1am)uage is not hoclqpenws end thet there e n distinct

verieties of eetdla language In the worda bf Crystal end

0wy (1969851, "The l a b l 'the English ~ ~ t r g e l ie in fact

only e shorthand m y bf referring to -thing which ie not,

as the name may seem to imply, a s ingle horno~snous phenomenon

a t a l l , but rather a complex of many different 'varieties'

of language i n uee i n a l l kin* of s i tuation i n meny parts

o f the meld . Naturally, a l l these veriet ies have much mare

i n common than differentiates them - they ere cLsar ly v a r i e t i e s

of me language, English. 8ut at the same tim, each variety

is definably d i s t inc t from the others ." Lyons (1981 : 26) obser-

ves that, ", ..... we shal l always f ind, if we investigete

the matter, a certain m w n t of aystenratic variation i n the

speech of those who are thereby established as speakers of

the same dialect ." He adds that the variation i s according

to the s i tuation, the relations between pert tcipants, the

person(s) to whom one is epeeking or writing, ths purpose

and nature of what w e have t o conununicate end w on. Hanever,

he maintains that the choices one makes is both aystelnatic

a d idenhfiable and making the appropriate, choices b an

importent part o f using a language correctly and ePfectlveLy.

k i r k e t a1 (1985r16) point auk that, "Any urn of llng~8g.

messar il y i n v o l v e s variation dth in a l l f tve type@. . . . (8) region, (b) -iel group, ( c ) f i e l d of d i e c o u r ~ , (d) m d i ~ ,

attitude. 'lhe f i r s t two types of variation h l a t e pr h a r i l y

to the 1ang"uage user ...... The last three types o f variation

to lanquage use. People select the varieties according

1" the si Lust ion and the purpose of the comnmical ion ."

In ths cantexL of language Leechinqt particularly

ESP, though rreeda are generally perceived in two ways namly,

with respect to the target situation and the target language,

they cannot always be kept rigidly separate. But for purposes

o f idenlif icat ion and analysis of learner needs i t is conve-

nient to describe them systemat i c a l l y and therefore a detai led

account of the language needs o f people i n administrat ion is

necessary before a pedagogy can be developed for EAdP.

As mentioned i n 1.7.3.1. the teaching of English

for specific purposes i n i t i a l l y implied the teaching of a

restricted repertoire o f words and expressions selected t o

s u i t the requi remnls of a wet L def itiad academic or vac~l l ional

cantext. thus ESP courses were concerned with the teaching

of a s ta t is t ica l ly quantified 'register' defined i n term

of formal linguistic propert ies, lexica 1 items, col locations

mid senlence sl;ructures. Struc tura 1 spproachps to 8y llabus

*sign were, adopted using restricted samples of language

taken From &Ject specific sources. The procedure used in

Qeiw of regieter-based ESP cwrses can be a*llarizeb

in Iht, mrda of Ewr m d I.nlnrrr? (1967r229), H(a) wnlynea

of Lhe E r q l i s h eckuaUy used i n tho wLarqel;w m d i t i o n s , (b)

-1ccL ion ar lha mas1 f3aquenL ly-cn:cur r i r q or useful items

in relation to the teaching time avai lable , (c) systemstic

exercising and d r i l l i n g of th is meter iel i n contexts re f lect ing

the special in teres t s of the learners; (d) the provision of

supp lementary read ings from the corresponding Li terat;ure ."

However, t h i s view of ESP as Lhe teaching of the sub-

code of a language was replaced by the view that ESP course-

design should be guided by the 'purpose' of the learners and

the uses ta which 1 enqueqe wi 11 be put in particular ci tcumstances

by them. Therefore, the ernphasis was now not on a quantitative

analysis o f word/structure counts but on a qual i ta t ive ana-

lysis of the 'comnunicative ecks' or ' rhetor ica l funcliona'

that typ i fy the variety i n question. Accordingly, analyses

of a particular variety o f language, s c i e n t i f i c writing for

inslance, fneussed mttcnt tan not m Lhe incidence of formal . .

features such as the passive, re lat ive clauees and the uni-

versal present but on the general cornmicat ive uses of language

in science such as ident i fy ing, clsasifying, generalizing

chservation, drawing m c l u s i o n s and so on. Furthar,

this 'discourse approach ' to ESP course- deaign a l s o focussed

t b way differnt corunicatiw act8 c o w h d to produce "). ] ..I . s

, mherertt end cart i n u W ~ d iecour~e . 9 .

A, Crystal end Devy (1969)

In Crystal and Davy (1969) there is an attempt to

out line a procedure for deacr ibing the Linguistic feeturea

o f any t ex t which can i n turn be used to isolate those features

which are characteristic o f a particular variety. The des-

cription can be at a nuder o f interrelated lsvels of descri-

pt ion. A t each level nentel y, phonological/gr~phologica1,

qramnaticaL,. lexical and m e n t i c , m e aspect a f the way

i n which lasrguaqe is organized is studied. In thi8 model o f

description the aim to show how sounds and letlere are used to

bui ld ip larger end nore complex units- lexicel and granet ical.

From the granrnatical point o f view, the internal structure

of sentence is analyzed to see how they function in eequmce8.

