Intro to Wild Survival

MBS:dkdkd rev. 02 Jan 0MBS rev. 02 Jan 077MBS: rev. 02 Jan 07MBS: rev. 02 Jan 07

Don’t Panic

The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy – Douglas Adams

Introduction to Wilderness Survival

Okanogan Integrated Border Enforcement Team Law Enforcement Mountain Operations School

Basic Mountain Operations Course

LEMOS / BMOC / IWS 2 MBSmith: rev. 07 Jan 13

Objectives To explain the importance of prevention, awareness, and attitude as keys to survival. To explain the human body’s needs and priorities and to show various ways of meeting those needs. To provide the basis for creating a personal wilderness survival kit. To improve students’ skills in fire building and shelter craft. To ensure that our brothers and sisters return safely when they journey beyond road’s end.

Introduction The label “wilderness survival” is an attention grabber; it sells books, entices television viewers, and lures people

to expensive workshops. Unfortunately, the dramatization of “survival stories” can result in people thinking of the great outdoors as an enemy to be feared or conquered. Having these misleading preconceptions and unfounded fears of nature can quickly lead a lost hiker to panic, make poor decisions and possibly bring about their own death. The information that follows, then, is an attempt to set the story straight and give you the confidence to make good decisions. The rest is up to you.

Survival: “The continuation of life or existence.” – Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary

We deal with survival every day of our lives; being in the wilderness just changes our approach. The human body has seven primary requirements to function at peak performance (and ultimately to remain alive); take care of them and life will go on. Getting back to civilization or “being rescued” is just icing on the cake.

Remember; nature is neutral – it isn’t out to get you … nor does it care about you. In fact, it can be down-right unforgiving. But primitive cultures have survived for thousands of years from the Equator to the Arctic without electricity or grocery stores. If they can do it so can you; if you’re well trained and well prepared. Study their ways and watch animals for examples of how to use what nature provides. Learn from others’ mistakes; read books and accident summaries about outdoor activities in which you participate.

While you’re out there, don’t just survive, but thrive. If you do get stuck, keep a positive attitude! Try to think of the situation as a spontaneous vacation and enjoy the experience. If you don’t – if you lose control and panic or convince yourself that you’re going to die – you may be condemning yourself to failure.

For the professional LEO operating in the wilderness, survival isn’t enough. We need to be comfortable and proficient enough to work effectively in the wilderness under difficult conditions for prolonged periods.

If you’re stuck in the wilderness (what some might call a “survival situation”), something probably happened such that: 1) You don’t know where you are, or 2) You do know where you are, but will be delayed in getting to where you’d rather be. Neither necessarily constitutes a problem, much less an emergency. However, if you are unprepared (mentally, physically, or with regard to equipment), what started as an inconvenience can quickly turn deadly.

Emergency: “An unforeseen combination of circumstances or the resulting state that calls for immediate action.” – ibid

Solution: foresee everything. While this may be impossible, at least try to anticipate what might happen and be prepared to deal with it accordingly. Take time to play “what-if” with some worst-case scenarios. One mistake rarely gets you into serious trouble, but a series of them probably will. Learn to recognize when things are going sideways on you. Stop and fix (or, better yet, prevent) the problem before it snowballs. In remote areas, life threats may initially appear to require advanced skills and equipment that are unavailable. For these rare times you just have to get creative and do your best, but never give up trying. Many emergencies, however, can be solved with a little thought, a few basic skills and some well-chosen gear.

Note: This class will not teach you everything you may need to know in a given situation. The following are

some skills you should consider mastering before you need them. [* These topics are introduced in BMOC.]

* tactical wilderness travel * avalanche avoidance * snowshoeing

alpine & Nordic skiing rappelling

rock climbing low & high angle rescue

mountaineering

* emergency medicine * knot tying cordage making trapping & snare making

fishing: fly, bait, and ice hunting: firearm & archery tracking edible plant identification

* map & compass navigation * GPS navigation * shelter building: primitive * fire starting: modern tools fire starting: primitive swimming river crossing white water rescue


Preventing Emergencies and Unplanned Vacations “By failing to prepare, you are preparing to fail.” – Benjamin Franklin

Plan ahead. Include all team members since everyone is responsible for the group’s safety. Identify navigational

safety bearings, handrails, and catch features; mark these on maps and have everyone memorize. Determine your personal average pace distance (left toe to left toe): it will change with terrain, grade and attitude. Consider personalizing your foot print by cutting a notch from one of the tread lugs for easy tracking. Leave your trip plan with a responsible person or your dispatcher and then stick to it. Know your dispatch’s procedure for missed status checks: know the SAR plan and how it will be implemented. See Appendix 7 for a planning guide and Appendix 8 for a sample trip plan. While on the trail, stay one step ahead: find water or firewood before you need it, remove clothes before you sweat, be thinking about the next challenge or waypoint, etc.

Prepare. “Be Prepared” – Boy Scouts of America “Semper Paratus” (Always Ready) – U.S. Coast Guard There is no such thing as being over-prepared! Remember Murphy’s Law? Address these three areas:

Mental: The mind is your most powerful survival tool; keep it sharp. Ensure appropriate training (general wilderness skills & mission specific); gain real world wilderness experience; rehearse mission objectives; start out well rested and with your head in the game (with no distractions or problems at home).

Physical: The mind is almost worthless without a capable body to support it. Keep yourself in good physical shape and maintain good health; don’t start out sick; stretch before and after the trek; keep tetanus and other immunizations up to date; get regular dental check-ups; avoid dependence on caffeine, nicotine, etc.

Equipment: This merely augments your internal resources; it is not a substitute for personal preparation. Ensure gear is adequate and well-maintained; become proficient with it (read and follow instructions, especially for things like stoves); carry backups; standardize gear within the team to share parts; standardize all batteries (use lithium in cold weather, be sure to keep them dry); ensure clothing & boots fit well and are broken in. Keep functional sets together: whoever carries the stove also carries the fuel. Separate redundant items; e.g., I’ll take the tent, you take the tarp, and we’ll both have shelter if separated.

Maintain constant situational awareness. Hike together with the slowest person in front. As you hike, don’t stare at the ground; pause often to look up, back, and around. Monitor each other for frostbite, etc. Notice landmarks, water sources, tinder & fuel, and shelter locations. How will the trail look as you return … in the dark? Consider marking your trail on the way in with flagging, orange clothespins or thumbtacks marked with reflective tape, etc. See the threat before it sees you; know how to recognize hazardous conditions; see Appendices 5 & 6. Never travel alone; there is safety (& wisdom) in numbers. A group of four allows one person to stay with an injured partner while a team of two goes for help. Keep an eye on the weather: consider carrying a NOAA weather radio and barometer (i.e. an altimeter). Listen to your body: fatigue & pain are there for a reason; fix problems before they get worse, or bail out. Trust the map & compass (usually) but beware metal influence. No one has a sense of direction; if things don’t make sense, back up until they do. Don’t “bend the map” to make it fit where you want to be; see reality. Remember that most “short-cuts” aren’t. You planned your route for a reason… so use it, but don’t fall in love with it. If the unexpected happens, stay flexible but change your route only after careful consideration. Always keep dispatch updated on your location and operations. Regular status checks should be mandatory. If you alter your route and have no comms, leave a dated note on the route telling where you went. Don’t walk at night unless forced to avoid the heat of the day or for tactical reasons; and then, be cautious! Don’t blindly follow trails or rivers: they don’t always lead to civilization (but in the Lower 48, often will). Don’t follow the leader. Except during tactical portions of the operation, everyone is responsible for keeping track of where he or she is at all times (on the map and in their head). If people disagree, stop and figure out what’s going on and where you are. Designate rally points or other SOP in case you get separated. Work safely: be very careful when using knives / axe, handling firearms, driving, etc. Use PPE & wear seat belts. Weigh every risk. Play “What if…?”; is the objective worth the possible consequences? Use your head and trust your gut. Priorities are: 1) You, 2) Your Partners, 3) Victims, 4) Mission / Property. Remember that it’s better to be in the office wishing you were on the mountain than to be on the mountain wishing you were home.

Stay hydrated, warm and dry. Master these and you probably won’t run into too many serious problems. Dehydration and hypothermia are two of the most common (and often preventable) enemies. Don’t sweat.

Practice important skills. Bear in mind that this school is designed to minimally prepare you for working in the wilderness. We are providing the basic tools, but the rest is up to you. Don’t think that after graduation you can throw the books on a shelf and expect to retain the knowledge. If you will be spending any amount of time in the backcountry, it is up to you to obtain other relevant training, add to your knowledge, and build a good experience base. Competence is the result of continual practice, not a one-week course.


Human Body Requirements These priorities are generalizations. The order and time frame in which they must be satisfied will depend on your

location, physical & medical condition, the temperature, weather and many other variables. In most cases, however, they should be approached as follows, remembering that just because you may live three days without water doesn’t mean that you will function well for three days without it. This class is focused on operations in the mild to cold weather of the Rockies, so most discussions omit problems found outside this area (e.g., alligators). When operating in other regions, additional training and research will be required.

1) Positive (Professional) Mental Attitude – 3 seconds: “What, me worry?” – Alfred E. Newman Before you go, have a warrior / survivor mindset. Just as in our street survival training, you must be committed to winning in every situation, no matter what happens. Never give up! Make humility and respect, self-confidence and patience a part of everyday life. At the same time, remember that familiarity with pain and conflict also help prepare you for tough times, so try to expand your comfort zones. Believe that anything is possible and have faith in yourself. The best tool you have is between your ears…. so use it! Plan for the worst, but hope for the best. A lot of these statements are cliché, but that doesn’t make them any less true.

If you become lost and start to panic try to remember this one thing: SSTTOOPP. Say it out loud and then obey yourself. Attitude is everything, so stay calm, stay busy, stay positive! If you find you are unable to avoid panicking during times of stress, check out Pat McManus’ helpful (and humorous) discussion of “the Modified Stationary Panic” in A Fine and Pleasant Misery. Carry a small cheat sheet to help you focus; see Appendix 4.

Sit: Calm down, don’t make things worse; take a deep breath & relax; count to 10; get rid of tunnel vision.

Think: What is the situation? What are your immediate priorities? Separate wants from needs.

Observe: Look at gear, people, weather, natural surroundings; what skills & resources do you have available?

Plan: Choose the best option under the circumstances and execute it safely and efficiently. Force yourself to slow down or stop: the natural tendency when we panic is to rush aimlessly. Laugh: it is

contagious and helps to relieve stress. You can find humor in anything if you look for it. Fear is also contagious and leads to panic; recognize and face your fears. Keep minds busy with other things; sing. Be a strong leader: confidence is infectious. Involve others to keep them focused and productive. By helping others (or ourselves) we stop being a victim and become a rescuer. This will change your attitude and make it much harder to just give up and die. Stay active and be constructive: play games, improve your shelter, make weapons, gather wood, etc. Think of things to motivate you to not give up: family, religion, competitiveness, pride, etc. Dedicate your survival to someone, but don’t dwell on the past or future; focus and live in the moment; don’t neglect your situational awareness. Set goals and be methodical in reaching them; if anything seems impossible, set smaller, attainable goals and force yourself to meet them. Delight in small achievements. Develop a mantra and repeat it out loud or use a repetitive pattern to get through “never-ending” trials. If things go wrong, don’t waste time worrying about it; just focus on doing the next thing correctly. Take advantage of every opportunity and make the most of it. You can’t change the environment, so you have to see it for what it really is (not what you want it to be) and then change yourself accordingly. Pray: even if you don’t believe in a higher power, it will help put voice to your desire to live. However, don’t count on God (or anyone else) to get you out. Don’t waste time blaming others for your situation; you got yourself into the mess, so you get out of it. You control your destiny; decide what you want and make it happen.

Be flexible and creative. Never discard anything without evaluating all possible uses for the item; there is almost no true garbage in an emergency. You may be cold, hungry, and in pain; you just have to tough it out. Soak-up the hardship and move on. Remember what Nietzsche said: “That which doesn’t kill me makes me stronger.” Improvise: determine needs, inventory resources, consider all possible alternatives, select the most efficient in materials / time / energy, plan construction to ensure it is durable and safe. How would animals or primitive people do it? If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again… and again… and again. Keep a diary if possible; it helps you to focus and organize. It will also be a good story for your kids.

When you get home, don’t be afraid to ask for help in dealing with residual stress. Critical Incident Stress Debriefings can be helpful if you lost people or had other bad experiences which could result in “survivor’s guilt”.


Morse and Semaphore Codes

A ― H O ― ― ― V ― 3 ― ― 0 ― ― ― ― ―

B ― I P ― ― W ― ― 4 ― Alpha

C ― ― J ― ― ― Q ― ― ― X ― ― 5 Numeral

D ― K ― ― R ― Y ― ― ― 6 ― Annul

E L ― S Z ― ― 7 ― ― Error

F ― M ― ― T ― 1 ― ― ― ― 8 ― ― ― Morse Using Wig / Wag

G ― ― N ― U ― 2 ― ― ― 9 ― ― ― ― Right ― Left

Semaphore illustrations adapted from www.anbg.gov.au/flags.

