between the earth.moon, and sunand the kinetic cnergyof the earth's rotation create tides andthe kinetic energy associated with theirrising and falling. The key to theusefulness of tidal energy Is the heightdifference between high and low tide.

In cyder to obtain energy from tides adam must be constructed across acoastal inlet. The dam allows water toflow Inwards at high tide- trapping thewater. At low tide tile water is allowed toflow back through the dam In a pen-stock The flowing water turns a turbineand generator, producing electricity.

There are only a few locations in theUnited States that would be suitable fortidal energy development. In addition tothe environmental concerns, there aretechnical and economic problems thatwill have to be worked out before tidalenergy is feasible.

How are ocean wavesan energy source?

The idnetk energy of waves is derivedfrom the interactions of winds andocean currents. Methods for harnessingthe kinetic energy of waves are new anduntested. Several different devices havebeen successful on a small-scale opera-tion. All of them operated by using thenatural up-and-down motion of waves.For example, the Madsuda buoy con-sists of an upturned canister with twoholes in the top portion of the containerfloating in the water. As the waves riseand fall inside It, air Is forced in and outby air pressure. The stream of air drivesan alr turbine. which. in turn. drives agenerator produckig electricity.Waves, like wind, we unpredictable.Also, the environmental Impact of anyproposal would have to be carefulbrstudied. Presently. wave energy is noteconomically feasible.

What is geothernial energy?

Geothermal energy, heat from within theearth, Is the result of radioactive decay,chemical reactions, friction from themovement of crustal plates, and heatpresent from the earth's formation.

There are three basic forms of geothermal energy: hydrothermal, geopressur-ized. and hot dry rock Hydrothermalsystems are composed of hot water andsteam trapped in porous or frachrredrock near the earth's surface. Geopres-surized reservoirs contain a mixture ofhot water and methane gas trapped insedimentary rock far beneath the earth'ssurface. Hot dry rock ormations containabnormally hot rock and littie water.

Most of the recoverable United Statesgeothermal reserves are booted withinthe Western states: Paaska. Caiifornia.Idaho, Montana, Neveda, New Mexico,Oregon. Utah. and Washington.

AV geothermal energy sources can beused in industrial processes and spaceheating. but only hydrothermal resour-ces can be used in electrical generation.Hydrothermal resources use steam(erectly to turn a turbine arid generatorto produce electricity. In the process.steam Is converted to water in acondenser and returned to the earth.

Direct application of geothermal energyto heat buildings can be found inReykjavik. Iceland: Klamath Falls.Oregom and Boise. Idaho. Electricity isproduced by geothermal energy in onlytwo locations ki the United States:Pacific Gas and Electric Company's fieldat the Geysers In California. and UtahPower and Light Company's field nearMilford. Utah.

Environmental and maintenance prob-lems adse when the hot geothermalwater, saturated with soluble minerals,cools and deposits the minerals In pipesand equipment. Geothermal energy,because of Its localization. cannotsatisfy the United States' overall energyneeds.

Notes:

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Electricity

Introduction

Electricity is a secondary energy source,that is. It Is generated from the conver-sion of a primary energy sourcesolar.oil. coal, natural gas, or nuclear. Electric-ity is unique, as it is energy In transit,kinetic energy. obtained when electriccharges are set in motion by anelectromotive force.

But to most people. electricity Is thecause of lightning. or the form of energythat powers their television set andlights their home. They have a limitedunderstanding of the scientific principlesand technologies required to generate.transmit, use, and manage electricity.

What I. the atomicstructure of matter?

Since the time of the ancient Greeks.matter has been thought to be made upof atoms ("atom" Is the Greek word for"indivisible"), though the Greek ideasabout the nature of these 'Indivisible"particles were rather vague. Ttrough thework of Niels Bohr. Lord Rutherford andothers It was revealed that atomsactually have a complex stricture.