Cryatal and' Devy i so la te f ive descriptive conparwits namly r

(1 ) inter --ntence relet ionahips , (2) sentence typology,

(3) clause typology, (4) group typology, ( 5 ) word typolagy;

in terms o f subcategotie8 lib ellipis, anaphora (at the

leve 1 of inter--term ml .t imhip.) 3 #simple, collplex,

*xed m3f&m8 (at t)a ievel of sefttmce typology) 8 mun

verb grape etc. (at t level of clmw typology)

4 SO m. A t eech Isva l , ell information abwt what i e a t y l l -

& i c a l l y significant about ths variety is noted, T h y (p.43)

point out, "Such on approech men8 thet in order to obtain

a complete der~cription of m y one variety a dsscriptim he8

to be pieced tagether by working through ths gnnnar in 8ora

predetermined way, and noting points about e variety em they

arise,,.,, . I t

Huddleston states that he has two complementary eima

in preparing the book ( i ) to give a selective grennatical

description o f 8 corpue o f sonre 135,000 words of written ecien-

tific English, ( ii) to investigate certain areas of the granrner

of 'common-coreB Enqlish - the grammar that i s comm ta a l l

varieties o f t b language (except poesibl y e few highly res tr i -

cted ones) .

f he theoretical f ranrework under lying the description

of a W C ~ W ph~llll€?&et8 or l a b l l e d bracktms, which

~tructure rt different hive18 : the bracketinq

=presents t cmstitwnt hierarchy at the given level,

md the l e b l linq rqreaanks the el ass i f lcet ion of the const i-

Luerrls, T b T i r o l in the series aT phraee markcrrs is soid to

mpresnnl Ihe 'deep ~tructure ' rrf tlw, mnlencs, lhe lerrt the

'surface structure', the f i r s t is generated by phrase atructure

rules, whereas eech of the remsining phrase markers derive9

from the immediately preceding one i n the series by a trans-

formational ru le .

However, Huddleaton make9 i t clear that the work

is an exercise i n 'descript ive l i n g u i s t i c s ' and not s t y l i a t i c s .

His aim is to arrive a t an adequate linquistic descriptiori

- a "(part ia l ) qramnar for its own seken (p.2) d i k e Crystal

and Oevy who regard gramnatical descript ion as a tool for

the different Pet ion o f varieties , for the ident i f icat ion

of i inguist ic features restricted to certa in social contexts.

The entire corpus is made up OF 27 Cexts af 5,000 r.

mrds each.

The f r a m o r k for Huddleston's analysis is indicated

by the list o f cmtsnts in h i s book. (1) Mmd, (2) Transit iv i ty

T h s pracddures k d d l s s t ~ n follrmu $8 to begin with

8 general discueeion of 8 catagory/.ubategory ualng exalplea

from corrmon-are English and then apply the deercription to

sentence8 froAi the rorpulr. For exenrple, in the aection on

cxclaaativea he begins with ttm general A r v a t i m thet

"Exclemative clauses contain one or other o f the e x c l e ~ t o r y

'uh' - words ' h o w ' and 'bet I.

Lee Ualc Cheong ' 8 main purpases are 1: (1) To investigate

in as specific and re l iable a manner as possible the language

or register used in s c i en t i f i c l i terature, ( i i ) To formulate

or relate the reading comprehension s k i l l s required in the

reading md understanding of science and technology texts .

The study i s based on a corpus o f 12 .texts of 3,000 * .

*ords per t ex t tekm from four basic tert iary L v e l ecience

md engineering t e x t book8 relating to four dlsciplime,

V i z . , DyMn~cp, statics, Physics and C h m i s t ~ C I . Th . c o r w

is studied wt for its am e&e krt as repreemtcltiw of @

larger c o w * The -in i n k m e t of ths study is t o .na iy te

stat ist ical ly account for the occurrence. of qntectic

features in each t e x t in order t o obtain en -Grate picture

of the Lanquage skills (primarily reading &ills) mrsdsd

to understand ssch tex t efficiently end rapidly. .

T h e basic unit of description i n this study i s the

textual esntence. (A textual sentence has been described

as a body of material occurring between one period end another

rollowing i t . )

T h e sentence is anelysed s t two Level8 : ( i ) gramnatfcal

usage, ( i i ) rhetorical use.

The invest iget ion aims t o reveal :

( i ) r h y mm gramatical items f a l l into o k or another

of the cateqor ies

( i i ) har theas grametical items signal . commicat ive

acts such as defining, cl sssif ying ,, exemplif y i q ,

causality etc.

( i i i ) in what way and to what extent reading * k i l l s l i lcs

drawing inference, canparing, understanding relation-

hi-, recalling and mticipating ere required in

ths teed ing o f ecient i f i c text*.

1 mjor gramatice1 ceteqorier with mspect to

h i c h Lea Kdc Cheoq has conducted hie snalyais are (1) Mood,

(2) Voice, ( 3 ) Basic stcucturecl, (4) Ckdal canalructimcl,

Frequency and percentage of occurrence of each o f the feeturss

related to the nine categories have been counted and tabulated.

The findings of the analysis were wed to investigate i n t o

the kind o f relationship that exists between syntex and content

and to see h o w the reader var ies h i e reading skills according

to the character istic l ingui s t i c features o f a text .

Qn the besis of his findings, Lee Kok Chaong maintains

that although the effect ive reading of any tex t requires the

genera 1 "foundational skills o f word racogni tion, word aaeo-

ciation end collocation" (p.229), an understanding o f the

h g u i s t i c features found in rrcient ific E n q l i h would b l p

the reader reeolva enbipuity and c~mnpl~x i~8 f3 i*erent in

sophisticated writing. Ik observes that, T b s i p r i f i c ~ t

correlation established bsttmen the syntax and use of linguistic

features and the -tent materials o f t four d i s c ip l ima

mt be d w e l ~ ~ s d and -@meired in each aubjact i f conpre-

heneion of the -tent i a to be improved" (p.242). For ewanple,

~ ~ a d i n g in ths f i e l d of' ,Dynaaico basically requires the dew-

lopmnt of tb a b i l i t y to scrcr thwght - reletionship patterns

especially of ths logical-deductive type end ths reading

s k i l l s e s sent ia l in understanding Physics and Chemistry are:

a b i l i t y to aynthwize related ' facts, compare ad contrast

ideas, and recal l previously occurring informetion.

I n the f inel part o f h is work, Lee Kok Cheong discusaee

the implications of h is study for teaching and makes sugges-

tions for the possible choice of teaching techniques, teaching

materiala and approaches.

0 . Emrr and Latorre (1969)

T h e application o f register analysis in the design

of ESP p r o g r a ~ s is best exemplified in the *sll-kmwn work

Ewer end Latorre (1969). T h e purpocle of their course book

is t o teach students of Science the labaaic lahpuage of crcien-

tific English." Thsy begin w i t h the premise that this 'b.81~

language' is made up of m t e n c a patterns, vocabulary i t a8

to and characteristic of a l l ecientific writing end

th@ir mastery i s a pre-requisite for the stuchQ3 of aience.