Plan A - STAY PUT: Don’t get more lost. Will you be missed? If conditions allow, stay with the vehicle after the risk of fire or explosion has passed. Alternately, if safe to do so, move back onto your planned route and leave a dated note. Take a head count and provide for immediate and ongoing needs; warmth, shelter, water, etc. Be patient! Signal for help. International distress signals are SOS (see above) or anything in sets of three; e.g., gun shots, fires, whistle blasts (which rescuers should answer with two), etc. If a helicopter does appear overhead and lower a sling, put it under your armpits and keep your arms down at your side so you don’t slide out! Other signals might include:

Plane’s / portable radio: 500 kHz, 2182 kHz, 8364 kHz, 121.5 MHz, 243.0 MHz. Try to transmit “Mayday” & distress information during designated listening periods at 0-3, 15-18, 30-33, 45-48 minutes past each hour.

Agency radio / personal locator beacon (PLB) / cell phone / satellite phone: do not count on them working. Whistle / air horn: carry farther than voice and require less effort; also bang on rocks / wood / metal. Consider

getting a plastic whistle (won’t freeze to lips) with a pea-less design (pea could freeze & reduce effectiveness). Mirror (those with an aiming prism are easiest): also CD, window glass, watch face, polished metal, foil, knife

blade, compass mirror, cup / pots, space blanket, etc. Glass mirrors have best range (20+ miles (32 km) with a record of 105 miles (168 km)); metal are more durable; plastic can float. Aim at rescuers and planes or just sweep the horizon.

Flashlights / laser flare / strobes / hand & aerial flares / smoke / cyalume sticks: conserve expendable items until rescuers are in sight. Beware of pyro, as many forest fires are started by them each year, especially aerial flares shot over dry vegetation.

Gun shots: provide noise, muzzle flash, possibly tracer ammo; do you need to conserve ammo for hunting or defense?

Fires: flames (at night) + green plants / water (for clear skies) or petroleum / synthetics (for cloudy or snowy conditions) = smoke. Heavy trees disperse smoke and make it hard to see flames; cold air = poor smoke rise. Three fires in a triangle is hard to miss.

Ground to air signals: anything unnatural, paulin symbols (see illustration at right), trenches, bright or contrasting colors, movement, straight lines, right angles, “buzz saw” (cyalume lights tied to a cord and swung in a vertical circle), shadows, flashing lights, silhouettes, spell words with logs, body poses and stick figures (see illustrations on next page). Make lines at least 3’ x 18’ (1 m x 5 m). Ensure good visibility by moving out into Paulin Signals the open. If a plane sees you, it should acknowledge as follows: o Message understood: rocking side to side (wing tips up and down) or flashing a green signal lamp. o Message not understood: fly a complete right-hand circle or flashing a red signal lamp.

When traveling in avalanche terrain, make sure your beacon is on. Improvise an avalanche cord by tying into and dragging a long piece of orange parachute cord behind yourself; rescuers can follow this to find you.


Body Signals illustration adapted from AFR 64-4. Ensure ground designs are large enough to be seen. Plan B - HIKE OUT: Move only if; 1) you don’t have resources to stay put (e.g., no water), 2) you don’t expect

to be rescued (didn’t leave a trip plan / are off route / not overdue for a while), 3) it is unsafe to stay put (forest fires, etc.), or 4) you know your location and have the ability to safely self-rescue. Remember that anywhere on the continent is within walking distance if you have the time and resources. Determine where you are: if you don’t have a map, draw one; note landmarks, water sources, etc.; you can use time instead of distance for interval measures. The best way out may not be way you came in: check for easier or shorter paths; carefully evaluate! If you lost the trail, “wagon-wheel” to find it; mark your spot and search in each direction a short way. Can you safely climb a tree or seek a high vantage point to look for landmarks without getting more lost? Don’t leave gear when scouting, you might not find it again; backtracking is hard, especially if snowing. Leave a dated note in a plastic bag at each camp describing your condition and where you’re going. Start early and stop early enough to set up camp: each hand above the horizon = approximately 1 hour of Sun left. Don’t rush: set a pace you can keep all day, and then keep it (remembering to take adequate breaks). Keep your weight centered directly over your feet for good balance. Keep your sole flat for best traction. Be careful: watch where you put hands & feet (snakes, slips, trips, etc.); don’t reach where you can’t see. Step onto logs rather than over if sturdy, dry, and on the ground. Avoid steep cliffs. Use “rest-step” on steep hills: step forward, lock the back knee to take weight, pause, shift weight, repeat. Use pressure breathing to increase oxygen intake: take a deep breath in, purse lips, and blow against them before letting air out (it should make a “pah” sound); this is most effective at high altitudes. Mark your trail for rescuers or to backtrack; use flagging, cairns, blazes, wands, stick figures, broken branches. Beware of drifting downhill or circling: pick a distant spot, use a compass, leapfrog, or use a range. Count offsets to get around obstacles (usually better than over or through): use a back bearing to check. See also Navigation and Travel classes. Make life easier: improvise hiking poles (two are better than one; they can aid balance, check for snakes, and knock snow off of branches before it dumps down your neck), snowshoes, snow goggles, raft, etc. Improvise a compass by stroking a needle or paper clip with silk or magnet (check your radio’s speaker).


Use celestial navigation aids: moss is not reliable. These methods only apply in the Northern Hemisphere: Stick & Shadow: push a long stick in the ground, mark the tip of the shadow with a rock, wait 20 minutes and

mark the shadow tip again. A line through both marks is roughly East and West; perpendicular toward the stick is approximately South. It is most accurate with a long stick and close to noon.

Watch & Sun: set your analog watch to local standard time, point the hour hand at the Sun. Halfway between the hour hand and 12 o’clock (going clockwise in the morning and counterclockwise in the afternoon) is roughly South.

Polaris: follow the last 2 stars in the Big Dipper’s bowl up about 5 times the distance between them. Polaris is at the end of the Little Dipper’s handle and always indicates True North; it isn’t the brightest star.

2) Oxygen – 3 minutes: “If you can’t breathe, nothing else matters.” – American Lung Association Carry medical equipment based on planned operations, remoteness of destination (potential need for first aid or advanced care), and team members’ level of training. Treat immediate threats: ABCs, severe bleeding, hypothermia / hyperthermia. Expect shock & treat for it! Treat secondary injuries as circumstances permit: get advanced training; see also EMS lecture. If you have no painkillers for an injured partner, give them a placebo and tell them it’s a good painkiller. Always maintain good sanitation: wash hands often using water / soap / wet wipes / hand sanitizer. Dispose of human waste in a hole dug away from camp and water: use stones, snow, or friendly leaves for TP. Take care of your feet: treat hot spots early, wash feet and change socks daily, air / dry your feet often. Protect your eyes!

3) Warmth – 3 hours: “Put on a hat and mittens before you go outside!” – Your Mother Temperature is a double-edged sword. You need to keep your body very close to 98°F (37°C); being too hot can be as lethal as being too cold. In our environment, with the limited coping mechanisms of the human body, cold is usually the more dangerous of the two. Hypothermia affects our physical and mental abilities and can quietly kill. As a warning sign, watch each other for the “umbles”; stumble, mumble, fumble, tumble, grumble. To stay warm, use the “Eds”, but not necessarily in this order: Shed, Dead, Head, Bed, Red, Fed, Tread. Shed Water – Stay Dry! Water conducts heat about 25 times faster than air. Consider building a shelter before

building a fire. Protect from the outside: carry raingear and pre-fabricated shelters. Keep sleeping bags and extra clothes in waterproof bags. Protect from the inside: limit exertion and sweating, ventilate and shed clothing as needed. Powder snow is a good blotter: if you get soaked, roll around in it and brush it off. Moisture renders cotton and down worthless (or worse) in cold environments.

Dead Air – It is a great insulator. See also Basic Principles / Clothing lecture. Keep clothing clean and loosely fitting. Ensure boots and other items are properly waterproofed. Don’t dry clothes or boots too close to the fire; synthetics can melt and leather can crack. Dress in layers: alter clothing as needed to avoid overheating. Synthetics, wool, and silk are great. Improvise insulation: dead air = dry leaves / grass, moss, crumpled paper, feathers, plant “down” (cattails, etc.). Hands and feet: you’re helpless without them, so take care of them. Socks = emergency mittens. Beware heat and sparks when wearing synthetics: don’t burn holes or shrink-wrap yourself! Consider color: camouflage or uniforms for work but also take some hunter orange (e.g., a traffic safety vest) or bright royal blue clothing for visibility in case of emergency. Dark colors will be warmer and dry faster. Use whatever is available as a windbreak. See also the Shelter section of this text.


Head Covered – Cover your head and neck: they are areas of significant heat loss (or gain, in hot environments) since they are often exposed and are highly vascular. Carry a wool or fleece hat even during the summer; it has a great warmth to weight ratio.

Bed Down – Rest, conserve your energy, and bundle up in whatever you’ve got or can find. Fluff sleeping bags before use, dry daily if possible. Improvise with a pack stuffed full of dry leaves, etc. Down is good for dry locations (small & light); synthetic fibers stay warmer when wet (bulky & heavy). Insulating pad: keeps you off the heat-sucking ground or snow. Closed-cell foam pads are best. Improvise pads with extra clothes, pack, evergreen boughs (especially Fir), coiled ropes, leaves, etc. Don’t get into bed if you’re cold; exercise first. Curl into the fetal position to reduce your surface area. Share body heat with partners, pets, or stock animals if possible.

Red Fire – It is usually not as immediately necessary as shelter, but sometimes it can be a real life-saver (if you are wet / cold) and is often a major life-improver. It provides for heat, light, cooking, water purification, signaling, and insect smudging, tempers wood & metal for tools, deters animals & the Boogie Man, gives a mental boost, keeps you stationary, preserves meat, bakes clay pots, burns out bowls & canoes, fells trees, sterilizes tools, heats rocks for bed / sauna / cooking. Carry three or more firestarters: metal match, matches, lighters, flares, etc. Carry tinder: candles, Esbit / trioxane tabs, Vaseline & cotton, etc. Gather and improvise with what nature provides. See Appendix 3. Remember the fire tripod: fuel + oxygen + heat. Lose any one of these and your fire will go out.

Location: Place your fire pit near your shelter (but not too close); beware ladder fuels / cornices / snow on branches / etc. Consider the risk of forest fires. Clear an area at least 6’ (2 m) in diameter to bare mineral soil to prevent spreading. If possible, dig a shallow bowl-shaped pit to help focus the coals as it burns. Do you really need a rock ring? Perhaps a couple of stones (not from a water source, which can explode as the trapped moisture expands in the heat) to support pots or block wind. Build a base out of rocks, metal, bark or green wood to exclude moisture and minimize heat loss to ground. Construct reflectors on the opposite side of the fire and behind you to minimize heat loss; use a space blanket, wall of logs, or rock face.

Fuel: gather a large supply of dead and dry wood or other fuels. Look for sticks suspended above the ground or attached to standing snags; also check under logs and ledges or cut into large wood to get at dry interior (often the best). Lack of bark is usually a good sign that it is dead, but not necessarily dry. In general, gather away from water (go uphill a ways) and on the lee side of ridges or those with a southern exposure; sunny areas are best. Soft woods (evergreens) will burn hot and fast and produce very few coals (good for kindling) while hardwoods (deciduous) burn slower and produce good coals (use for larger fuel). Try to find sticks you can break by hand; if necessary, lever a branch between two trees by pushing on the end instead of breaking with foot or knee; use the fire to burn logs in half or just feed in from one end. Prepare large fuel, then kindling, finally tinder (keep it dry until ready to light; perhaps in your jacket). Snap-Test & Sort: as you gather, check to see if a stick breaks in half or just bends; if the latter, don’t use it for kindling. Group pieces by size for ease of feeding the fire.

Construction: heat rises, so fire burns up. Build a log cabin, tipi, or use a brace to lean fuel against and provide verticality. Leave an opening for the lit tinder bundle; usually best to light on the windward side. It is often more efficient to sit close to a small fire than far from a large fire. Don’t waste wood. Ensure enough oxygen (don’t smother it, blow gently or fan if needed) but not too much (provide a windbreak). Smoke indicates poor combustion (lack of oxygen, wet fuel, etc.). Have water or mineral soil (not duff that could smolder) ready for extinguishing. Prepare Tinder: remove hard, crumbly bark and pith, then twist, rip, shred, or pound the fibers to get them as small and airy as possible (greater surface area = easier ignition). If possible, combine very fine material with slightly longer-burning items so that it doesn’t flash and go out too quickly.

Ignition: use your firestarters wisely; one match = one fire (or more, if you split them). Carry matches in a waterproof safe, never loose in pockets! Light a candle to sustain the flame if using poor tinder. Have plenty of ventilation to ensure that neither the fire nor you suffocate. This is especially important in tight shelters. Caution: Most petroleum-based and synthetic materials give off toxic gases when burned. Gradually add slightly larger pieces, being careful not to smother the flames. Keep it vertical! Green and wet wood will burn much more slowly: use for overnight or signaling; dry it by the fire. To stay warm overnight bury coals, wait for the dirt to stop steaming, and sleep on top. Use heated rocks (again, not from a water source) or a hot water bottle in bed. Once you have fire, keep it: bank embers for morning (pile up coals and cover with ashes, and poke an air hole) or carry it with you; coals wrapped in wood bundle full of ashes, a torch, or dry mullein (it makes a great punk). Before you leave camp, make sure the fire is completely extinguished and cold: don’t start forest fires! Fed – Stoke your metabolism by staying well fed; eating fat or protein before bed will help you to sleep warmer. Eat only if you have an adequate water supply; digestion requires a lot of water (carbs least so). Drink water since it can cool or warm you (dehydration = thick blood = poor circulation); hot drinks rule! Don’t use nicotine or caffeine: they are vasoconstrictors = decreased peripheral blood flow = frostbite. Don’t consume


alcohol: it is a depressant and a vasodilator = increased peripheral blood flow = hypothermia. Don’t hold urine: a full bladder requires more body heat to keep it warm than an empty one does.