A CARBON ATOM

PROTONS

NEUTRONS

NUCLEUS

0 0

According to Bohr's theory, an 3tomconsists of a positively charged nucleus.surrounded by negatively charged particies, called electrons. The nucleus of anatom consists of two fundamental parti-cles: protons and neutrons. The plotoncarries a positive charge while theneutron has no charge.

The positive charge of a proton is equalto the negative charge of an electron.Since atOms ordinarily are electricallyneutral, the number of positive chargesequals the number of negative charges

that is. the number of protons In thenucleus is equal to the number ofelectrons surrounding the nucleus.

EL ECTRONS

What are ionsand ionization?

An Ion is an atom that has becomeelectrically unbalanced by the toss orgain of one or more electrons. When anatom loses an electron. Its remainingelectrons no longer balance the positivecharge of the nucleus, and the atomacquires a positive charge. This atom iscaned a cation. Similarly, when an atomgains an electron. It acquires a negativecharge and is called an anion. Theprocess of producing tons Is calledionization.

Ionization does not alter the chemicalproperties of an atom, but it doesproduce an electrical charge. Ionization

NEGATIVE ON(N1ON)

can be brought about by the colision ofelectrons or by exposure to radiation.This is because the electrons In theoutermost shell of an atom are heldrather loosely and, hence, can be dis-lodged easily.

What are free electrons,conductors and insulators?

Electrons that have been "knocked" outof the outer shell of an atom are knownas "free" electrons. These free electronscan exist by themselves outside of theatom, and it Is these electrons which areresponsible for most electrical pheno-mena. The movement of free electronsconstitutes an electric current.All substances normally contain freeelectrons that are capable of movingfrom atom to atom. Metallic materials.such as silver, copper, or aluminum,contain numerous free electrons capableof carrying an electric current and arecalled conductors. Non-metallic matedais, which contain few free electrons,are called insulators. Materials that havean intermediate number of free electmnsavailable are classed as semiconductors.The more free electrons a materialcontains, the better it will conductelectricity.

CARBON IONS

0

PosrrrvE ON(CATON)

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What is electric current?

The free electrons in a conductor areordinarily In a state of chaotic motion.However, when an electromotive force(or voltage) is applied. such as thatprovided by a battery or electric powerplant generator, the free electrons in theconductor are gukled in an orderlyfashion, atom to atom. This orderlymotion of free electrons under theinfluence of an electromotive force iscalled an electric current. Althoughelectrons drift through the wire at arelatively slow speed. the disturbance orimpulse Is transmitted almost at thespeed of light. The electron currentcontinues to flow through the conductoras long as the electromotive force isapplied. The conductor itself remainselectrically neutral, since electrons areneither gained nor lost by the atomswithin the conductor. What happens Iselectrons enter the conductor from oneend and an equal number of electronsare given up by the other end of theconductor. Thus, the free electronspresent wkhin the conductor act simplyas current carriers.

Electric current is the transport ofelectric charge (electrons). Electric cur-rent is measured in amperes and is theamount of electrons passing a givenpoint in one second. An ampere is equalto about 625 x 1011 electrons persecond.

Voltage on the other hand Is a measureof potential difference, the electromotiveforce necessary to move electronsthrough conductors. The amotunt ofelectric current moved through a con-ductor by the voltage Is influenced bythe conductor's resistance-

i...:ectOc power, the rate at which work isperform I .i m.oving electrons (electriccurrent), Is measured in watts and isdetermined by multiplying the current bythe voltage:

1 watt = 1 amp x 1 %olt

Because of the relationship betweenelectric current and voltage to performwork, the same amount of work can beperformed with either a high current andlow voltage or a low current and highvoltage.

What is resistance?

The opposition to the flow of freeelectrons In a material Is called resist-ance. The resistance of material dissi-pates energy In the form of heat.because of friction between the freeelectrons and atoms of the material. Asthe material is heated, more collsIonsoccur and the resistance to the flow ofelectric current increases.