Their nwtecisl I s bamed m tm a n e l p i s of more th&

three m i l l h'~ wrda OF cnodern acianl if ic Englieh of both 8ri t iah

md American origin in terms of the frequency end r a m of

~ccurrence of eharac ter ist ic syntactic st ruc turea and voca - bulary itma. Their sample covers ten broad ereas o f crcience

and technology naml y physics, c h i s t r y , biology, geology,

medicine, engineer inq , sociology, economics, psychaloqy

and agr icu 1 lure .

Their course book is div ided into twelve units. They

are :(I) Simple Present-active, ( 2 ) Simple Present-passive,

( 3 ) Simple psd. active and psssive(l) -ing forms, ( 5 ) Revision

o f units 7-4~(6)Present perfect; Present continuous., ( 7 ) Inf in i -

tives -inq forms, (8 ) Anomaims Finites, ( 9 ) Paat Perfect;

conditionals, (10) Revision o f units 6-9, (11) md (12) Genere1

revision units,

Each w r i t i s divided into four sections. In the f i r s t

section the chosen struc t u r d item is presented through a

reading pasage with comprehension quest ips. The second

sect ion is devoted to 'Word-study * . The exercises here focus

On ( i ) synmyma/antonyns, ( i i ) word-building b y nsms of

a f f i x e t i o n , ( i i i) changing words into their other parts of

speech, ( i v ) f i l l ing in blanks choosing epprapriate words

disc~S*d in ( 1) ( ii ) ad (iii 1. The main structure presented

in Lhe reading paaugs is d r i l l e d and reinforced i n the third

ec t ion under the caption 'Structure Study'. Here there is

8 brief note the uses of the particular structural item

md ~ubstitution d r i l l s . The final section is called Oiacuesion

md Criticism. The aim here appeers to be t o engage the learners

in some free composition using the knowledge gained by the

practice nf the vocabulary and structural d r i l l s in the earlier

sec L ions .

1.1 e 2 . 2 . Notions

Attempts to describe language variety s o l e l y on the

basis of frequency of language form cam t o be questioned

in the early 70's as ideas ebout 'functional' and ' rhetor ical ' .. dimnsions of language use were beginning to gain currency.

I t . was realized that the ~ i m nf lem~unqe d e ~ c r i p t i m wna d s o

in a particular var iety and link the categories of grammatical L

for. to the categor ies of comunicat,ive func tim . For exanple,

in the description o f the language of science the functions

that are cherackariet ic of this v a r i e t y wch a s dsscr ibinp, . . .. ,

Observing, cledsifyinq, instructing, qeneralizinp.... were

l i s ted d thr, g r ~ e t i c a l form such a8 tho * b p b pimart 1

are used b melize t b s s runctims nere noted. kaidss,

in this lode1 of language deecrlptitm t Cock w e aLw

to see how language ie used in a particular variety to express

certain 'concepte' or 'notions' about the world.

Unlike in the case of ' reg is ter malysiav, it is not

possible t o mention any work as an exclusive theoistical study

OF a particular language variety from the point of view of

notians or functions. However, t h i s -roach has often formed

the basis of language caurse-design and the prepetation

of teachinq materials. The tNucleusg wries is an example

of how the idea o f the notional syllabus was used to teech

lhe students the various ways in which language was used

l o sxpresg 3c i d ; i f ic crnnccpt 8 .

The Nucleus s e r i e s consists of an inLrductory core

course in 'General Science' end a number of spe=if ic courses

in Science and technology. Each course has the some structure

of 12 units plus 'I revision mi t s . Each writ presefite a 'not ion' a

or 'concept w h r properties, location, n s a w r a a n t ,

qumtity ra t io and proportian, frequency, p . tob~bi l i ty ,

t e n d m y etc. Eech wit can be aubdivided i n two way@ nameLy

Senera1 end 8peci-fi.~.. While the formr intradwea a concept

in general, the Zstter cant8im.a aerk88 of prductivet~wercf'sms

relat ing the concept. preeentsd in ttm general wit l o eppro-

priaLe lopicn and cnncepks nilhin FI part iczular subject. The

C K ~ ? ~ ' C ~ R R S rc!y 1111 o c~1rnc.4 <kZs11 of v i ~ u a l nqqmrt.. I h i r aim

is to e c t i v a t e the students' knowledqe af E q l i s h end to sn-

courage t h e m to comnunicete abwt scientific and factual

matters in interesting ways, From the study of graphics, the

exercises lead the students gradually on to the study of written

srrd aural Lex l , ~ .

Bates (1978:86) wys that before wbrkinq art the

framework of the course they prepared lists of language forms

which they considered important Tor scientister and techno-

logists on the grounds o f frequency and usefulnese. The f o r m

which were . l i s t e d were eventually linked with and subordinated

to func tiona 1 categories which provided the main c r i t e r i a

for the selection OF tex te and round which the unita of the

courses -re b u i l t . For example, social uses of language,

informal nuas inn, expressim nf m o t iona1 ~ t t ikudes , etc.,

h i c h are not l i k e l y to be encountered i n gcientific texts, L

academic textbooks or lectures were excluded. The concen-

tration wad ~ i n l y an the functions which cherscterize the

lanqurrge of science (posaibili t y , instruc thm, ?kc. ) and

the forms associated w i t h than (pcesent f ense, ac t ive , -6aiv8

etc.)