Tread – If it is cold where you are, move someplace warmer: away from water’s edge, farther south, etc. Cold air settles in valleys so climb a little way up the mountain slope to avoid. However, paradoxically, as warm air rises, it cools: a 1000’ altitude gain = 3 to 5º F drop (1000m = 5 - 7º C), so don’t go too high. Try isometric exercises (contracting muscles without moving joints) while sitting or lying in bed. Aerobics quickly warm you up, but be aware that sweat will quickly chill you when you stop moving so don’t overdo it.

Chemical Heat Packs – Good for short term, providing isolated heat; use for hands, feet, etc. unless frostbit. Don’t apply them directly to your skin; use very cautiously with hypothermic patients. See EMS lecture.

Sunlight – Wear dark colors and stay out of the shade; southern exposures offer the best chance for Sun.

4) Shelter – 3 hours: “Home is where you make it.” – Tom Brown, Jr. It keeps you drier, provides a windbreak, helps retain heat, allows for better rest, gives a mental boost, and helps keep you in one place so that you’re easier to find. Depending on design, it can offer protection from rain, snow, wind, cold, heat, sun, animals and insects. Location Considerations: Simplify life; look for proximity to building materials, wood, water, and food.

Beware of things coming at you from above: o Snags / widow-makers: dead trees, beaver-cut tress, snow on limbs; raise your arm 45º and look 360º around. o Rock fall: beware chutes, cliffs, obvious paths, scree / talus fields, etc; is there earthquake potential? o Avalanche: as for rock fall, plus evaluate terrain, weather and snow conditions. See Avalanche lecture. o Lightning: avoid high points, open areas, shallow caves, metal, or tall trees. See Appendix 6.

Beware of things coming at you from below: o Depressions or poor drainage: you don’t want to wake up in a puddle. o Hazardous plants: poison ivy, poison oak, cacti, etc. o Hazardous animals: snakes, anthills, etc.

Beware of things coming at you from the sides: o Flash floods: avoid dry creek beds, slot canyons, flood plains, and riverbanks. o Wind: avoid passes, ridgelines, large open areas, and any place with frequent strong winds. Note that winds in

mountains generally blow downhill at night and uphill during the day. This means that cold air will usually flow like water down drainages at night.

o Game trails: you don’t want a bear, moose, or skunk walking through your bed. Think about comfort: close to water is usually colder, may have many more insects and heavier dew. Consider visibility to potential rescuers: locate near large clearings with a good line of sight to see them and signal.

Designs and Materials: Be creative; what are you keeping out (or in); what are available resources? Natural: even a few trees, bushes, or large rocks will provide a valuable windbreak. Also look for caves,

overhangs, under / in logs, tree wells in snow (Spruce are great). Beware of previous owners or current residents (bears, snakes, skunks, hornets, spiders, etc.); consider smoking-out caves before use.

Debris hut: create a low A-frame, stuff dry leaves in and over, secure the top if windy, burrow in. Lean-to / A-Frame: use a tarp & cord or natural materials. Shingle from bottom to top with boughs or bark (Birch

is great). Dig down to bare earth to “thermalize”; when covered with 8” of snow, it will be apx. 20°F inside. Quinzhee: works in very shallow snow; pile snow into a large mound at least chest high, insert sticks > 1’ (.3 m)

long, allow it to settle for about an hour, then burrow in until you reach the ends of the sticks, use excavated snow to build a tunnel entrance to help block wind, then continue as for a snow cave.

Snow cave: burrow at an upward angle into large drifts (beware avalanche danger); don’t get sweaty while digging, make the roof dome-shaped and smooth to prevent drips & add strength, create an elevated sleeping platform (colder air will sink), make ventilation holes high & low (especially if using a candle or stove inside since carbon monoxide and smoke rise), block entrance with pack or snow blocks, keep interior cold enough to see your breath, keep your digging tools inside with you, mark perimeter and entrance on the snow above. Snow is a great insulator, so more is better; >1’ (0.3 m) thick is great. However, avoid the conductive cooling of direct contact with the snow by using a sleeping pad, bed of evergreen boughs, or whatever you can find.

Construction Considerations: how much time and energy do you have to invest? Size: small to conserve heat but big enough to lie down and sit up; minimize effort used to build. In a pinch, make

it just big enough to curl up in; if practical, make big enough to also store wood, etc. Insulation: all around and underneath (especially on snow); dead air space and waterproof ground barrier. Wind Protection: create a door (even just a pack or plug of snow) and build additional windbreaks.


Water Impermeability: if using porous cloth, stretch tightly and angle 40-60º; 2 layers with a gap is best. Even something as simple as a thick layer of dry leaves will keep you dry underneath during a rain shower.

Ventilation: high & low. Never use stoves indoors (carbon monoxide poisoning). In snow shelters it is very important to recheck your vents often to ensure they aren’t blocked by fresh or drifting snow.

Orientation: door facing 90 degrees to strong winds (to avoid drifts) or facing SE for morning Sun. Appearance: most natural shelters blend in very well; mark them with clothing, tarp, flags, etc.

Carry: take ready-made shelters and the tools to improvise or improve on natural shelters. Tent / bivy bag / body bag: as small as feasible for conditions, sturdy, freestanding, waterproof and seam-sealed. Tarp / poncho: look for sturdy models with grommets and side snaps; military surplus or sil-nylon. Space blanket / contractor bags / trash bags: compact, immediate action shelter and many other uses. Parachute (550) cord: get the kind with 7 strands inside an outer sheath; melt ends to seal them. Improvise with

fishing line, shoelaces, gun slings, roots, tape, bandages, or natural cordage. Practice tying knots until you can do them with your eyes closed, one-handed, etc. See Appendix 2 and Knots class.

Tools such as folding snow saws / wood saws / axe: don’t cut branches that are under tension, they can kill! Snow shovel: for digging snow caves and rescuing avalanche victims; metal blades are much better than plastic. Mosquito repellant & netting (tent or head-sized) / jungle hammock: warmer weather only. Sunscreen & lip balm (≥30 SPF): remember inside ears and nostrils when around water or snow. Sunglasses / goggles: dark, 100% UV, side shields, polarized; improvise with mask (slit cut in tape / bark) or soot. Clear glasses: for walking through dark woods & helicopter operations. Always protect your eyes!

Shelter Living: limit trips into and out of shelter to conserve heat… so yes, pee indoors (e.g., in a bottle). Brush off clothes and consider removing boots before entering to keep shelters clean and dry. Try smudging to repel insects; burn cedar boughs or termite nests.

Tree well, A-Frame, Wedge, and Snow Cave illustrations taken from AFR 64-4.


TTaarrpp TTeecchhnniiqquueess

TTiimmbbeerr HHiittcchh

BBiigghhtt tthhrroouugghh hhoollee aanndd aarroouunndd ssttiicckk

GGiirrtthh HHiittcchh tthhrroouugghh hhoollee ((mmoorree sseeccuurree))

TTaarrpp BBuuttttoonn

uussiinngg aa SSlliipp KKnnoott

TTrruucckkeerrss’’ HHiittcchh TTeennssiioonn SSyysstteemm

GGiirrtthh HHiittcchh SSlliipp KKnnoott SSlliipp KKnnoott oonn aa lloooopp


(reach hand over your head)

(All framework poles are about soda can sized in diameter)

(Shear lash thumb & fist distance from the ends; you want very little overlap. When the poles are spread out, the apex should be about crotch high.)

Front 2 poles should be eye-high long; when spread, they should be knees & tight fists apart at knee level.

Check the size; when lying inside, your head should be below the headache log. Add a bough bed before adding framing logs.

Thermalized A-Frame

(Headache log at mid-thigh high.) (If you can’t cut a big log, bundle smaller ones.)

crotch


pulled

(Add the framework poles so that they are plumb, not perpendicular to the ridge pole. Again strive for as little overlap as possible to keep from poking your tarp.)

Fill a tarp/bag with snow, then twist the neck as you pound the snow to compact it. Tie off p-cord with a slip half hitch. Pound and massage it in the door hole to form it to shape. Allow to set for a couple of hours before removing. To enter; step in with one leg, then the other, bringing your head in last. Pull the plug into place.

These lower door logs (aka “kick-out logs”) can – and should – be larger in diameter than the framework poles. Kick-out logs should not be tied on, so that you can force your way out if necessary. If you’re using a tarp or something similar as a covering, try to anchor the bottom with logs before insulating with snow.

pulled


5) Water – 3 days: “Hydrate or die.” – Camelbak Water helps all parts of the body to work more efficiently, including the brain and circulatory system. Your needs depend on temperature, elevation, humidity, and exertion. Just sitting on the couch, your body requires about 2 quarts (liters) per day; when active you’ll need 4 (or many more) quarts daily. Drink before you become thirsty. If you’re thirsty, you’re already partially dehydrated. If you are out of water, some relief can be had by placing a button in your mouth. Drink continually: you can absorb about 1 quart per hour max. If very dehydrated, sip; don’t gulp. Your urine should be frequent, clear (or almost), copious, and odorless; don’t be afraid to check. Cold weather acts as a diuretic and cold air is dry which increases respiratory losses, so breathe through your nose and keep your mouth closed when possible. At night, place a cloth over your face. In winter you probably won’t notice how much moisture you’re losing; don’t be fooled by lack of sweat. Ration sweat, not water: if water is in short supply, limit eating and exertion, stay cool, avoid diarrhea. Crushed charcoal mixed with water can help to stop diarrhea. (Conversely, white wood ash mixed with water will act as a laxative; remember “black if you’re slack, white if you’re tight”.) Don’t use alcohol, caffeine, or nicotine: diuretics increase dehydration and deplete electrolytes. Never drink compass fluid, medicines, cold pack fluids or milky plant juices: most are very toxic. Never drink seawater or urine: they do more harm than good; they can be used to boost a solar still by wetting the ground. Filter, boil or purify if possible; Giardia is only one possible contaminant. Allow silt to settle; pre-filter with cloth, sand, plants, or charcoal to remove large particles; follow directions for chlorine dioxide, iodine tablets or tincture (unless allergic), bleach, filters (absolute pore size ≤ 0.4 microns), etc. Don’t leave contaminated water on threads of water bottles. Hydrating is the priority: remember, medicine can treat Giardia but not death. Carry what you think you’ll need for short trips: it weighs approximately 2 lbs / quart (1 kg / liter). Don’t put all your eggs in one basket: carry at least two containers. General: wide mouth = easier to add powders / snow and to clean out; dark colors melt snow more quickly; try to

insulate (carry wrapped in Ensolite, buried in pack, or next to body; store bottles in extra clothing or upside down in the snow to help prevent freezing). If there is a chance of freezing, don’t fill bottles all the way and be sure to completely empty filters or they may crack.

Bottles: pros = better for catching drips, easy to clean, hard to damage, metal styles can be heated; cons = less convenient from which to drink, bulky and heavy when empty, sloshing = noise, metal can freeze to or burn lips.

Bladders: pros = lighter, stow easily, more convenient so you’ll drink more often, quiet; cons = susceptible to punctures, hose & bite valve can freeze quickly (blow water back into reservoir to help prevent this).

Condoms (unlubricated) / Latex Gloves / Ziplock Bags: pros = compact, hold 1+ quarts (liters) for transport or purification; cons = puncture easily (carry in a bandana / sock), bags can open, rubber items are hard to fill (use running water or pour into it). It is almost impossible to drink from them; a straw will help.

Thermos Flask: allows for carrying of hot herbal tea, Gatorade, liquid Jell-O, soup, warm water, etc. Rain: safe unless heavy air pollution; collect in tarps, Birch bark boxes, clothing, animal skins, etc. Dew: mop it up with a bandana and wring it into your mouth. Ground Sources: check your map for likely areas (streams, ponds, base of cliffs, drainages, etc.). Remember that water

flows downhill, so think about where it would be collected. Look for pockets of vegetation (or heavier vegetation) such as Willow, Cottonwood, Cattails or green moss and ferns as indicators. Take note of insects, waterfowl and colder air temperatures that can be indicators of water nearby. Follow converging trails to streams and lakes: you want to see green plants (not algae or weird colors) and no bones nearby. Dig in the outer edge of dry creek-bed bends. If you can’t treat, look for clean, clear, cold, fast moving water or a cold spring.

Tree sap: warm spring days with freezing nights make it flow; cut bark, collect in a cup; Maple, Alder, Aspen, Birch. Ice (mostly water) & Snow (only if it’s white; fresh is mostly air, so dig deep): add to half-full bottles or a dark bag in

the Sun; use a stove to melt (don’t burn the pot; start with some liquid). Avoid eating snow or ice; it causes cold injuries to mouth, lowers your body temp and won’t produce much water.