The resistance of electrical conductorsdepends on their dimension and on theircomposition. As the cross-sectional areaincreases, the resistance decreases: butas the length increases, the resistancerises. A long, thin conductor, therefore.has more resistance than a short, thickone with the same voiume of material.Silver has less resistance than copper,whereas aiuminum and Iron have more.

Although the same vokage may beapplied to a light bulb and an electriciron, the actual current flow Is differentin each, because each has a (Efferentresistance. So not only does the voltagedetermine how much current flowsthrough an electrical appliance but alsothe resistance of the appliance. Therelationship between resistance (R). vol-tage (V), and current (i) then, can beexpressed by the mathematical formula:I = V/R. The unit of measure forresistance Is the Ohm, which is namedafter George Ohm who was the firstperson to specify the relationshipbetween resistance. voltage. and cur-rent. It Is this resistant property ofconductors which Is used to producelight or heat from electricity.

What is static electricity?

When certain materials are rubbedtogether, free electrons are transferredby friction from one to the other, andboth me/Aerials become electricallycharged. These charges are not Inmotion but reside statkaly on eachmaterial, and hence this type cf electric-ity is known as static electricity. We'veal had experience with static electric*lightning during a storm; sparks flyingafter we shuffle over a rug; hair standingup on end after brushing ail these aretypical examples of the effects of staticelectricky. This type of electricity isproduced by friction.

What is thermoelectricity?

When two dissimilar metals, such as acopper and Iron wire, are joined to-getherat both ends, the free electrons veil passhaphazardly in both directions acrossthe junction. Because of the differentatomic structure of the metals, elec-trons pass mon readgy In one directionthan In the other. This results in adisplacement of charges, making onemetal positive and leaving the othernegative. By keeping one junction at ahigher temperature than the other, athermal electromotive force is obtained.and an electric current is produced.

A single junction of two different metalsthat are twisted, brazed or rivetedtogether at one end, is called a themio-couple.Thermocouples are not used toproduce electdc current, since the effectis small. Their chief use is for measuringtemperatures and currents in electiicalappliances and furnaces.

What is electrochemistry?

In 1795, the Italian physicist AlessandroVolta made the first electrical cell byplacing two dissimilar metal electrodesin a conducting chemical solution, calledan electrolyte. An electromotive force isproduced In such a cell by the separa-tion of charge, brought about by thechemical reaction between the deo

DRY CELL

CARBONELECTRODE

mANGANESED1OXDE

ONE PECEMETAL COVER (

8011 OK I IN PLA1 EDSrEEL (

ZiNC CAN

54


trodes and the electrolyte. This arrangement is known as a voltaic cell after itsInventor. The electromotive force gener-ated by a voltak cell depends on thetendency of the electrodes' atoms tolose electrons and thus form positiveions.

The voltaic cell most widely used as aconvenient source of "portable" electric-ity is the "dry cell," or common flash-Sght battery. A typkal dry cell consistsof a zinc metal housing, which acts asthe negative electrode, and a carbon rodIn the center, acting as the positiveelectrode. The electrolyte Ls a chemicalpaste consisting of ammonium chloridemixed with manganese dioxkle. Themanganese dioxide absorbs hydrogenproduced from the chemical reaction. Inoperation, the metalic zinc deliverspositive zinc Ions to the electrolyte,causing a difference in charge betweenthe zinc and carbon electrodes. If thezinc and carbon electrodes are con-nected in a circuit, electrons will flowfrom the zinc electrode to the carbonelectrode, producing an electric currentof about 13 volts. Since the electriccurrent produced by a battery flows onlyin one direction, It is called directcurrent (DC).Seccodary ceas, also called lead storagebatteries, deliver current by chernicalreaction like voltaic cells. However, thechemical reaction In a secondary cell Isreversible, pemiittkig It to be restored toits original condition. To restore orrecharge a secondary cell, all you haveto do is pass an electric current throughIt In a direction opposite to that of Itsnormal use or discharge. The leadstorage batteries In automobiles aresecondary cells.