I t # ~ ~ t 8 b ~ ~ L e r i a ~ ~ published ware intended l o ba

taught in two stapes. T k introductory course limits itaelf

tr~ the lanquage of obsst vat ion and desc r i p t ion - eswnt ia l

for all btanches of science end technology. 'Yhe language o f

descr ipt ion is further divided into teacheble funct ion81

mi tel . Thie Is done by basing each writ on an importent scient ifLc

concept awh as s t roc ture , proport ion, causet ion etc. The

advanced Inaterials are designed to tesch the more complex

cnmnr~nical ive act. i v i t iea sucli as claesi ficnLion, hypothesie

etc,, and the ir interrelationship in the loqice 1 devalopmnt

of a tex t . Ihe basic concepts with sssocieted language forms

are so arranged ta produce a 'cycl ice1 ' course wkth a culnuletive

learning effecl . Thus uni 1 1 provides weys o f describing pro-

perties, unit 2 ways of describing properties and location

of parts of a system, unit f deals with the overall structure

of Q system including propartias snd locat ions end 80 on.

This progressive f i tt inq toget her of the conceptue 1 components

of scientific description is reinforced by revision material

after every three units and in the Consolidation Unit 12 texts

are presented showing the interp lay of the conceptual components

Presented in prev iaus uni t s .

the deaAgners of the Nuc~sue series. say that the ir

concbpt-bes%d approach had three advanma : ( i ) t t prwidsd

a fettllidr end etbwiatinq w a y of selecting end shaping ths

material, ( i f ) I t afforded a uscrful lead-in to the teaching

aT the struc tore of discourw by helping the learner t o tecogni re

the t y p of theme represented by each part o f a tex t and ( i i i ) I t

encouraged larrguage transfer and .enabled the learner t o apply

what he had learned to different contexts - linguistic, eritu-

ational and functional.

3 2 . 3 Discoutsa Analysis

Widdowson (1979) obaervea that description of a lanquege

variety in terms of register analysis cannot indicate rhe-

tor ice1 relet ionships within the vsr i e ty . According to h i m

sc i en t i f i c instruction and s c i e n t i f i c exposition, for example,

may be widely d i f ferent i n the way they manifest linguietic

propart ies end ga they becam widely different registers

with no comrac tione between them. He maintains that such en

approach to language descr iptfon cannot t e l l us anything

about the 'kind of discourse' under study. fn the wards of

Widdowean, Whgt i t does is to deecr ibe the indexical Features

of different ways in h i c h 'a language system ,is manifested,

but i t t e l l s tm nothing about hw the ianguege s y q t a i s realized

that a quad itat i v e aulysis of a text b a crude way of indexing

The othsr approach to lenquaqe description that Widdouson

comnents upm is a qualitati'vs one in .that i t indicates how

the functions art reeli zed in a language, He cites ttm workrs

of Leckstram, Selinker and'lrirnble (1970, 1972) , and %ale8

(1974) in which there i s an ettempt to describe language not

in terms of the frequency with which certain linguistic items

occur in a var iety (science) but how they aea ueed t o meks

statements and descriptions of different kinds. But in th ia

approach assumptions are made about the nature of discourse

in terms of the rhetor ica l/illocut ionary acta typical to

a variety and an ettanpt is made to isolate these acts.

However, Widdowsan p i n t s out thet description of the

discourse of e variety does mt consist only in the epecifi-

LL b s l o do with Ctw, manner in which Lhqy codlne t o form

coherent stretches o f discouree. For example, a description

of the rhetoric of science will not be with reference to what

hetotics 1 acts ere performd in the vat i e t y such .as dsclcr ibing,

ex-plifyirrl), gemretizing and so an - but elso with the m m r

in rhich. tb8e vasiwa sub-acta colabina to focn the major

*etorice t act. For example, a descciption of s c i en t i f i c

discourse should be able Lo show whether the eccepted for&

far the reporting of experimental findings would involve

the combinat ion of constiLuent acts such as atatamnt of hy-

pdhesis, descr ipt ion of procedure, stetenrent of findings,

summary and so on. The underlying assumption here ie that

every discourse is structured according to certain patterns

of rhetorical organization which impose a conformity on the

users of that part icular language var iety . I t he8 been pointed'

out that it should be the aim o f a description of discourse

Lu hrifiq nail. 1 . 1 ~ : lmrtilq ti,i!;ct~tir:;t? ~ l .~ : t ic t . \ i r~ nr fli!~i:nt~rnc.

orqani tat ion.

The wplication of discourse analysis in the design

of ESP course materials is exemplified in 'Enqlieh in Focus'

series and Trimble (1985).

The aim o f the English i n Focus series is to develop a

basic kmwledqe nf h a w Enqlish is u ~ e d for c o ~ ~ ~ ~ n l c a t l o n in

the comw English sentence patterm but who need to learn

hrm these getterns ere used t o convey in formtion , to conduct

coherent discussion. a d to develop logicel ergunnte. Tho

exercises direct the students' attention to m r t a i n feetures)

of Enqlish which ere carmanly used in the discipline for which

the book is designed. T h e aim i s to provide the atudsnts with

a strategy for reading more d i f f i cu l t texta i n the subject

area and t~ prepare them far making effective use of Enplirrh

i n Lhelr awn writing. Although the emphasis is on Engliah

as a medium of expression for comnwricating idses abwt the

socia 1 sciences/physica 1 science etc., the besic elements

of the lmnqr~aqe have not been neglected. Pattern pracbice

is provided i n the use of lenguaqe and i n tb guided writinq

sections of each unit. &It th is i s always presented i n relat ion

to a cammicat ive context and not s imply as an exercise in

making sentences for their .own sake. The ,series does not aim

a t teaching the subject matter nor does it aim a t teaching

gramat ica 1 ' structures and vwabulary ea such. I t s purpose

is t o show how language ie uwd as a mdim for the s tudy of

a particular discipline and to give the students s grounding

in me set of ronnunlcation skill8 in' English. . , *

In this series eech t e x t ia divided into eight mite.

~ a ~ h unit ks .a psasaps' for reding SM c o l l p ~ i m . TIW

e x e r c i s e ~ t m t)w, paseep hao the following pittsrnt

1. Salut ions to camprehension exereise

Exercise A : Contextual reFernme

8 : Rephraeing/meaninq assessmsnt and

sumary writing.

C t Relationship between ststsmsnta

D r Statements based on diegrens:

genere li zat ion

E : Transforming definitions into

qenera l i zat ion

11 . Informat ion transfer

111. Cramner : Eg, : Conbininq sentences with a re la t ive

clause, present participle/pest p r t iciple, etc.