Solar Still: not very effective, but may be the only source in dry regions; dig a hole in direct Sunlight about 3’ (1m) across by 2’ (0.5m) deep, put in non-toxic greens / urine / dirty water, place a cup in the center and anchor a clear plastic sheet over hole with a small weight above the cup, wait a while; use a hose to drink without disassembling.

Transpiration Bag: shake clean a non-toxic bush / tree branch, wrap in clear plastic bag, add a hose, wait.

6) Sleep – 3 days: “A good laugh and a long sleep are the best cures in the doctor's book.” – Irish Proverb Humans need 8-10 hours a day for peak performance, so get what you can. Loss of judgment and coordination can be deadly in dangerous situations; don’t handicap yourself. Avoid total exhaustion: work smarter, not harder. Plan your movements to maximize efficiency. Take frequent breaks (before you’re exhausted): if conditions allow, remove your boots & socks to dry your feet and socks; elevate your legs; massage sore muscles. Relax your mind; enjoy the scenery! If you are very cold, don’t give in to sleep; you might not wake up again. Do something to get warm.


7) Food – 3 weeks: “Men frequently starve, not from want of necessaries but for want of luxuries.”– H.D. Thoreau This is your last priority (unless you’re diabetic), so don’t get distracted by it. Most SAR cases last less than 3 days, so don’t get too anxious about eating. However, it provides warmth, energy for work & travel, and improves attitude & health so, if possible, don’t ignore it. Ration your energy reserves as well as your food. Carry high-energy, no-prep or low-prep foods: eat lightly and often, trying for 4000-6000 Calories per day. Don’t eat if you can’t drink: digestion requires water (carbohydrates need the least water and are the most useful, though fats are also helpful during winter). Note that blood is considered food, not water; it contains salt and will not quench thirst. Make sure your foods won’t freeze in winter (e.g., Power Bars), melt in summer (chocolate), or spoil. Consider carrying a stove, fuel and a metal pot / cup: they provide hot food & drinks and can purify water. These also give you the option of taking dehydrated or freeze-dried meals (MREs don’t require a stove.) Propane and butane don’t function as well when very cold or at high altitude; white gas is better for these circumstances. Beware frostbite, which can be caused by touching cold metal or super-cooled fuels with bare skin. Don’t use stoves in tents (fire hazard) or enclosed snow shelters (carbon monoxide can quickly kill). Boiling is the best method for cooking while preserving nutritional value if you drink the cooking water. You can use hot rocks (not from a water source) to boil in a pit, Birch bark box, hat, or animal skin. For long-term situations, a varied diet is important: get vitamins (Pine needles are rich in Vitamin C), minerals, protein, and fats. Skin everything but fish (scale?) and birds (pluck): eviscerate and clean well before cooking thoroughly. Never clean, cook, eat or store foods near camp in bear country. Avoid strong odors (fish, blood, etc.) and hang or secure smelly items between large boulders or carry a Bear Resistant Food Container (BRFC). In an emergency, burn or bury leftovers & garbage far downwind from camp; under normal ops these should be stored with food items and carried out. The counter-balance method. Mammals and Birds: trap or snare using shoelaces, parachute cord, fishing line, brass / copper / stainless steel wire,

mousetrap; dig pits, build deadfalls, etc.; maintain natural look and smell of trap area. Hunt with gun (carry bird shot as well as slugs or buckshot) or make bow / spear / sling / slingshot / bola / throwing stick; dawn & dusk are usually best. Liver = lots of vitamins, but discard if it is discolored or spotted. (This is a sign of tularemia in rabbits and other rodents & small animals. Be aware that you can contract this and other diseases from handling inflected animals without gloves or by drinking contaminated water. Thoroughly cooking will make most meat safe to eat.) Collect eggs whenever possible; they are edible in all stages of development.

Fish: carry fishing line & small hooks or a net, build traps, make a spear, catch with hands, and look for crayfish under rocks and shellfish on the bottom. All fresh water fish should be cooked to kill parasites.

Insects, Worms, etc.: learn edible local varieties. These are a great source of protein and fat; they’re more palatable if roasted / put into stews. Gather in tall grass with a sweep net made of a shirt or headnet on a hoop with a long handle. If possible, starve them for 1-2 days; remove legs and wings. Avoid any that bite, carry disease, eat carrion or dung, are hairy, or have more than 6 legs. Bees and wasps provide honey, but be careful if gathering it.

Plants, Amphibians, and Fungi: learn edible and poisonous local species. Gathering plants is usually easier and safer than hunting. Caution: if in doubt as to edibility, do not guess since some are highly toxic in very small amounts. Animals’ eating of a particular plant does not mean that it is safe for humans (especially true of birds). Even the oft-cited “Edibility Test” isn’t foolproof (it doesn’t keep you from eating Water Hemlock, a highly-toxic plant), so take the time to memorize a few easily-identified, nutritious, common plants in your area. Don’t bother with mushrooms; they have almost no nutritional value, are easily misidentified, and are potentially deadly.

Reptiles: hunt and trap as you would mammals. Beware venomous species (dead snakes can still “bite” you) and don’t eat Box Turtles as they can be toxic. Reptiles commonly carry Salmonella, so cook well and wash your hands. Eggs are all edible if you can find them.


Survival Kit Components “Chance favors only the prepared mind.” – Louis Pasteur

A survival kit is anything that will help you meet your body’s seven basic requirements wherever you happen to be.

In urban areas this could be a credit card, a hotel room, and Dominos’ delivery. Beyond city limits, gear can be intended for everyday use (as in backpacking, where you plan to meet your needs every day) or as part of an emergency kit (for those unexpected nights in the boonies). While many items listed on the next page would be overkill for a small “bare essentials” kit that you always keep on your person, they may be appropriate for a pack, car, boat, or plane. Whatever the situation, keep it handy. You can’t use it if you can’t reach it! Consider for each item the following characteristics. Above all, Caveat Emptor!

Versatility - does it have multiple uses? The more it does, the better it is … sometimes; see below. Effectiveness - does it do all of its jobs well? If not, find something that will. Cheap crap will let you down. Reliability - would you entrust your life to it? Read gear-reviews, ask around, test it under controlled conditions! Durability - will it withstand lots of hard use, being dropped, etc.? Usually, you get that for which you pay. Redundancy - without becoming too overloaded, can you take ≥2 sources of water, fire, light, etc.? Training - does the item require specialized training? If you don’t know how to use it, don’t take it! Simplicity - can you operate it if you’re stressed, tired, cold, blind, or have only one hand available? Integrity - is it waterproof and dustproof? If not, can it be treated or packaged to become so? Sensitivity - will it work in both very hot and very cold weather? If electronic, can it operate on lithium batteries?

- how susceptible is it to corrosion, especially if you’ll be operating near marine environments? Standardization - is it the same item (or does it use the same parts) as what your partner carries? - does it use the same size of batteries as other pieces of your (and your partner’s) gear? Maintainability - can you fix common problems in the field with minimal (or zero) tools and / or spare parts? Cost - can you afford to buy it? Can you afford to be without it? What is your life worth to you? Safety - is it potentially hazardous to you or others? Be very careful with blades, pyro, and firearms! Children? Size - will it fit in pockets or a small pack so that you won’t be tempted to leave it behind? Shape - will it ride comfortably in those pockets or packs? For clothing, does it fit well; is it broken-in? Weight - can you carry it all day without becoming too fatigued? Is total weight a concern for flying? Noise - does it make sounds that could compromise your tactical operations, scare animals, or become annoying? Odor - is it smelly enough to compromise your tactical operations or attract animals such as bears? Color - camo for tactical ops vs. bright (or marked with orange / yellow tape) for locating it at night & signaling? Reflectivity - dull for tactical ops vs. shiny (or marked with reflective tape) for locating it at night & signaling? Luminescence - none for tactical vs. glow-in-the-dark (or marked with luminescent tape) for locating it at night? Lanyards - can you attach a piece of parachute cord or a Gear-Keeper to retain it at night and in water or snow? Legality - will you be able to carry it across borders, on commercial airlines, or on agency / contract aircraft?

TAILOR YOUR KIT CONSTANTLY: fit it to the mission, location, season, predicted weather, group size & experience, your skills & knowledge, and desired level of comfort. In general, the more knowledge and skills you possess, the less gear you need to carry but provide for MY ESSENTIALS at a minimum (see next page). PROTECT YOUR INVESTMENT. Keep everything together so that it doesn’t get left behind or scattered and lost; try Pelican cases, ammo cans, dry-bags, Ziplock bags, vacuum-sealing, Altoids tins, Nalgene bottles, nylon pouches, stuff sacks, load-bearing vest, backpack, duffle bags, and lumbar packs. Don’t dip into your bare essentials kit for camping trips or other everyday uses. It should always be intact and ready for use in emergencies. On the trail, practice good ruck discipline; if you’re not using something, it should be in your pack. Losing a piece of gear could be disastrous. WHAT YOU HAVE ON YOU MAY BE ALL THAT YOU HAVE. Maintain 3 or more levels of defense: some always on you (put a butane lighter in the pocket of every coat), vital items in a small belt pouch or extra handcuff case, larger items in a pack, extra gear in the vehicle. Think about it; what if your pack is swept away in a river, an avalanche takes the tent, your snowmobile falls through the ice, you lose your camp after wandering off to pee, your horse runs away, your car catches fire, or you simply have to chase the bad guy farther into the woods than you expected? CHECK YOUR KIT OFTEN: ensure familiarity with the contents. When doing so, see if you need to replace old matches (they don’t “strike anywhere” forever), expired food, medicines, iodine tablets, cyalume lights, or batteries. NEVER LEAVE YOUR HOME OR VEHICLE WITHOUT THE BASICS. Emergencies happen when we don’t expect them. If you find yourself saying, “We’re just going…” then you’re probably under-estimating the potential dangers. Remember, Gilligan was just going on a 3-hour tour. Even on flights, take a kit (beware prohibited items).

Do not rely on your agency to adequately train or equip you! Everyone is responsible for his or her own survival and comfort; pack accordingly.


MY ESSENTIALS Many of these items could be listed under multiple categories; those that could are obviously more valuable than

those that could not. Remember, though, that your store of knowledge and ability to improvise may prove more important than what is in your kit. Ultimately, it’s not what you have, but how you use it that matters.

Mental Health: adequate skills, knowledge, and preparation; family photos; religious book / talisman; deck of cards; survival guide; harmonica; stuffed animal; good luck charm; any item that makes you (or your patient) happy

You: hiking partner(s); filing a trip plan; comms / SAR system (dispatch, family, local Ranger Station, etc.)

Extra Clothing: synthetic / wool / silk base layer; more warm layers than you expect to need (wool / synthetic); down coat; extra wool socks; water-proof pants & jacket; brimmed hat; rain hat; hood; Buff; gaiters; fleece / wool balaclava / cap; gloves; mittens; over-mitts; boots; bandana; Nomex clothes; immersion / dry suit

Shelter & Protection: heavy garbage / contractor plastic bags; space blanket; tarp; poncho; body bag; bivy bag; tent; Tyvek / Visqueen sheet; foam pad; sleeping bag; 7-strand parachute cord; leather gloves; helmet; clear glasses; sunglasses / goggles; ear plugs; SPF lip balm; sunscreen; snow shovel; snow saw; entrenching tool; bungee cords; cable-ties; jungle hammock; insect head-net / sheet; insect spray; body armor; OC spray, shotgun slugs / 00 shot; fire shelter

Sharp Knives & Tools: Swiss army knife; lock-blade knife; fixed-blade knife; multi-tool; razor; card-tool; machete; cable saw; pocket-chainsaw; folding saw; hatchet; axe; whet stone; flat file; gear-specific tools & instructions

Eats: more than you expect to need; granola / energy bars; hard candy; candy bars; GORP; peanut butter; pemmican; bouillon; jerky; freeze-dried / dehydrated meals; MREs; dry soup; dehydrated fruit; salt packets; liquid fuel / Esbit / compressed gas stove; stove fuel; pot; spoon; heavy duty foil; can opener; snare wire; speed hook; monofilament / spectra line; small hooks; treble hooks; split-shot sinkers; flies; lures; swivels; gill / cast net; firearm; ammo (bird/buck shot); spear tip; mousetrap; plants book; snare diagrams; snares; bear-bag / BRFC

Navigation & Travel: waterproofed topographic maps; settable declination compass; button compass; GPS receiver; UTM grid template; altimeter; clinometer; binoculars / scope; watch; weather radio; waterproof paper; pencil; pen; pacing beads; pack; hiking poles; snowshoes; skis; sled; crampons; ice axe; climbing harness; climbing rope; Prusik loops / accessory cord; tubular webbing; carabiners; snow pickets / flukes / ice screws; rock protection; ice spikes; snow wands; avalanche probe; waterproof stuff-sacks; inflatable raft; extra paddles; PFD; spare tires & belts; extra gas & fluids; jumper cables / starter kit; tow strap / chain; tire chains; winch / come-along; Fix-a-Flat

Tinder & Firestarters: metal match; strike-anywhere / Lifeboat / Storm matches in a waterproof case; sandpaper / striking strip; Zippo lighter; windproof / butane lighter; butane / propane torch; road flare; Fusee; magnifying glass; Fresnel lens; prepared tinder; inner tube squares; commercial fuel tablets; large candles; novelty candles

Illumination: headlamp; flashlight; coin-cell LED light; extra bulbs; extra batteries; cyalume sticks; candle lantern; parachute flares; night vision goggles / scope; thermal imager Consider also red / blue / IR bulbs or filters.