LEAD STORAGE BATTERY

TERMINALS

ELECTROLYTE orSUO-LEIC AGO

L.....:1:611aZed.sierStb:LiSnlitd.if'SeMm,a.e,..., ,

NEGATIVE()LAI-ES

What are magnetismand electricity?

Magnetism and electricity are not twoseparate phenomena. In fact, wheneveran electric current Bows, a magneticfield Is created, and whenever a magnetmoves, an electric current Is produced.The properties of magnetism and elec.triciry are both bound up In the natureof the physical structure and arrange-ment of atoms and their electrons.Materials that appear to be magnetic,without any outside source of electricity,depend on electron movement withintheir atomic structure to provide theelectric current

Bectrornagnetism Is the effect by whichelectrical currents produce magneticfields. The magnetic field around astraight wire is weak. Stronger magneticfields are obtained by coiling wire into aspkalIng loop, known as a solenoid. Theeffect of forming a solenoid is toIncrease the intensity of the magneticfield without having to Increase thecurrent. An iron-cored soienoid has astronger magnetic field than that of anair-cored solenoid. This is because theelectrons In the kon align themselveswith the magnetic fleld produced by thecurrent Iron-cored solenoids are cakedelectromagnets. Electromagnets ener-gize the fields of motors and generators,aid are part of telephones, loudspeak-ers, buzzers, electric bells, telegraphs,relays, electric meters and many.otherdevices.

To produce an electric current from amagnet, the magnet must rotate insidea ioop of wire or the wire loop mustrotate between two magnets. Themagnet creates an electromotive force.which causes the electrons In the wireto move, kiducing an electric currentThe rotation of the magnet or wire loopalternates between 'pushing" arid "pull-ing" the electrons, due to the magnet'spolarity. The electric current producedthus alternates its direction of flow, andts therefore called alternating current(AC). Alternating current chenges direebon 60 times a second In the UnitedStates.

How do motors andgenerators work?

Motors and generators are basically thesame In construction, although theirfunctions are opposite. Motors are sup-plied with electrical energy to providemechanical energy; generators are sup-plied with mechanical energy to produceelectrical energy.

The two most essential etements ofeach of these rnachkies are field and thearmature. The field Is a magnetic fieldwhich may be derived from permanentmagnets or electromagnets.

The armature is a conductor arranged topass through the field's magnetic linesof flux at right angles. The armatureconductors may be wound onto acylinder that rotates In the field, or theymay be fixed to the Inner wails of acylinder, within which the field windingsrotate. The armature is generally woundon a soft iron core to produce maxi-mum flux for a given current. The softiron Is laminated (made up of thinslices) to prevent the electric currentfrom circulating in the Iron itself, andthus generating heat. The static part ofthe machine is called the stator and therevolving part the rotor. Both the fieldand the armature may be on either thestator or the rotor.

The armature must be supplied withelectrical current if it is the rotor of amotor, and there must be a way oftaking the electric current from it If it Isa generator.

ELECTRIC MOTOR

SHAFT

ROTOR(ARMATURE) STATOR

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What I. a transformer?

One of the most essential eiectricaldevices Is the transformer. It Is used Inpower stations and at substations inthe former to boost voltages for trans-mission over power lines and In thelatter to reduce voltages to levels suita-ble for industrial or domestic use.Transformers contain two separate wirecoils wrapped around an iron core.Electricity flows Into the transformerthrough the first coil. As the electrkityflows through the first coil, it produces amagnetic field in the Iron core. Themagnetic field then induces an electriccurrent in the second coil which flowsout of the transformer. Oil is drculatedaround the coils and iron core toInsulate and cool the transformer. If thevoltage Is to be increased, the secondcoil contains more turns of the wire thanthe first colL If the voltage ts to bedecreased, the second coil containsfewer turns of the wire than the first coil.Transformers are also used in manyelectrical appliances such as radios,televisions and battery chargers wher-ever.voltage different from the supply isrequired.

How does thelight bulb work?