I V , Paragraph writing : Stage 1, Sentence building

2. Paragraph bui l ding

3, Paragraph reaonstructim

V. Frm Reading

C - Lwrs TCMI~ (3985)

ESP course-design on the basis QT e discwcse ana- t '

lysis of a ' partiklac var'iety 18 betker exemplified in Trimblo

(1985)- fhh m9 the mrde o f f r w l e himeelf, *... 'h#

qram atr a t research into ths &areetnrbtica of written

scientific and technical English (EST) and wt of teaching

the findings of th i s research to mwr-mtive rt~denter.~ (p.29).

IM book wss originally b e e i p d for nan-natlva undergraduate

engineeriq &udmts who were advanced both in the use o f

€ngli& md i n their chosen subJect. Cetsr, t(re mope of the

curricul~m wee. broadened i n such e way that it could be uaeful

to m y interested non-native student wrkfng I n a scientific

or technical f i e l d end native students takinq advenced degrees

in teachinq E r q l i s t ~ as e sl~cond/foreigrr Inr~qusqe aleo used

the courses "as e leboratory .I' (p.2).

In this work 'EST' is used to refer t o the f i e l d

of Science and Technology and focuses mostly on written d i s -

course, althouqh oral discourse has not &en overlooked.

The word 'di.scaurse' means, . . . a callection of connected

language units - such as sentences end paragraphs - thet to-

qelher make up a cohesive, coherent tex t . " (p.2). The paragraph

is taken as the unit o f analysis of tb t e x t ,

he book can be divided into two parts. The f i ra t

Pert af the' boak exemims the 'rhetoric* of ecierttific and

technical Enpllsh, it ala , exarinse ths gr8mac lwi8

related to thla var le ly . rhe wcond p s i t of the bwk d&t.

with ths hplicatiarrs that the andyeis has foc teaching.

T h e term 'rhetoric' i a used to refer to o m importent

i art of the braad comunicative mode celled 'discauree'.

'Rhetoric' is defined as, ",. , . . . . . the prbcees a writer uses

to produce a desired piece of ten t. This process is basically

one of chooeing and organizing information for a specific

set of prpases md 8 specific set o f readers, An EST b x t

is concerned only with the presentetion of facts, hypalhsi8,

and similar types o f information. I t is not .' concerned with

the form8 of writLen English that e d i t o r i a l i a e , kxpress emotions

or emakiona l l y based ergumnt or are f r i c t ion81 or poetic

in nature ." (pa 10).

Information orqani ret ion is understood as t

(1) the sequencing o f the items' of informatian i n a piece

of written discourse

( i i ) the expression o f the kinds of re)allonships that

exist between these items

However, i n thie analysie as well a8 in the sectiof

a b o ~ t teaching the 'total dlecburcle" Wen divi(bd into

faur rhetoricst levels - A, 8, C crrd 0, Level A qivss the purpose

of the tot.? discwres eg: ( i ) Detailing m srprbent .

(iii) Presenting n e w hypothssis or theory

( f v ) Presenting other types of EST information

Level B consists of the 'general rhetorical functions'

which develop the obJec t ive of the discourtre egt stating

purpose, report ing past research, s ta t ing t h e problem, prasen-

ting inforrnat ion on apparatus used in an experiment, present inq

information on experimental proceduras etc, Leve l C has to

do with the specific rhetor i c a l Functions that ere found conmonly

in written EST discourse : description, definit ion, c l a s s i -

fication, instruct ions, and visua l-verbal relet ionships

between a visual a id end its accornpenyinq texts. Finally,

level O deels with the 'rhetorical techniques1 that provide

relationship within and between the rhet;or ical write of Level C.

The examples given ere : ( 1 ) Orders - time, space, causal i ty ,

and reeul t , ( 2 ) Patterns cause l i ty and rssul l , order of impor- 1

tance, comparison and contrast, analogy, exemplific~lt ion

arrd i l lus tra t ion .

Sam of the apecific gramatice1 elements that

have been caimidered i n r e l a t i a to ther rhetoric of science

are : (lessive - R L ~ C tve dint inclions, the we of mckls in

the ct#toric of instructions, prcrble-a w i t h tb dsfinita

srLicle and the non-temporal use of tense. Besides, the 'sub-

technical' mabu la ty of €Sf md the noun coApawrds that typi-

callycswxmr in th i s var i e t y have a lsb been caneidsred.

T rimble claims that this ' rhetar ice1 ep~,roach'

has praved itaelf useful both i n teaching reading skills and

in teachinq the types OF writing that scimt i f i c end technical

Erqlish demands . The pedeqogy rocuses ptogreseival y on the

pnracnolers used in t.he en~lyrrisj of EST diacmrae. The course

commences w i t h the teachinq of the paraqreph end proceeds

I r, !.he Lorrc.:lr i riy or 1 . t ~ rhrrlar ica I qramnat icrr 1 re1 at ianahi pa

and the lexical elements. Controlled writ ing aasiqnrr#nta

are taken up En the end. T h e tasks used are moatly of the 'recog-

nition' type end tasks of the 'production' type ere pastpaned

until the last unit m controlled writing.

Example :

(1 ) In. y w c subject mtter reeding Find exemplea of the

follwing :

e) rind a paraqrllph of descrlpt ion thet use8 roa t l y

stat i v e verb forms,

(b) Find a paragraph of description that u w s met l y

paasrive varb forms.

Production tasks

( 1 ) Submit ywr topic for approval; include a brief statement

as to the depth of coverage plenrred and the probable

length of the work. I f feasible a t this stage, you ahauld

a180 submit some passible sources.