Aid Kit: treatment report forms; latex / nitrile gloves; shears; moleskin; waterproof tape; gauze pads; Q-tips; iodine / alcohol swabs; triangular bandages; roll bandages; Bandaids; tweezers; CPR mask; Sam splint; QuikClot; 2nd Skin; thermometer; reusable hot packs; cold packs; Ace bandage; large irrigation syringe; tongue depressor; steri-strips; tincture of benzoin; EMS book; hand sanitizer; soap; prescription medications; oral / IV analgesics; destination-specific medications; Epinephrine; antihistamine; hydrocortisone cream; oral antibiotics; antibiotic ointment; anti-diarrheals; potassium permanganate; intubation kit; suture kit; vitamins; Gold Bond powder; skin lotion; extra prescription glasses; biohazard bags; tampons; sanitary napkins; toilet paper; duct tape; safety pins; large & small needles; awl; dental floss; thread; hot glue stick; SeamGrip; superglue; gear-specific repair kits; spare parts; hose clamps; Medic Alert tag; laminate your name & medical history, emergency contact & drug info

Liquids: wide-mouthed bladder; wide-mouthed bottles; quart / gallon Ziploc freezer bags; unlubricated condoms; chlorine dioxide tablets; iodine tablets / tincture; water filter; clear plastic sheet; surgical tubing; drinking straw; metal cup; Thermos vacuum flask; sports drink mix / Gookinaid; herbal tea; ice chisel; pre-fabricated solar still

Signaling: glass signal mirror; pea-less whistle; laser flare; mini air horn; aerial / shotgun / hand flares; strobe light; dye marker; smoke grenade; tracer ammo; flash-bang; satellite / cell phone; phone card; CB / FRS / VHF / agency radio; extra battery packs; clamshell AA battery pack; avalanche beacon; Personal Locator Beacon; Sharpie marker; retro-reflective tape; orange plastic surveyors’ tape; clothes-pin markers; orange traffic / hunter’s safety vest; laminated card of ground-to-air signals & radio instructions / frequencies


Summary “Improvise, overcome, adapt.” – Gunny Highway in “Heartbreak Ridge”

You must do everything possible to AVOID PROBLEMS initially and mitigate them when necessary. Training and preparation will take you only so far. We will give you the basic skills, but when your plans go sideways and you find yourself lost, wet, and cold, it is what you have inside that really matters. Be a survivor through the use of:

Prevention – Planning Preparation Proficiency Judgment Awareness – Knowledge Experience Observation Adaptation Attitude – Confidence Improvisation Determination Courage

In order to stay functional, you must satisfy the body’s seven BASIC REQUIREMENTS; take care of them and life will go on: Positive (or Professional) Mental Attitude, Oxygen, Warmth, Shelter, Water, Sleep, Food. Unless there are serious injuries, you will probably be most concerned with satisfying four of them:

PMA: STOP, don’t panic, stay positive, laugh, take charge, set goals, signal for help, never give up. Warmth: Remember the “Eds”; head covered, dead air, shed water, bed down, red fire, fed well, tread. Shelter: Safe location (up, down, around), small, wind- and water-proof, insulated, ventilated, visible. Water: Ration your sweat, drink whenever possible, collect whenever possible, purify if you can.

The ability to improvise can be a lifesaver, but things will be a lot easier if you carry the appropriate clothing and equipment for your target environment. You must assemble a well-reasoned kit and then keep it with you. If you purchase one pre-assembled (not recommended), modify it to suit you and your needs; a shoddy kit may be worse than no kit if it gives a false sense of security. Consider your body’s needs, the environment, remoteness, weather, and address MY ESSENTIALS at a minimum. Bad things may only happen to the other guy, but remember; to me, you are the other guy! (Note: If camping or hiking with children, don’t forget to outfit them with quality clothes and age-appropriate equipment; e.g., a whistle should always be around their neck with the understanding that it is only to be used in an emergency; also matches, lighter, pocket knife, and a large plastic bag would be good for older kids. Check out the Hug-a-Tree program for other useful information: http://www.gpsar.org/hugatree.html.)

You must PRACTICE the skills you have learned in order to become proficient and then to remain so.

Fire Starting: Get lots of dead & dry fuel, build vertically over a good base, use reflectors and windbreaks. Be comfortable with using a metal match and a variety of artificial and natural tinders. See what is locally available. Shelter Building: Utilize natural shelters, improvise with natural materials, and improve them with your gear. Experiment with rigging a tarp and digging a snow cave. Learn basic knots and their uses (and limitations). Water Collection: Build a solar still or transpiration bag, use your filter, melt ice & snow on your stove. Navigation: Compete with map, compass and GPS, try geocaching, become familiar with the celestial aids. Signaling: Try using mirrors and making ground signals. While not a component of survival in the strictest sense, signaling may help get you rescued before your resources or willpower are exhausted. Other: Master and stay familiar with any seldom-used gear (stove, tent, PLB, avalanche beacon, etc.). Pay attention during everyday life to potential survival resources. Where do you see water (streams, ponds, seeps); what sources of tinder are around you; what kinds of hazards exist in your area? This will help keep you in the habit of constantly being aware of your surroundings.

The Bottom Line Compass 10 dollars Flashlight 8 dollars Mirror 7 dollars Whistle 6 dollars Space Blanket 5 dollars Butane Lighter 2 dollars Cotton Balls & Vaseline 1 dollar Good Prevention, Awareness, and Attitude 0 dollars Going Home to Your Loved Ones Priceless

GGOO FFAARR –– GGOO SSAAFFEE –– GGOO HHOOMMEE


Appendix 1: Practice Exercises “What I hear, I forget; what I see, I remember; what I do, I understand.” – Confucius

Always practice Leave No Trace during training exercises. If you can perform a task in this manner, you should

certainly be able to perform it when you have no regard for anyone or anything but yourself.

Signaling: Practice with a partner: don’t signal third parties unless it is an actual emergency. Signaling mirror: practice using the aiming prism by putting the “fireball” on your target. Any shiny surface: practice aiming the bright spot through your fingers like open sights on a rifle. Experiment with laser flares during day and night to test effectiveness. Try using Morse Code to communicate with a partner via flashlight or flag across a field or valley. Twirl a cyalume stick on the end of a 3’ (1 m) piece of cord at night to create a “buzz saw” effect.

Shelter Craft: Try in a variety of locations and conditions. Locations: look for comfortable & efficient sites and potential hazards (check up, down, and around). Try building several styles of shelter such as debris hut, snow cave, tarp lean-to, etc. Tarp Buttons: if there are no grommets, put a rock or snowball in a pocket of tarp and encircle it with a slipknot. Deadman: attach a line to and bury a long object or stuff sack full of snow or sand; it is best to attach with a loop

knotted above the snow (don’t tie directly to natural anchors; they may become frozen-in and hard to dig out). Lashing poles together: start with a clove or timber hitch, wrap tightly around (or over and under) the poles 3 times,

wrap rope around previous 3 wrappings (frapping) tightly 3 times, finish with a clove hitch. Knots: Keep 4’ (1.3 m) of 7mm kernmantle accessory cord in your vehicle for those slow minutes between calls. The

perfect knots are those which are easy to tie, stay tied while in use, and are easy to untie when desired. Consider the intended use and whether it might freeze in place. When you are finished tying, be sure to “dress” your knots so that there are no unwanted twists; they will hold more tightly. If a knot is subjected to a heavy strain or becomes wet or cold, it will be more difficult to untie. Be aware that any knot will decrease the breaking strength of a rope; some affect it more than others. Never cut rope or cord if you can avoid it; you may later find that your life depends on a long length. The following are a few basic knots that you may find useful. See Knots class and Appendix 2 for illustrations. Bowline: to make a loop at the end of a rope (secure); easy to untie. Double Sheet Bend: to unite 2 ropes (fairly secure, better than a single Sheet Bend); easy to untie. Slip Knot: to build Trucker’s Hitch and create tarp buttons; easy to untie. Double Fisherman’s Knot: to unite 2 ropes of the same size (secure, used for Prusik loop); hard to untie. Water (Tape) Knot: to unite 2 pieces of webbing or rope of same size (secure); hard to untie. Butterfly Knot: to make a loop in the middle of a rope (secure); can be hard to untie. Figure 8 Knot on a Bight: to make a loop at the end of a rope (secure); fairly easy to untie. Clove Hitch: to start or finish a lashing or anchor tarp lines (somewhat secure); easy to untie. Timber Hitch: to start a lashing or anchor tarp lines (somewhat secure); easy to untie. Girth Hitch: to attach lines to tarp grommets (somewhat secure); easy to untie. Prusik Knot: for emergency ascenders, self-belay, etc.; easy to untie. Münter Hitch: emergency rappels & belays (requires an HMS locking carabiner); easy to untie.

Fire Starting: Check safety of area; clear ground to mineral soil, low wind, no fire restrictions or ladder fuel. Gather & snap-test triple the amount of fuel you think you’ll need: use dead, dry, and down wood (in the interest of

LNT); in a real emergency, gather wood from off the ground (it will be drier). Practice “Alaskan Splitting” (cut halfway through a 2’ long branch a few inches from one end; hit a stump/rock with

the tip, causing the stick to split; make another cut a few inches lower at 90° to first cut, repeat). Practice “batoning” (use your knife as a wedge by pounding it through a log with another log), “pop & twist” to split

smaller pieces (place knife point on a stick, blade away, and swing both together down onto a log to drive it in, then twist wood on the blade to split it), and making feather sticks (keep your arm locked straight).

Build structure: dry base, brace (verticality), reflectors, heavy fuel, kindling, tinder; ensure ventilation. Practice with metal match and a variety of natural and artificial tinders. What can be found in your area? Ensure that your fire is completely extinguished before leaving. See also Appendix 3.

Navigation: Participate in orienteering competitions or geo-caching to hone your map & compass and GPS skills.


Appendix 2: Cordage & Knots If you don’t have parachute cord or something similar, you can make serviceable cordage using natural fibers.

Grasses, vines, reeds, rushes, inner bark of trees, and hair can all be used. Some of the best is actually made from dead and dried Stinging Nettles. You want the actual fibers, not the bark, pith, or other plant parts; so get rid of them. To produce heavier, stronger ropes, simply reverse-wrap two smaller ropes together.

Reverse-wrap: gather a bunch of fibers in your hands and

twist the ends of the bundle in opposite directions until it kinks near the middle (or just tie two, three, or four bundles together). Continue twisting the ends in the same direction (e.g., clockwise) and the strands should begin wrapping around each other the opposite direction (counter-clockwise). If they don’t do this automatically, help them by moving the strands around each other counter-clockwise. As you get close to the end of a strand, fray out the fibers and insert the frayed fibers of another bundle of material amongst them. If you have the patience, you can even taper the end of each bundle so that there aren’t bulges at the splices. As you continue twisting, the two spliced bundles should be twisted together and become as one. It is best if the marriage of bundles doesn’t occur simultaneously in both strands (it will cause a weak spot in the rope). It is important to keep the strands the same size so as to produce a rope of uniform diameter. Once the rope is a few inches long, it helps to anchor the starting end to a branch, between your toes, or in your mouth as you continue twisting. Tie, whip, or splice the end to keep the rope from unraveling.

Braiding: a concept familiar to most people, this can produce

a fairly flat rope or belt. Begin by tying three bundles together at one end, move the left strand over the center strand, then the right strand over the center, and keep repeating. Tie the ends or whip to finish it and prevent unraveling. Four-strand braiding is illustrated at right and produces a tighter rope than does three-strand.

Illustrations are taken from AFR 64-4.


Diagonal Lashing

Half Hitch, Timber Hitch, Timber Hitch with a Half Hitch, Clove Hitch

Bowline

Illustrations taken from AFR 64-4.

Bowline with Yosemite Finish Sheet Bend Double Sheet Bend


Figure 8 on a Bight Girth Hitch Slip Knot

Tying a Butterfly Knot

Finished Butterfly Knot Double Fisherman’s Knot

Water (Tape) Knot

Prusik Knot Münter Hitch


Appendix 3: Fire Building Materials “Do what you can, with what you have, where you are.” – Teddy Roosevelt

Tinder

cotton balls (make a good wick) Vaseline / VapoRub / antibiotic ointment (needs wick) Esbit / trioxane / hexamine fuel tablets commercial fire paste / fire ribbon large candles / novelty candles (stay lit well) magnesium shavings char cloth (cotton heated without O2, catches sparks well) lint (natural fibers are best) powdered charcoal / charred rotten punky wood Cattail / Cottonwood / Milkweed / Willow / Thistle seeds dried flowerettes of Goldenrod / Mullein / etc. dried grass / leaves / moss / lichen dried conifer needles / cones some fungi (especially “tinder fungus” & Amadou) dried inner tree bark (Cottonwood, Aspen, Willow, etc.) outer bark of Birch (even wet) / Cedar trees powdered / shaved wood (especially soft-woods) “pitch wood” / “fat wood” (base of standing dead Pines) wet blisters / dried & powdered pieces of pitch nests of birds / Paper Wasp / mice (beware hantavirus) wax from bee / wasp nests (needs wick) hair / animal fur bird down toilet / tissue / notebook / waxed paper paper money / cardboard / fiberboard steel wool (00 or finer) plastic utensils (make good candles) / shavings inner-tube rubber / rubber bands unraveled natural-fiber twine / rope shredded cotton clothing / bandages shredded sanitary napkins / tampons / diapers potato- / corn-chips / other fried carbohydrates cigarettes / cigars / pipe tobacco high proof alcoholic drinks / denatured alcohol alcohol-based hand sanitizer / wet wipes / prep pads gasoline / vehicle fluids (Caution: explosion hazard!) vehicle air filters / fabric skin of small planes gunpowder (from bullets / pyrotechnics) solid fuel from flares (must get it hot to ignite) some insect repellents / cosmetics / etc. some medical ointments / lotions (needs wick) some aerosol sprays ether-based glues some photographic film calcium carbide + water (makes acetylene gas, Caution!) alcohol-propelled OC spray?