The incandescent light bulb consists ofa thin resistive tungsten filament. at-tached to a metal screw-type base. Thefilament is mounted inside a glass bulb.which Is filed with an Inert gaseitherargon or nitrogen. The inert gas pre-vents the rapid burning of the filament.The resistance causes the ?lament to beheated to incandescence, producinglight.

Fluorescent light bulbs contain filamentelectrodes at each end of the tube. Thetube wal Is coated with phosphor (amaterial that fluoresces under ultra-violetradiation) and is filled with mercuryvapors. Electricity flows through thefilament, causing the filament to emitelectrons. The electrons cause the mercury vapor to break down and dischargeultra-violet radiation, which causes thephosphor to fluoresce. producing Nght.

Fluorescent lights are more efficientthan incandescent lights. A 40-wattfluorescent light bulb will produce thesame amount of lumens (light) as a150-watt incandescent light bulb.

How does a circuit work?

An electric circuit Is the system bywhich an electric currer* Is directed.controlled, switched on, or switched off.Circuits can contain from two or threeto many hundred different components.according to the way in which thecurrent Ls to be controlkd.

The primary requirement of a circuit isthat it form a complete path: electronsmust be able to flow through the wholesystem so that as many electrons passback into the source of the current asleave it.

If the electricity is able to flow coal-pietely through the circuit, the circult issaki to be a "dosed-circuit." If theelectricity Is unable to flow compietelythrough the &cult. the circuit is said tobe an "open-circuit."

There are two bask circuits in whichelectricity flows series or parallelcircuits. In a series circuit aU of theelectrical components are connected toeach other In a "series," thus, theelectric current has only one path tofollow and flows through each compo-nent. In parallel circuits, the electricalcomponents are connected individuallyto the mak electrical circuit thus, theelectric cuirent has more than one pathto follow. Neale! circuits allow forindividual control of each electrical corn-ponent. Buildings, most appliances.motors, etc., are wired in parallelcircuits.

SERIES CIRCUIT

PARALLEL CIRCUIT

How is electricitydistributed in the home?

Electricity is brought to a house througha three-wire cable and connected via anelectric meter, which indicates powerconsumption to the household circuitbreaker or fuse box. The two "live wires"are then brought from the fuse box topower outlets (plug-ins), utility boxes(lighting), Ind wail switches. Each of thetwo live wires is at a voltage of 120volts relative to ground and 240 voltsrelative to each other. The third wire, orneutral, is brought to a grounding bar Inthe circuit breaker box, or attached to ametal cold water pipe, as well as to allpower outlets, utility boxes, and wailswitches. Every appliance that isplugged into an outlet also has a groundconnection. The appliance ground isconnected to the metal or plastic caseof the appliance.

If the two live wires should Inadvertentlycome in contact with each other or theground, a 'short circuit" occurs whichcan result in a fire. In a property wiredhouse, such a short circuit causes afuse to melt or a breaker to open, thusbrealdng or opening the circuit prevent-ing electricity from flowing to thatportion of the house or appliance andcausing damage.

Fuses contain a metal alloy strip thatmilts when overloaded. Circuit breakersare essentially heat- or current-activatedswitches that open when overloaded.

At each power and lighting outlet nocurrent flows until a lamp or appliance Isplugged in and switched on. However.there Is always a voltage at that pointwhether current flows or not. It is like awater tap: the pressure is always therealthough there is no flow until it Isturned on.

How is electricitygenerated, transmittedand distributed?

Heat produced by the combustion offossil fuels (coal, oil or natural gas) orthe fission of uranium is used to convertwater to steam. The steam is then pipedto a turbine where it strikes the turbineblades. catming the turbine shaft torotate. The rotating turbine shalt Isconnected to the generator's wire coil.As the turbine shaft rotates, It causesthe generator's wire coil to spin. Thespinning wire cod is surrounded by

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GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER

TRANSMISSION UNES

TRANSFORMER

k

/IISTEMPLANT .44

TURBINE GENERATOR

magnets, which induce an electric cur-rent in the wire coll. The generatorproduces an electric current of about22,000 volts. The electric current flowsfrom the generator to the power planttransformer where the voltage isIncreased or stepped up.