In t k wcond prrrt. o f hi9 work, Mnhy discusses how

the prof i le of comnunication needs of a participant can be

interpreted in terms of the language skil ls required For i t e

reali zat ion. He observes that the customary division o f languege

skills into L-S-R-W are macro-cancspte. However, he uses the

term 'skill as a micro-c&cept and distinguishen i t from

the macro-rorrcepl o f an ac t iv i ty . tte lists S4 micro-acts es

a reference .source from which e selectiog could be rnede de-

pending upon the nature of the course i n question. He d i v i d e

the eki l lahicro - e m in to 14 ceteqorier . The criteria used

for the division ere as rol laws :

1 Skills 1 - 10, 17-18 : mntor-pcrrcsptwrl dti'lls, receptive

lend prMfucLive roc b t h the -en m ~ d kt* w r i t t e n amdim.

E9.r dimcrilninet ing aounds in carmected spsech, art i -

m l a t lnq a m d s in connected speech, mognlt inq

the script of a l q u e g e , manipulating the ecript

of a lanquege . 2. Skills 11-16 are concerned w i t h understanding and con-

veyinq maninq, especial ly attitudinal marring,

main1 y through intonat ion.

Eq. Underst~ndinq/producinq intonalinn petterna

interpet inq/expressing a t t itudinal meeninq through

var i d . ion nf tnr~e, nuclear shirt

3 . S k i l l s mentioned at No.19 help a non-native learner

in word formation without unnecessary use o f the dictionary.

4. Skills 20-23 &el with undetstanding and expressing

fnformtion like mak ing inferences, mde~stsndinq

fiquretive language and so cn. ,

5 . S k i l l s 24 end 25 deal with understanding and ewpeessing

conceptual meaning.

Eg, . quant i t y aml alkbunt, def i n i tanems and indef i n i ten8~ra,

ci*rp.riam-degree, tir* (eap. tenaa md .ap.ct),

6. Wit la 26-27 relate psych1 inqrrist ic pracsas to micro-

Cg. understlandinq end ewpreasing the connunicetiv~

value (functiwr) o f sentences end uttarancss with

or without e x p l i c i t indicators.

7. S k i l l e 28-33 have to do with inter-ssntentiel end stru-

ctural and inter -senkenl iil1 md ssnrant ic relet ime.

Eq. understand ing/expressing relations within the

sentence using rnadiricet ion, negatian etc., ;

mderstanding/ expressinq relet icms between patte

of a tew t through cohesive devices and so on.

8. Skill, M invalves re1eLing information in the text

to information not contained in the tex t using exo(lhoric . reference, integretinq data i n the text with ane'e

wn exper ieme or knowledge of the war ld ,

9. Skills 35-39 operate at the level of discourse coherence

€9. c e q i zing/using indicators in discourse, ident i-

fying t k w i n p i n t or imparlant inforrnalicm

in n piece of dirii:m~ras, dielinyl~lehinq the main

10. Skills 40-43 rlro m c r r t o d w i t h lln, tiiff'sront ampacts

of surrrnar 1 z irtg and note -tak ing . 11. Ski 11s 44-46 have to do with reference skills and readinp

skittrx l ike skimming and scenninq.

12. Skills 47-49 ere concerned with discourse skills.

Eq. ' i n i t i a l ing in discaurse' , 'maintaining the d i s -

course' and ' terminat inq in discourse'

I f . Skill 50 deals with planning end organizing informtian

using rheLarica1 functions especially definit ion,

classification and description.

14. Sk i 11s 57 -54 ckml wi \.!I " i n T w r m u L ion Lrot~sfer or rolnying

informal ion1' like transcoding informat ion in speech/

wrilirrq l o diaqra~mnt ic d i s p l a y , rol~yirq informet lon-

directly (comnentary) - description concurrent with

action or indi rect ly (reporting)

Reqister Anelyses as demonstrated by Huddleston d

I Kak Ctmw ore ottcmpLn l a hncr ibo o vrrrialy or English

(EST) with reepect l o iLs formal properties. ln other words,

these ~tudiaa aim at a quentiLative enalyaia in term of the

occurrence of certain l ingu i s t i c structures and item@ QQ

vocabulary which character i xa i L m a rmb-&e of the lenyuclqe.

Such err approach to the descr iptim of language variety we8

a p i m e r i n g attempt and was concurrent with the view or lanqusge

as a formal system held by linguists a t the time, Such an anelyais

of langoage var ie ty was often used in ESP course-deaign,

However, a reqister analysis o f a variety is inedequate

in that it f a i l s t o account for the camaunic'stive properties

of the variety, What characterizes language use is not merely

I.& typic0 1 1 i m ~ c ~ i s l ic rcnttrren nsml y, ttw model canr~tru-

ctions, voice, cornplenrentetian, reletiviration etc., but

also the rhetoricaL fmct ions thst typical ly occur i n 8 variety.

In other words, it is also important for an analysis t o shw

whether ane performs certain acts of cornmicat ion like defining,

classifying, obeervinq, describing, reporting, inferring

etc,, in a certain variety and h o w languege is used to perform

these fune t ions .

In t h i s mspect, the idea of using mtionr/functian8

is an improvement upon the ear l ier approach nsrnely, reqialsr

analysis. A l t h q h there seems m evidence o f any research

to describe s:pmrticulat ,. lmgmqe var iety In terns of notlonu/

C- time, lb cmcepL cou 1 d be used l o ar r kva at a t a x m a y

with reapect to a specific variety of lsnquaps use. b v e r t h e h a s ,

this spproad't too is deficient. h s p i t e the fact that i t is

a departure from register analyaie, one can recoqnize certain

cwmtan Features with the earlier approach. This i s because

instead of listing the s y n t a c t i c structures end lexicel itme

that are typicel of a variety, me lists the rhetorical functions

in this approach. Also, it does not account far tha weys in

which these functions ate reelired i n the particular typea

of diacouree . I t is d i f f i c u l t to say that a stretch of lenguaga

performs o m and only one comnmicative function. Actually,

a nuder o f ~uh-acts/r#&-fumt inns cnmbim taqtlther ta reel i ze

a ma jar camqunicalive act/func tion. A sat isCacLory approech

to the anelysis of a language veriety is one which not: anly

characterizes the typ ice 1 comnunicet i ve functions that are

performed in the variety (even though the list cannot be en-

haust ive) but elso are which aeeks t o iden t i f y the ehared

convent ions that e x i s t w i t h regard t o -discourse organization

and shw how they help to form 'coherent isc course.