Fire Starting Tools & Techniques butane lighter (sparks when empty, keep it warm) Zippo lighter (sparks when empty, keep it dry) propane / butane torch electric / gas welding units strike-anywhere matches (in a w/p case, separate heads

from striking strip & each other, dip in wax) storm / lifeboat matches (separate heads from strip) metal match (a.k.a. Ferrocerium / Auermetall) spark ignition knob from lantern / grill / camp stove steel + flint / pyrite / quartz / fossilized wood / etc. road / hand flares (beware dripping slag) aerial signal flares (beware bounce / injury / forest fire) smoke grenade (save for signaling?) sunlight + magnifier / Fresnel lens / eye-glasses sunlight + binoculars / scope / camera lens sunlight + flashlight reflector / spoon / metal bowl sunlight + clear bottle / curved glass sunlight + clear plastic bag full of water sunlight + ice melted into lens shape with hands batteries + fine steel wool / flashlight bulb filament vehicle cigarette lighter vehicle battery + jumper cables / light bulb filament potassium permanganate + sugar / antifreeze / glycerin Taser / stun gun discharge firearm discharge (replace bullet with cloth) flash-bang / other explosives (last resort, be careful!) bow drill / hand drill / fire plow (practice a lot!) fire piston (very difficult to construct) lightning (natural strikes only, don’t try to attract it!) lava (be very careful; thin crust, fumes, heat, etc.)

Slower Burning Fuels

large logs (split logs burn faster than whole) hardwoods green / wet wood driftwood knotted bundles of dry grass dried manure of bats / herbivores animal fat / grease / butter (needs a wick) some nut / seed meats nut / seed oils (need a wick) coal dried peat petroleum seeps / shale rubber / foam / plastic vehicle tires / seats / upholstery vehicle oil / hydraulic / antifreeze fluids

Some tinders require a flame, not just a spark, to ignite. Experiment with new methods … but do so safely! It is better to become familiar with and practice with useful items in your area than to memorize these lists. Check TSA regulations before flying: lighters, fuels, strike-anywhere matches, and flares are prohibited.

Great combo!


Appendix 4: Reference Cards Reduce in size and laminate copies for your kit and / or wallet.

Mini Pre-Departure Check List

Pre-Departure Check List Are you going alone? Try to find a partner! Did you check the past and future weather? Did you plan a safe mission & route? Did you consider all possible problems? Do you know safety bearings, etc? Did you leave a detailed trip plan? Are you trained & prepared mentally? Are you healthy & prepared physically? Do you have adequate gear? To Stay Hydrated To Stay Warm To Stay Dry For Mission (LE, SAR, EMS, Fire) MY ESSENTIALS (over)

Mental Health: info, photos, religious, playing cards You Plus 1: ≥1 partner, comm / support system Extra Clothing: head, hands, feet, rain, warmth Shelter: tarp, cord, blanket, sun, insects, shovel Sharp Knives: fixed blade, multi-tool, saw Eats: extra, easy prep, cup, stove, fishing gear Navigation: travel, map, compass, GPS, binocs Tinder: metal match, lighter, matches, candle Illumination: ≥2 sources, extra batts & bulbs Aid Kit: and meds, glasses, TP, duct tape, needles Liquids: 2 containers, purification, drink mixes Signaling: mirror, whistle, electronics, flares, radio Do you have at least 3 lines of defense? Did you adapt gear to weather and area? Have you replaced expired items recently?

Pocket Panic Preventer

DDOONN’’TT PPAANNIICC

Sit down, breathe, count to 10; YOU ARE STILL ALIVE! Think about what you need to survive or get out Observe gear, people, weather; improvise & adapt Plan the safest course; execute safely & efficiently Signal: use groups of 3, large X, SOS, wave both arms, Signal: use groups of 3, X, SOS, wave both arms, anything unnatural & contrasting with background Sig

Priorities PMA – laugh, think of family, stay busy, sing, focus Oxygen – ABCs, shock, good sanitation, be careful Warmth – head, dead air, shed, bed, red, fed, tread Shelter – up/down/around, small, insulate, ventilate Water – stay hydrated, ration sweat, boil / filter, iodine = 4 drops/qt, bleach = 2 drops/qt, 30+ min. Sleep – rest often, don’t push too hard, massage Food – only with water; snare, hunt, fish, eggs; boil

Fire

Safe location and good ventilation if near a shelter Fuel: lots of dead, dry wood (snap test); large to small Oxygen: build vertically, block or use wind Heat: spark to start; base and reflectors to conserve Synthetic / petroleum or green branches for smoke Ensure you completely douse it before leaving

Navigation My stride = ___ paces / km or ____ paces / mile Stay put if possible; don’t get more lost! Improvise: hiking poles, snowshoes, raft, etc. Compass: stroke needle with silk or magnet (in radio) Time: 1 hand’s width = apx. 1 hour of Sun left Watch: local hour hand at sun, halfway to 12 is S Stick: 2 shadow tips 20 min apart, line is apx E/W Polaris: end of Big Dipper bowl up 5X distance = N Magº + East Decº (or –West) = Trueº [My dec = ____º___]

Note: These topics are only a few main items intended to jog your memory; they are not all-inclusive nor are they

sufficient for proper planning and preparation of an operation or family outing. Take the time to make your own checklists and cheat sheets or coordinate them with family, friends, or coworkers. See Appendix 7 for suggestions. It is your life (and reputation) on the line, so invest a little thought and effort now to ensure you are properly prepared in case the excrement hits the rotating ventilation device.


Appendix 5: Potentially Hazardous Animals and Plants Snakes: the only venomous ones in WA, ID, MT, and BC are Northern Pacific and Prairie Rattlesnakes. Look

for triangle-shaped heads, vertical pupils, heavy bodies, heat-sensing pits between eye & nostril, rattle. They are cold blooded = lie in sun when cold, in shade when hot; most active at 72º F (22º C), often nocturnal. Beware of reaching or stepping into any place you can’t see. Rattlers are possible up to 11000’ (3350 m). If you hear rattling / buzzing, freeze and try to locate source. Slowly back away and circle around.

Moose: common across Canada and Northern U.S., especially near water and at lower elevations. Because of their size, moose prefer fight over flight and can run 35 mph (56 km/h). Bulls have dangerous antlers and can be very aggressive during fall rut. Cows are very protective of calves, especially in spring. All can be aggressive in winter if hungry, just tired of deep snow, or if provoked. They will often attack dogs. Avoid moose by making noise and not sleeping near water or trails. Back away if you see one nearby. Warning signs: walking slowly toward you, laying back its ears, raising shoulder hairs, stomping the ground, licking lips, swinging head. It can kick with front feet to you knock down & then stomp you. Run & get behind a sturdy object / climb tree: if knocked down, curl into ball, protect head, don’t move.

Cougars (Mountain Lions): are usually secretive and like to stalk and pounce from cover or above (they are good climbers). British Columbia has the most attacks. Travel slowly in large, loud groups during daylight, avoid carcasses and kittens, and wear a high pack. Encounter: don’t run; do make yourself big, back slowly away / uphill, stare at it, yell, throw rocks, fight!

Bears: they don’t always truly hibernate, so you could see them at any time of year at almost any elevation. Stay in groups and walk downwind if possible; be visible, audible, and smellable (but not like grilled fish). Sleep under a shelter whenever possible. Making noise (especially in poor visibility) to alert them of your presence is generally a good practice; sing or shout, especially in heavy brush. Avoid carcasses, cubs, fresh scat, dug-up areas, thick brush, berry patches, loud rivers, and walking upwind. Bears have great noses: near camp there should be no garbage, food, toothpaste, blood, or anything with an interesting odor. If you see a bear and it doesn’t see you, quietly back out of view and circle far away downwind. Do not run unless sure you can reach a strong shelter (e.g., car / building): drop non-food items (but not pack) to distract. They are capable of running over 30 mph (48 km/h); the human 100m-sprint record is only 22 mph (36 km/h) and a 4-minute-mile pace is a pathetic 15 mph (24 km/h).

Black Bears: found in all of the Rockies, ID, WA, OR and beyond; prefer forests and good cover. They can be any color and are usually smaller than grizzlies. They are good tree climbers and don’t usually dig roots. Black bears are generally afraid of humans and will often run or climb a tree to escape. During a sudden encounter: slowly back away while yelling and waving arms. A small air horn may help. Predation: If being stalked or attacked, fight back! OC spray or air horn may help.

Grizzly (Brown) Bears: found in Yellowstone, Glacier to Salmo-Priest Wilderness and north; both forest and open. They can be any color and are generally larger than blacks. They may dig roots or tear apart logs and won’t often climb trees. Mothers with cubs and any bears who are injured or guarding a carcass will be extremely dangerous. They can be highly unpredictable: may flee, ignore you, be curious (stand up / circle

you), bluff charge, or attack. During a sudden encounter: avert eyes, gently talk to it and slowly back away. If it charges, stand still. If this results in actual contact, play dead (protect head / neck / belly and stay quiet) unless being eaten. Predation: If it slowly comes into camp or stalks and starts to eat you, yell and fight, OC / air horn, etc. Black Bear, left. Grizzly Bear, right. Illustrations from the Center for Wildlife Information’s “Who’s Who? Know Your Bears!” pamphlet.


Insects and Arachnids: these are potentially the most dangerous animals due to chance of anaphylaxis, West Nile, Lyme Disease, etc. Carry epinephrine and antihistamines if you are (or might be) allergic; ask your partners if they are. See EMS lecture for discussion of treatment protocols for these and other environmental injuries. Avoid rotten logs, dark holes, and calm moist areas: watch for webs, anthills, hives, etc. Camp in breezy areas or build a smudge fire. Shake out blankets and clothes before getting into or putting on. Use repellent & head nets; wear light colored, long-sleeved clothes; tuck pants into socks; smear on mud as a protective layer.

Black Widow Spider: black with a red hourglass under abdomen; found throughout area; painful bites. Brown Recluse Spider: brown with a dark violin shape on back; rare in NW; severe localized tissue damage. Hobo Spider: brown with a pale stripe on back & herringbone abdomen; throughout area; bite like Recluse. Yellow Sac Spider: almost transparent with a yellow abdomen; US & SW Canada; bite like Recluse. Ticks: check yourself often (especially in hair and on lower legs); often found in tall grasses and woods.

Any Animal Acting Strangely: most are afraid of humans, many are nocturnal; suspect illness if otherwise. All Mushrooms & Any Plant You Can’t Positively Identify. Just say no. If you can’t positively identify it as

being edible, don’t eat it. This goes for berries too. Some plants can have edible roots but toxic bark (or vice versa), others require special preparation to make parts useable. Cooking does not neutralize all toxins and some species can be lethal in very small quantities. Just because an animal eats it does not mean that it is safe for humans to consume (although mammals are a better indicator than birds); don’t trust the “edibility test”. Beware of using as food skewers: toxins can get into your food through brief contact. Beware of using as firewood: some toxins can be carried in smoke and inhaled. Beware of using as bedding or toilet paper: use only those plants you know won’t give a rash.

Cacti: may be found in dry areas at low elevations; watch where you step, grab, sit, or squat. Stinging Nettles: common across most of North America, especially in moist areas, often in large patches. Grows

to 8 feet (2.4 m) tall, green with 4-angled stems covered with stiff stinging hairs. Leaves are opposite and oval with greenish flowers. Hairs act like a bee stinger; when stuck, the tip breaks off and a sack of irritant is injected into the skin. After being dried, the stingers lose their power and the remaining fibers make excellent cordage material.

Western Poison Oak: ranges from BC to Mexico, generally west of the Cascades in thickets and woods. A bushy, vine-like shrub with stiff and smooth branches, groups of three green, lobed, shiny leaves (similar to oak tree and turning red in fall), and smooth white berries. Touching any part of the plant (especially the sap) can cause dermatitis. It is transferable from packs, pets, or other people. Try to wash off any irritants with soap. Do not eat it or burn it since irritants can cause major damage to digestive and respiratory tracts.

Poison Ivy: ranges over most of the western United States and SW Canada in dry, sunny areas as well as river valleys. It is a bushy plant, often forming thickets, with three leaflets that are almost smooth around the edges and sharply pointed at the tip. White berries form from small white flowers. Leaves turn red in fall. Properties are the same as those of Poison Oak. Remember: “Leaves of three, let it be.”

Poison Ivy Summer (left) and Autumn (right)

Photos © Taylor, Richard J., Northwest Weeds: The Ugly and Beautiful Villains of Fields, Gardens, and Roadsides, 1990, Mountain Press Publishing, Missoula, Montana. Used with permission.