The voltage is increased to reducetransmission loss. Transmission loss isdue to the resistance of the transmis-sion line to the flow of the electriccurrent. The resistance produces heat.As the electric current increases, sodoes resistance and thus transmissionloss. Since the same power can beobtained by transmitting electricity titherat high current and low voltage or highvoitage and iow current. it ;s moreefficient to transmit electricity at highvoltage and low current, as less electric-ity is converted to heat through trans-mission line resistance. However, athigh voltages the air surrounding thetransmission line becomes partiallyionized and some electricity is lostthrough atmospheric discharge. Thedistance the electricity needs to betransmitted determines how much thevoltage is increased; the voltage can bestepped up as high as 765.000 volts. A765.000-volt transmission line trans-purts about as much electricity as five345,000.volt transmission lines, due totransmission loss of the lower voltagesystem. From the power plant trans.former, the electricity is transmittedthroughout the electric utilities' servicearea through high power transmissionlines. The utility's transmission lines arealso connected with other eiectricties' transmission lines forming a powerpool. The transmtssion lines transportthe electricity to the electric utility's localsubstations. Substation transformersdecrease or step down the voltage tobetween 5,000 and 35,000 volts(12,000 volts Is the most common).Wooden power-pole distrbutIon linescarry the electricity from the substation

I =*SUBSTATON

HOME USE

to consumers. However, before theelectricity is used by the consumer, itsvottage is stepped down by the power-pole transformer. The voltage is steppeddown to either 120 or 240 volts.

What Is energyconservation?

Electricity, while one of the most conve-nient forms of energy, is also one of themost inefficient Steam turbine efficien-cies have risen from 5 percent early inthis century to about 35 percent today,but this still means that 65 percent ofthe coal or oll burned In power plants islost as waste heat and pollution. Thegenerating efficiency of an electricalnetwork, including iosses in transmis-sion, Is about 25 percent A furthersmall loss occurs when electricity isconverted into heat, light, or mechanicalenergy of appliances, producing anoverall efficiency of about 22 percent.However, electricity can do things thatother energy sources cannot. It candrive a whole variety of householdmachines, power record players andtelevision sets, and provkle instant,dean and effective lighting.

Since much of our electricity must beproduced through the use of the earth'ssupply of fossil fuels, conservation Isimportant. Residential appliances consume roughly one-third of the electricityproduced in the United States. Refrigerators alone utilize the eiectrical output ofabout 25 large power plants, nearlyseven percent of the nation's consump-tion. Improving the energy efficiency ofappliances is, therefore, an Importantstep toward conserving fuel resources.

When buying home appliances It Isimportant to check the energy efficiencyrating and purchase the right size

9t COMMERCIAL USE

appliance. Oversized appiances con-sume more electricity and undersizedappliances will have to work harder andthus, consume more electricity. Alwayscompare the wattage of appliances(wattage will inform you how muchelectricity the appliance will consume).Also be sure to turn off lights and otherelectrical appliances when you are notusing them.

Is elecisicity safe?

Electricity, when used properly, is a safeand convenient form of energy, hutwhen used improperly, electricity cancause fires, shocks, Injuries, and evendeath. The following safety rips will helpyou avoid electrical accidents.

Be careful with electrical cords: don'tplace cords where people will tripover them or where they mil receiveexcessive wean keep cords awayfrom heat and water: don't pull oncords to disconnect them, puli onthe plug: and don't twist, kink orcrush cords.

Never use an appliance while stand .ing in water or when wet.

Don't touch metal plumbing or metalobjects and appliances at the sametime.

Keep combustible materials awayfrom lamps or heating devices.

Disconnect appliances beforecleaning.

Keep ladders away from electricpower lines.

Turn off circuits when changing lightbulbs.

In case of an electrical fire, call thefire department; unplug appliance Vsafe: use fire extinguisher or bakingsoda, never use water.

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e

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Never touch broken electric lines.Cal police and the electric companyimmediately.