A l l the courses desiqmd using register anelyais, the

notional / f m t i o n a l approach, or tho dbcouraal approach

rocus nore on antenL rather than on athadology. In this

sense they are 'product-arimtedg and not @procuss-orimted',

The ergparmlasauagllim ssecas to be that awrs .the learner has'

mastered, the constituent i b s of lmquage, be it form or

function, h8 w i l l be able to uhle the languege. there is m

ibLtempl to sdmw wt)at tha learner t i~ t r r l o drr In order to he

'1.2. Oeacription of lmqumm weriety in tho prvrasrrt study

As pointed out oerlier, need8 enalysie in terms

of description of language variety has necessarily accompanied

needs analysis in terms of jab descriptiwr. Therefore, beeides

identifyinq the needs of EAdP learners with respec1 to the

target situation, it was also necessary to ident i fy their

needs with respect t o t h e i r target lmguege.

Iht, main nim or Lhis Lho~is is Lo evolve a pedaqogy

for EAde that w i l l enable leerners not o n l y to perform the

t ~ s k s that are typicnl of Adnrinist.r~ll;im but also to use the

var iety of language that is typical of this context. Therefore, a

i t was necensary ko i h t i f y the characteristic features

of this verlety eo that the insight8 gained by such en anelysim

could be w i t a b l y t m d for . EAdP course-design with apecia1

mfeeence to the comvricative ebi l i t ies thet have to be imparted

Since the padegrJqy envisaged in thln thesis i s besud

on the caraaunicmtive ep~coach to language teaching, ths unit

of 1erquat)e use Leicen Tor arBelyeis i s primarily discourse,

allhaugh the de~cript iwr also tekes into account h o w the d i s -

cwrw is real i zed a t the m i ~ t r ) - l e v e 1 8 of lenqtjaqe use. T h s

aim of the snarysis was to invest igete r

( i ) the i1locut Ionary/rhetar ica1 acts that are performad

while using written Enqlish far adnrini~trative purposes.

( i i ) the ways in which these acts are performed in connected

discourse.

( i i i ) tha ways in h writlan discourse i s arqrrnized in

Administ r a t ion

( i v ) the sub-act8 that constitute a major rhetoricel-illo-

cutionery act and the sequence in which they occur.

Oiscoutae analysis as a discipl ine ie mainly concerned w i t h the comunicative functions perforamd in a text . The term 'cowununicative' is often used t o refer to both illactat icmery (Avst in : 9962)end interactional (Widdonawr, 1979 ) functions. T h e f i rat large1 y depends an convent im8

of lanquaga use while the second is determined lnoetly by aeqrwrrrt i m 1 re1 a t / m ~ bt?tmtm tmitn nf lerw)uacp use. I t is rnrcaaanry to rnrskc rr Lcrc~irmloqEcsl diet inction betlreen these tm types of fmticms. Hence in th i s thesis the term 'itlocutionsry/rhstariaal' ie used to refer to what Austin termed speach acts srrd the 'interactive act@' CWiddowem, 3979) are perceived as ak-acts which conetitute major ilkacut iarrery/&etocicsl gcte.

( v ) t;hb choices thek are waitable Lo the eddresssr in the

e e m l n q or sub-acts.

( v i ) t;he weys in which the sub-mcte ere Linked togathat 8a

as Lo make the discourse coherenl . ( v i i ) the relationship(s) between form and function,

( v i i i ) the lexical, syntactic and stylistic choices thet are

evailable for the linguistic rea'lixatinn o f !.IF: t i&-

acts.

Given the Fact that the English used for edminislrativa

purposes is hitjhl y formnl and cnnvent iorwl, a dsacr ipC ion

nf the language variety in these term war ersentlal i n order

to study ttle norhs aF Isnguaqe use and later incorparete t h e m

into the teaching proqramne suggested.

For t h i s purpose a large number of samples o f the actual

written tex ts that ere used in administ ra t ive orqeni zet ions

was collected and analyzed. The samples collected mte of *

different text types from various commercial, industrial,

financial and other orqenizatime.

T h e t e x t type,@ conskdered were :

1. I. st tern t Crrrreapmdence

(a) m e persan t o another by name

(b) m e person to another byderrignation

(c) circuler letters meant for more then one person

(a) one person ta anather by nsm

(b) one persan tonnolher bydeslqnalion

(c) circuler from one inst i tut ion ta a number of inet i -

tu t ions.

2. Mates on files :

( i ) marking a document to someone end indicating the

action to b8 taken

( i i ) sunminq up lhe psrLiculars

( i I. i jmt i t y inq m inmre a d ~tqcgesl. ing e 1 ine of act ion

3. Extracts t

t i ) of Iet tees

(ii) of reports

( f ) Amual reports

( l i ) Reports rwr projects

( i i i ) Progress reporls

( i v ) Impection reports

( v ) Enquiry reports

( v i ) Quali ty assessment

5 . Minutes of meetings

6. Press Statement8

7. Announcements :

(i) Notices

( i i ) Advertisements

( a ) ca 11 inq for epp 1 ical ions

(b) regard ing sa lee

8. Statutes

9. Rules and Regulations

30. ~ w a r n k n k Orders

The aim was not t o collect e fixed number of senrples

h r ~ l tn m n h the col leek inn f m i r l y rapressntstivrs both in Letme

OF the organizations covered 88 well a8 the t e x t t y p e collected.

Hamver, it ust be r s n t i m d here thet the corpus f inal ly

used for analysPs contained asamples fcaa ttm various types

o f adninist rat ive otqani zst ions mt ionrsd eet liet but did

not contain ell the tex t types originaily .intended. h i s was

because certain i t m s l ike notee on f i lea nere considered

confidential and were not mads available to the r e ~ a r c b r .