Appendix 6: Other Hazards

As with any potentially risky maneuver, consider the possible consequences of confronting these situations before you attempt it. In remote areas, a minor injury can quickly turn major. Continually re-evaluate!

Crossing Rivers: Never fun, but often necessary. Go early in the morning to avoid the afternoon’s melt-water runoff. Scout the area; don’t cross above rapids, waterfalls, boulders (indicated by standing waves) or strainers (partially submerged trees / brush). Listen for rollers (large rocks moving along the bottom) and look for white water as additional signs of danger. Small riffles are ok. Plan to move across and downstream at a 45˚ angle; make sure the other bank will be climbable. Take advantage of wide, slow, and shallow spots. Place gear in waterproof bags. Unbuckle sternum & waist straps and loosen shoulder straps on packs. Don’t tie into a rope; if you fall the current can hold you under. Even water less than 1’ (0.3 m) deep can knock you down if it is fast enough. Wear sneakers / sport sandals or consider removing socks and wear your boots. Be careful on logs or rocks; moisture and moss can be very slippery. Face upstream, use a hiking pole or link arms with others. If you get knocked down, remove packs and float on your back with your head upstream; swim toward the closest (or safest) shore.

Crossing Frozen Water: Often going around frozen water will be much safer than going across. If you must walk on ice, try to check its thickness. Remember that this only tells you how thick it is right there: it can change quickly and dramatically, especially along shore and near stream mouths. More is better, but you want at least 3” (7.5 cm) of clear, blue ice. Listen for cracking or hollow sounds and watch for cracks, wet spots, or changes in color. Don’t assume others’ tracks mean it’s safe; conditions may have changed since they were made. Carry ice spikes or a long sturdy pole horizontally. Walk single file, far apart, and roped-up. If you fall in, break away thin ice in the direction from which you came; kick legs and pull yourself out. As a last resort, let your sleeves freeze to the ice to prevent drowning (and pray someone comes along to rescue you).

Ascending or Descending Cliffs: Avoid if at all possible. Ropes (and associated gear & training) are required if steep terrain is anticipated. Climbing up is usually much easier than climbing down without ropes. Don’t “cliff out” and become unable to advance or retreat. Beware wet, sandy, dirty, or loose handholds and falling rock. Scout the route as much as possible before you commit to any moves. Watch for loose sand or gravel, especially thin layers over hard rock; they act like ball bearings.

Night travel: Avoid it if at all possible, except in very hot environments to avoid the heat of day. Even with flashlights, it is easy to trip or lose your balance. Navigation is very difficult unless following a well-worn trail. The potential for poking an eye on a tree branch is very real (and very bad). Wear clear glasses to protect your eyes. Carry a long staff in front of you to help protect your head from branches, test the terrain and provide balance.

Proximity to Lightning: Know the weather patterns and local forecast for your area. Avoid operating near predicted storms. Many places are known for having daily storms at a certain time (often afternoon in the mountains). Inquire locally and monitor a weather radio for storm warnings. Lightning can strike ahead of, during, or after a storm. If you see heavy black clouds or lightning, or hear thunder, get out of hazardous areas such as water, open spaces, high ground, metal objects, small buildings, shallow caves, and isolated tall trees. If you hear sizzling or feel your hair stand up, immediately crouch down on the balls of your feet (on an insulating pad or coil of rope is best), hug your chest to your legs, and cover your ears. Separate from your partners by at least 30 feet (9m). Do not sit or lie down. Good shelters are clumps of shrubs or trees of uniform height, ditches, or other low ground. Large buildings, deep and dry caves, and fully enclosed vehicles offer some protection. Indoors, stay away from windows, don’t use the phone or plumbing, and unplug all appliances. The “30/30 Rule” says to seek shelter whenever thunder is heard less than 30 seconds after the lightning that caused it (the strike is less than 6 miles (10 km) away since 1 mile (1.6 km) equals about 5 seconds of delay). Do not leave shelter until at least 30 minutes after the last lightning or thunder is observed.

Crossing Snow Fields and Glaciers: Avoid if at all possible. See also the Avalanche lecture. Ropes, crampons and ice axes are required if operating in these areas. Get professional training in self-arrest, avalanche / crevasse / moulin detection & avoidance, crevasse rescue and other techniques. Fog and snow can quickly disorient you on these (and other) featureless areas. Consider using wands to mark your route. If necessary to cross, dress warmly, go one at a time and as high as is safe on snowfields. On glaciers, cross at straight sections with parallel sides and a gently decreasing slope (usually lower). If alone, tie a long, thick rope with many knots in it to your harness and drag it behind you; it may help save you from a long crevasse fall ... or not. In a group, roping up can prove helpful (usually) or hazardous.

Tornados, Hurricanes, Volcanic Eruptions, Earthquakes, Tsunamis: If these are possibilities at your destination (or transit areas), learn their hazards, how to recognize or predict them, and methods of protecting yourself.

Humans: Don’t forget that there are anti-government types, criminals, sociopaths, and psychos out there. While the wilderness is in many ways safer than the city, don’t totally drop your guard around others. You never know.


Appendix 7 – Trip Planning Guide

Ask yourself the following questions and write down your answers. If any issues seem at all uncertain or dangerous, get more info or find a way to change your route or the timing to provide a safer solution. You may have to go through the list numerous times if issues discovered later in the process influence previously-made decisions. Include all group members in this discussion. Not all items will apply to all excursions.

Preliminary

Which is appropriate for the trip; tailoring the group to the mission (work) or the mission to the group (fun)? Who is going? Whom to include should be well thought-out. Try to avoid last minute additions or drops. Is everyone prepared with adequate skills, experience, fitness, and attitude? Be realistic, not polite! Does everyone agree on the primary objective for the outing? (Relaxation, summitting, photography, etc.) How important is that objective to everyone? (The answer here should be, “Not worth risking lives.”) Can you identify any natural or cultural points of interest on the route to make the trip more interesting? Does everyone agree on standards of conduct? (Leave No Trace, camp chores, leader’s authority, etc.) What is each person’s level of EMS training? At least one WFR or EMT would be good. Identify and share significant medical info. Consider leaving sealed medical records with your trip plan. Check local regulations on camping, fires, etc. Do you need permits or reservations? Apply early! Consult maps, satellite / aerial photos, books, magazines, trail brochures, the Internet, hiking clubs, Ranger Stations,

people with first-hand / local knowledge to obtain as much information as possible. If forced to use out-of-date maps, you’ll have to make your own revisions to reflect the current reality. Schedule a pre-trip meeting and gear dump to go over final details and see that everyone is prepared. Schedule a post-trip meeting to clean gear, debrief the trip / mission and make notes for next time.

Gear Determine what individual equipment each person will need and who will provide items of group gear. Do people know how to use each other’s unique items of gear in case of emergency? Can you divide group equipment without compromising functional sets in case you get separated? Does everyone have MY ESSENTIALS covered? Does everyone have clothing appropriate to the season & location and is it broken-in? Check for cotton. Get descriptions (color at a minimum) of everyone’s outer clothing, packs, and tents. Consider making aluminum foil imprints of everyone’s boot treads to attach (in shoe box) to the trip plan. Identify where each person will carry his or her Aid Kit and medications (especially Epi). Try to standardize this. Can you standardize equipment and battery sizes in case you need to repair gear or swap batteries? Do you have all necessary mission-specific gear? (LE, SAR, advanced EMS, evidence, fishing, cameras, etc.) Can you leave extra food, water, clothing, and car keys in your vehicle in case you return in dire need? Synchronize your camera’s date & clock with the GPS clock. Do this at the last minute. Ensure camera’s flash is off (if covert) and macro is turned off.

Food & Lodging Establish sleeping arrangements. How many tents will that require? How much fuel will you need for cooking meals, melting snow, and boiling water? How much food will you need? Plan your actual meals and repackage food for easy carry & preparation. Consider learning a few easily identifiable edible plants that are common near your destination. Will you need box lunches or money for food stops while driving to or from the trailhead? Do you need to make hotel reservations for stops while driving to or from the trailhead?


Environment Are there recurring weather patterns such as afternoon lightning, daily showers, fog, etc. near your route? What is the weather forecast for the duration of your trip? Include type and amount of precipitation, high and low

temperatures, wind speed & direction, and pressure systems. Monitor for any last-minute updates. What is the weather forecast for the week prior to your departure? What is the weather forecast for the week after your scheduled return? How might the predicted winds be affected by your route (e.g., traveling through passes or over ridges)? How might the predicted temps be affected by the predicted / adjusted winds? See Appendix 9. How might the predicted temps be affected by your planned altitude? Approximately a 4°F drop per 1000’ gain. When will the Sun rise and set? Many GPS units can predict this for a programmed location and date. When will the Moon rise and set? Many GPS units can predict this for a programmed location and date. What phase will the Moon be in (full / new)? Many GPS units can predict this for a programmed location and date. Are there plant, animal, or insect hazards (or annoyances) with which everyone needs to be familiar? Will you need to bear-bag, use BRFC, or otherwise safeguard your food? Will you need insect repellent, head nets, anti-histamines, Epinephrine, etc.? Are there human hazards such as open hunting season, anti-government groups, etc. in the area?

Travel Will you need passports or other travel documents? How are you getting to the trailhead? If commercial transport, check gear restrictions and book early! Are your vehicles adequate for the journey, properly prepared, and well maintained? Will you be returning to your vehicles or do you need to arrange for a shuttle at the end of the trip? Do you need to make arrangements with air assets or other entities (e.g., guides) for on-scene support? Are there turn-around times or other “no-go” criteria you need to establish? Check the current declination for your destination at http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag-web/#declination. For each leg of the inbound and outbound routes; identify direction (degrees true), distance, pace count, estimated

time to travel (at slowest person’s speed), terrain evaluation (uphill / downhill, forest / scree, etc.), elevation gain / loss, and waypoint identification features.

How far will you travel each day? Figure about 2 - 3 mph + 1 hr / 1000’ gained or 1 hr / 2000’ lost. Identify catching features and mark them on the maps. Will you recognize them when on the ground? Identify baselines and mark them on the maps. Can you identify them in the dark or during a blizzard? Identify safety bearings, mark them on the maps, and have everyone memorize. Where will you switch from one safety bearing / baseline / catching feature to the next? Identify potential bailout routes and mark them on your maps. Identify campsites and mark them on the maps. Will you be able to reach each campsite in time to set up camp before dark? Identify water sources along your route and mark them on the maps. Are they consistently reliable? How much water do you need to carry? Do you need to cache food, water, or other supplies (e.g., batteries) along your route? If traveling along the seashore, what are the predicted tidal levels and times? Any Spring or Neap tides? Are there any places where the tides will dictate your schedule? Are there any physical hazards along your planned route such as rivers, cliffs, glaciers, swamps, etc.? Can you plan the route to go around these hazards or otherwise mitigate their danger or misery? If your route will cross glacially fed rivers, can you time the crossing for early in the day? If your route involves rivers, are there gauging stations or flow meters you can access online to find levels & trends? If your route will cross steep terrain or glaciers, do you have the training and equipment to safely go? Evaluate the slope angle and aspect of hills you’ll be hiking across or below. Is there avalanche potential? Are avalanche hazard predictions available for your destination? Check ahead and again pre-departure.


Identify safe, sheltered locations for rest breaks (or emergency bivy sites) and mark them on the maps. Identify rally points and mark them on the maps. Where will you switch from one point to the next? Identify benchmarks or easily identifiable places for altimeter calibration and mark them on the maps. What is the highest elevation you will be crossing? If needed, will everyone have time to acclimatize before starting or en route? Do you need to carry acetazolamide, dexamethasone, O2 or other high altitude precautions? Identify the approximate elevation of tree line along your route. Does it change significantly with aspect? Identify the approximate elevation of snow line along your route. Does it change significantly with aspect?

Communications & Assistance Establish SOP for responding to potential problems (fall through ice, avalanche, injury, lost person, etc.). Will you have adequate radio or cell phone coverage in order to contact dispatch or call for help? Do you need to consider taking a personal locator beacon and / or satellite phone? If you are multi-agency or an otherwise mixed group, are your radios and other electronics compatible? Have you established communications plans with each other and Dispatch? Identify locally available sources of LE backup / EMS / SAR and their anticipated response times. Identify phone numbers and driving directions from the trailheads to the nearest hospital / trauma center. Leave a copy of your Trip Plan with a responsible party (family, neighbor, Ranger Station, or Dispatch).

Law Enforcement Do you have enough people, with the right training, to safely conduct the operation? Do you have a written operations plan and any supporting documents (warrants, photos, etc.)? Does everyone understand team positions and the chain of command? Have you rehearsed team movement formations and hand signals? Have you established Immediate Action Drills for potential scenarios (chance contact, hasty ambush, etc)? Have you rehearsed the actual mission tasks (building entry, arrest procedure, etc.)? Have you provided clothing, gear, and food for prisoners (or patients) during the journey back to the vehicles? Do you have up to date intelligence on the target / vicinity?