In case of electric shock, do nottouch victim until electricity is turnedoff. If victim is in contact withelectric power lines, the onry safeprccedure is to call the power com-pany. 11 victim is in contact with lowvoltage cord, use a dry rope or sbckto remove victim. Cali hospital and. Ifnecessary. give artificial respirationor. for shock, cover victim and raiseNs/her feet.

Never attempt to remove a kite from NOUS:dectric power lines, and be aware ofthe location of electric power lineswhen flying kites.

When climbing trees, be sure thatelectric power lines don't touch thetre It so don't clkrb the tree.

580 6


Food: The Fuel That Keeps You Going

Everyone knows that the real reason toeat Isn't simply for pleasure. Eating iswhat provides our bodies with theenergy to live. The attractive colors,aromas, flavors and textures of favoritefoods aren't realty important to the solidnecessity of eating for survival. They doplay a role, however, since they providevariety and make eating a lot moreenjoyable.

Where does energyin food come from?

The food chain for humans begins withplants. Linder ordinary growing condi-tions. plants require soil, water, air andsunlight. Of these elements, the energysource is sunlight, or solar energy,which is used by the plant leaves tocombine chemicals from air and water.

Carbon dioxide from air and hydrogenfmm water are combined to formcarbohydrates. These carbohydrates.stored in the plant's leaves, stems androots, are the major energy source forthe animals (Including humans) who eatthem.

Plants get their food from the soil whichsupplies chemicals for making proteins.vitamins and minerals.

When we, In turn, eat plants. our bodiesuse these proteins, vitamins and miner-als as building materials for bones,muscles and all the rest of our physkalparts.

It's the carbohydrates, though, that weuse for energy. Our bodies break downthe carbohydrates into three fuels. Glu-cose is the fuel we use for a constantlevel of energy. Glycogen provides anextrarich fuel for sudden emergencies.And fat is a longteml storage fuel.

All three fuels are necessary to providethe heat that keeps our bodies opera-ting at a constant temperature of 98.6°F (37° C). These fuels also provide theenergy tor your heartbeat, breathing,walking, talking and other physiologicalfun ctions.

When we cat beef, fish, poultry andother meats, we are really eating plantsthat have been converted to anotherform. The energy Is still there.

How is energy usedto make food and deliverit to us?

The days are long gone when mostpeople grew their own food and survivedIndependendy. Today, much of what weeat comes from other people and placesand is the result of a complex series ofevents.

A good example of a staple crop Is com.

Corn requires many chemicals from thesoil, so farmers must keep fertilizing thesoil to replace important chemicals.fis..ra4t, fertilizers made from natural gasxe used.

Farm machinery, of course, bums gaso-line or &set fuel to do the plowing andplanting. If rainfall Is poor, farmers mayneed to irrigate, which requires electricity to run the inigation pumps. Pesticides made from petroleum keep thecorn heakhy.Then, fuel-burning machinery picks thecorn which is transported by truck or railto where It Is sold. Since this may bethousands of miles away, the fuel (andenergy used) Is often substawial.

Once the corn gets to you, other formsof energy may be necessary to husk it,clean it and cook ft to your tastes.

Meanwhile. energy Is being used toproduce and ship many other types offoods which will eventually end up onyour table.

And the entire process has only onepnpose: to give you energy to survive.

(Adapted from Energy Readings, partof the New York Energy EducationProject, with permission of the NewYork Power PooL)

Notes:

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

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Oregon State University Extension Service offers educational programs,achvities and materialswithout regard to race, color, national origin,sex, age or disabilityas required by Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of1964, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, and Section 504 ofthe Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Oregon State University Extension Serviceis an Equal Opportunity Employer.

Bonneville Power Administration provided funding for this publication.

May 1993

Documents

INSTITUTION SPONS AGENCY PUB DATE NOTE 60p. IDENTIFIERS · contributions from David Philbrick, OSU Extension Energy Program leader. OSU Extension Energy Program produced the manual