Before You Hit the Trail Has weather prior to departure been as predicted? If not, reevaluate the plan based on actual conditions. Does each member of the team have a map with the routes, waypoints, rally points, etc. marked on it? Has everyone formed a mental picture of the overall operations area and memorized the safety bearings? Has everyone set his or her watch to correct local time (as determined by GPS)? Has everyone set the correct magnetic declination on his or her compass? Has everyone set the correct map datum and format on his or her GPS and programmed important waypoints? Has everyone cleared the track log on their GPS and turned it on with the appropriate interval (if desired)? Has everyone calibrated his or her altimeter to a known, correct value at or near the trailhead? Has everyone tuned his or her radio to the correct frequency? Has everyone tested their avalanche transceiver and then set it to transmit? Make sure all trail gear has been removed from vehicles and securely stowed in packs or on stock, ATVs, etc. Does anyone have questions or concerns? Notify dispatch that you’re starting your trip or sign in at the trail register / climbing register.

Upon Return to Trailhead

Turn off GPS, radios, avalanche transceiver, etc. Sign out at trail / climbing register and notify dispatch or safety contact. Load vehicles and police trailhead / parking area for gear and trash. Don’t leave stuff on your car roof! Make any additional notes on trail conditions, food, gear, or other important information for future reference.


Appendix 8 – Backcountry Trip Plan Leave this with a responsible person (or several people) before leaving on any backcountry trip. Attach additional pages as needed and take a copy with you.

Trip Purpose: ____________________________________________________________________________ Departure Date: ____________ Time: ______

Starting From: (trailhead / coordinates) ______________________________________________________ Declination: _______ Map Datum__________

Traveling By: foot, snowshoe, ski, snowmobile, ATV, horse, plane, helo, boat, dog sled. Describe: ______________________________________________

Known Hazards: animal, human, river crossings, no comms, etc. __________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Radio Freqs / Phone Numbers: _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Comm Schedule: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Team Members Age Sex EMS Colors of: Outer Clothing / Pack / Tent Emergency Contact Phone

1.________________________ ____ _____ _____ ________________________________________ __________________ _________________

2.________________________ ____ _____ _____ ________________________________________ __________________ _________________

3.________________________ ____ _____ _____ ________________________________________ __________________ _________________

4.________________________ ____ _____ _____ ________________________________________ __________________ _________________

5.________________________ ____ _____ _____ ________________________________________ __________________ _________________

6.________________________ ____ _____ _____ ________________________________________ __________________ _________________

7.________________________ ____ _____ _____ ________________________________________ __________________ _________________

8.________________________ ____ _____ _____ ________________________________________ __________________ _________________

Identify by number each person who will personally be carrying these items: Will the team have a PLB? Y / N If so, number:_________

Warm Clothing:______________ Tent/Tarp/Bivy:______________ Knife:______________ Snow Shovel:______________ Food:______________

Topo Map:______________ Compass:______________ Tinder & Fire Starter:______________ Light:______________ Aid Kit:______________

Water:______________ Whistle:______________ Mirror:______________ Flare/Smoke:______________ Avalanche Beacon:______________

Significant Medical Issues: (diabetes, allergies, etc.) __________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Vehicle: _______________________________________ Color: _______________ Plate: ____________ Parked at: ____________________________

Vehicle: _______________________________________ Color: _______________ Plate: ____________ Parked at: ____________________________


Turn-Around Time / No-Go Criteria: _______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Inbound Route: Describe & show on maps. Identify direction, distance, estimated travel time, elevation gain / loss, etc.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Safety Bearing: _____°T To Baseline: ______________________________________________________________________________________________




Side Catching Feature: ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________




End Catching Feature: ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Camp Sites: (Description and coordinates) ____________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Rally Points: (Description and coordinates) ____________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Destination Location: (Description and coordinates) ____________________________________________________________________________________

Destination: ETA Date: __________ Time: _________ Destination ETD Date: _____________ Time: ___________


Outbound Route: Describe & show on maps. Identify direction, distance, estimated travel time, elevation gain / loss, etc..

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Ending Location: (Trailhead / coordinates) ____________________________________________________________________________________________

Return ETA Date: _____________ Time: ___________ Initiate SAR if Not Back by Date: ___________ Time: _________________

SAR Agency: ____________________________________________________ Location: _____________________ Phone: ______________________

Hospital: _____________________ Directions: ________________________________________________________________________________________

Possible Bailout Routes: Describe & show on maps. Identify direction, distance, estimated travel time, elevation gain / loss, etc.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Attachments: Annotated maps, sealed medical records, foil boot imprints, photos, etc. _________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Prepared by: ______________________________ Date: __________ Approved by: ________________________________ Date: __________


Appendix 9: Wind-Chill Chart

The Fine Print

Neither the author nor members of the Law Enforcement Mountain Operations School staff accept any responsibility for damages or death resulting from the misapplication of the material summarized herein. This text is only a summary of general guidelines geared toward the Okanogan IBET op-area. If you are unclear about any of these concepts, please speak with an instructor, read more about it, or obtain additional training and clarification before attempting the maneuver (or being forced to utilize it) outside of a controlled setting. Since there are exceptions to every rule and circumstances can change rapidly, it will be up to you to decide on the best course of action in any given situation and then live with that decision. Failure to exercise good judgment and common sense when operating in potentially hazardous environments is both highly unprofessional and incredibly foolhardy. Please, be safe out there.

IINN MMOOSSTT CCAASSEESS,, WWHHEETTHHEERR YYOOUU LLIIVVEE OORR DDIIEE IISS EENNTTIIRREELLYY UUPP TTOO YYOOUU.. GGOO FFAARR –– GGOO SSAAFFEE –– GGOO HHOOMMEE

This document contains copyrighted material.

For additional information contact flotsam_ [email protected].


References & Recommended Reading Angier, Bradford. How to Stay Alive in the Woods. New York: Macmillan, 1956. ISBN 0-02-028050-5.

Berger, Karen. Hiking & Backpacking: A Complete Guide. New York: W.W. Norton, 1995. ISBN 0-393-31334-4.

Bigon, Mario and Guido Regazzoni. Morrow Guide to Knots. New York: Quill, 1982. ISBN 0-688-01226-4.

Birkby, Robert. Boy Scout Handbook (11th edition). Irving, TX: Boy Scouts of America, 1998. ISBN 0-8395-3105-2. Gone are the days of old-fashioned camp craft.

Boy Scouts of America. Fieldbook. Irving, TX: Boy Scouts of America, 2004. ISBN 0-8395-3104-4.

Brown, Tom, Jr. Tom Brown’s Field Guide to Wilderness Survival. New York: Berkley, 1983. ISBN 0-425-10572-5. Provides great instruction on primitive tools and methods.

Brown, Tom, Jr. Tom Brown’s Guide to Wild Edible & Medicinal Plants. New York: Berkley, 1985. ISBN 0-425-10063-4.

Callahan, Steven. Adrift: Seventy-Six Days Lost at Sea. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. ISBN 0-618-25732-2. A great survival story.

Conover, Garrett & Alexandra. The Winter Wilderness Companion. Camden, ME: Ragged Mountain Press, 2001. ISBN 0-07-136417-X. Describes tips for living & working in the remote north.

Cooper, Donald C. Fundamentals of Search and Rescue. Sudbury: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2005. ISBN 0-7637-4807-2.

Cox, Steven M. and Kris Fulsaas, ed. Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills (7th ed.). Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2004. ISBN 0-89886-828-9. The authoritative reference on climbing & mountaineering.

Daffern, Tony. Avalanche Safety for Skiers, Climbers & Snowboarders. Seattle, WA: The Mountaineers, 2000. ISBN 0-89886-647-2.

Davenport, Greg. Surviving Cold Weather. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003. ISBN 0-8117-2635-5.

Davies, Barry and Phil Beynon. Survival is a Dying Art. Miami: Hartnett, 1987. ISBN 0-9512298-0.

Eagle Bluff Environmental Learning Center. Winter Survival Class Curriculum. Unpublished, 2001.

Etling, Kathy. Cougar Attacks: Encounters of the Worst Kind. Guilford: The Lyons Press, 2001. ISBN 1-59228-296-2.

Foster, Steven and Roger Caras. Peterson Field Guide to Venomous Animals & Poisonous Plants. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994. ISBN 0-395-93608-X. Use to learn your unfriendly neighbors.

Gonzales, Laurence. Deep Survival: Who Lives, Who Dies, and Why. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2003. ISBN 0-393-32615-2. Very informative look at the mental aspects of survival.

Gorman, Stephen. Winter Camping. Boston: Appalachian Mountain Club, 1999. ISBN 1-878239-83-X.

Herrero, Stephen. Bear Attacks: Their Causes and Avoidance. New York: The Lyons Press, 1985. ISBN 0-941130-82-7. Great information and interesting case studies.

Kamler, Kenneth, M.D. Surviving the Extremes. New York: Penguin Books Ltd, 2004. ISBN 0-312-28077-7. A very interesting look at surviving where man isn’t meant to be.

Kochanski, Mors. Bushcraft: Outdoor Skills and Wilderness Survival. Auburn, WA: Lone Pine Publishing, 1987. ISBN 1-55105-122-2. Good detail on wilderness living skills such as use of axes, etc.

Lanza, Michael. Winter Hiking & Camping. The Mountaineers Books: Seattle, 2003. ISBN 0-89886-947-1.

London, Jack. To Build a Fire & Other Stories. New York: Tor Books, 1999. ISBN 0-812-56516-9.

Lonsdale, Mark V. Alpine Operations. Los Angeles: Specialized Tactical Training Unit, 2000. ISBN 0-939235-07-2. A good discussion of gear and tactical operations in the mountains.

Lundin, Cody. 98.6 Degrees: The Art of Keeping Your Ass Alive! Salt Lake City: Gibbs Smith, 2003. ISBN 1-58685-234-5. A basic look at the core issues of wilderness survival.


Mason, Elizabeth, ed. Mountain Travel and Rescue. Lakewood, CO: National Ski Patrol, 1995. ISBN 0-929752-05-8.

McManus, Patrick F. A Fine and Pleasant Misery. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1981. ISBN 0-8050-0032-1.

Meyer, Kathleen. How to Shit in the Woods. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1994. ISBN 0-89815-627-0.

National Aeronautical Charting Office. U.S. Government Flight Information Publication Supplement: Alaska. Silver Spring, MD: NACO / FAA / DOT, 2006.

Peterson, Lee Allen. Peterson Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977. ISBN 0-395-92622-X. Learn your local flora.

Prater, Gene. Snowshoeing: From Novice to Master. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2002. ISBN 0-89886-891-2.

Ralston, Aron. Between a Rock and a Hard Place. New York: Atria, 2004. ISBN 0-7434-9281-1.

Read, Piers Paul. Alive. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2005. ISBN 0-06-077866-0.

Selters, Andy. Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1999. ISBN 0-89886-658-8.

Shackleton, Sir Ernest. South. New York: Konecky & Konecky, unknown year. ISBN 1-56852-252-5.

Simpson, Joe. Touching the Void: The True Story of One Man's Miraculous Survival. New York: HarperCollins, 1998. ISBN 0-06-016027-6. An inspirational survival story.

Smith, Matthew B. Revisiting the Ten (or More?) Essentials. Ski Patrol Magazine, pp. 46-49, Winter 2006.

Stark, Peter. Last Breath: Cautionary Tales From the Limits of Human Endurance. New York: Ballantine, 2001. ISBN 0-345-44150-8. Discusses several ways to die in the great outdoors.

US Air Force. Aircrew Survival: Air Force Pamphlet 36-2246. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1996 (Diane Publishing Company, 1996). ISBN 1579790003. A good size for your vehicle kit.

US Air Force. Search and Rescue Survival Training: Air Force Regulation (AFR) 64-4, Volume I. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1985.

US Air Force. Student text for Arctic Survival training course (S-V87-A-SH-01). 2011.

US Army. Military Mountaineer Course Student Handout. Jericho, VT: Army Mountain Warfare School, 2007.

Vizgirdas, Ray S. Beware the Fallacy of Plant Edibility Tests. Wilderness Way Magazine, pp.12-18, Vol. 5, Issue 2.

Weiss, Eric A., M.D. Comprehensive Guide to Wilderness & Travel Medicine. Oakland: Adventure Medical Kits, 1997. ISBN 0-9659768-0-7. A good size for your first aid kit.

Wilkerson, James A., ed. Medicine for Mountaineering. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1992. ISBN 0-89886-331-7. Good info on many wilderness medical issues.

Wilkinson, Ernest. Snow Caves for Fun and Survival. Denver: Windsong Press, 1986. ISBN 0-912510-03-X

Williamson, John E., ed. North American Accidents in Mountaineering. Golden: American Alpine Club, 1997-2006. ISBN 0-930410-88-2 et al. Lessons in what not to do.

Wiseman, John. The SAS Survival Handbook. London: HarperCollins, 1995. ISBN 0-00-217185-6.

www.anbg.gov.au/flags - Australian National Botanical Gardens.

www.equipped.com - Equipped to Survive. Lots of good information and gear reviews.

www.lightningsafety.com - National Lightning Safety Institute.

www.hobospider.org - Hobo Spider. Also includes information on other dangerous spiders.

www.LNT.org - Leave No Trace. Provides many good suggestions for walking softly in the woods.

www.treadlightly.org - Tread Lightly! Focuses on motorized travel and recreation in the wilderness.

Personal instruction from David Lawrence and the staff of the US Air Force 336th Training Group.

Documents

Intro to Wild Survival