Also, the organizations contacted durinq the survey did not

use exttacts of letters and reports. Besides, subtle digt in-

ctims that were mde about the nature aT intra/intet-institu-

tional correspondence end about the various kinds of reports

were drewn on the intuit ive perception8 of en wt8ldrrrt and

did not exist in reality , o r ewempla, circulsra meant. for

mre !.bn nnr? per.son within rln inst i l u l i m m r e called Off ice

Memos or Memorandum. So in the f ine l tally the corpus contained

the followinq text-types : (1 ) Letters, ( 2 ) Reports, ( 3 1 Minutes

of meetings, ( 4 ) Press Notes, ( 5 ) Announcenente, (6) Rules

and Regulet ions, ( 7 ) Government Orders, (0 1 Memorandurn/Of f ice

Memo

the malyticel framework used in this thesis t o describe

EAdP lenguaqe variety w a s constructed dradinq on the insights

p ined by lhe various studies an di~caurw?, linguiot ic and

stylistic analysis. &t no fcalnemrk af analysis or description

was npptied in i t s entirety. ttm me used In this thesis we8

conatnrc tad k-p inq In mind the main aim of the p~assnt csaearch

pro jw t which i s padagogicel . Ideas of (Ihilasaphers like Austin end Ssarle &out

spwch ecta were used to establish the criteria for idamti-

f y i q the r~ tor l ca l / i l l ocu t ionary acts. Although the rtudba

of Sacka, Schegloff , Jefferson (Cwltbrdr1977) Sinclair

and C w 1 thard ( 1975 1 focus main1 y an spaken 'discouree , they

provided useful inaights into the idea of discourse ntructute,

However, the notian of the sub-act%, their sequence and the

interactimel functiorebetneen them draws largely m Widdoweon*e

views on 'discourse as process' and the notion of discwcee

strategies is taken from Quirk a t a l (1985). Teimble (1985)

also served as a useful point of reference.

The I inquisl ic doscr ipt ion alLempled in this thesis

is no1 knscd on reyin!.c?r ntra I ysis rmr c k w r i ~ i t Cbl low any ans

of the available qramatical descriptions o f English l ib

sca le-category gramnar , trans farmat iona 1 qrearnar etc . I t

was decided to adopt en eclectic approach cumhinirg several

u ~ f u l features from a nullber of contrithtiap particularly

Halliday end Hasan (19761, HaXlidey (9985) end Quirk s t 81. 1

(iue5).

T I p signif icent sty listic f e e t u ~ e of this vet i e t y

have been identified lamply wr the bash of a study or tha

important nbrcks on skuat i-l var jet ion in the use o i l-ags

Cryatml & Davy, ($969). E n k v i d . (1964, 1973), Turner (19751,

Fmter (1986 1.

T h e description of the € A 8 variety arrived a t in this

thesis ie with reference to the following qwstiona:

( i ) What are the typical rhetarical/illocutianary acts

perfnrmd in t h i s variety of English?

( i f ) I f each of these rhetorical acts can be conaideced as

beinq made up af R ~pecific sequcrncls of sub-ects, whet

are the patterns of sub-acts that are typ ica l l y found

in EAdP?

( i i i ) Are these sub-ects l inked LogeLhac e x p l i c i t l y , or impli-

citly? If explicitly linked, h a t are the Linguistic

devices used for this purpose end i f i m p l i c i t l y linked

h a t are the textual. and pragmatic links that cen be

identified? *

( i v ) A r e these sub-acts typical ty tee1 ired by single c l e u a e s

ar ct~use-ca~lpbexes? I f ctau~e-complexes, (a) twm can

the telatiunm httwrsrr the clwsee in e clauss-complex

be described? In other words, what interactional f u n c t i ~ ~ s

c n u identify tmt*aen tha clauses in a clmse-complex?

(b) *at are ths linguistic dauieeo typicaILy used

to Link the cleuees in e clause-complex?

( v ) W i t h i n a c l ~ a e , b w i s t h a i n t ~ r r n a L i o n ~ y p i c a i l y o r g a n i z e b

to const i tute a message?

( v i ) What era the typical discourse s trateg ies used in EAdP?

Is it possible to find carrelat ions between the types

of strategies used md the rhetoricel ect performed?

( v i i ) Whet are the stylistic Features ( l ex ica l end syntactic)

which typ ica l ly co-mcur with s p e c i f i c rhetorical acts

in EAdP?

Rhetorical acts typically perfoned in EAdP

T& theory that in normal coraunicative a c t i v i t y

people do not merely produce 'utterances1 but in doing so

perform some kind of h t o r ica1/illocutianary ect derives L

from the works o f Austin (3962) and later Sear le (1969L

Austin poir~ls aut t tml ltre i l loeut imary act can often

be identifi6.d by the presence of the performative verb/explicit

p e r f o ~ ~ t h v e . €g. I e ~ ~ h ~ i r t r , I - bid y w waicara, 1 requeat

YOU ..,. But Austin doerr ncrt offer eny cluse as to b to i h t i f y

the iilacutionary act in the absence of the expl ic i t parfor-

mat ivs. k jmt seys that the interpretat inn nf tLho locutidnary

t i s concerned w i t h 'mctaninqt. Slrawson (19641, however,

points out that maning must be seen as an amalgam of qrarnnraticel,

lexical and extra-textual Informstion and i t is the function

of the locutinnary act to transfer th is maening from addresser

to addressee. Sesrle (1965) suqqeete that the i l l o c u t i m a c y

act of utterances can also be determined by the function indi-

cating devices in the utterance like word order, stress, in-

tonat ion, cmlnr~ t , punctusL inn, the mod of the verb and,

aT course, l t w ? poeformsLivc? verbs. Further, he discusses

and distinguishee between two major typse o f rules, namely

regulative and const itut i ve which govern the linguistic rea-

Li zation of illocut ionary acts. While tegutative ruies are

concerned with conditions on the occurrence of certain forms

of behaviour, Eq. 'Tress passers will be proeecuted','Stick

bills', constitutive rules are concerned with the behaviour

itself, €9. * A batsman is leg beFors wicket if . . . . .' Cwltherd

(1977 :23 ) &serves that, "In the study of language uee both

sets of rules ere importmt. A l l interaction has regulative

r u l e s , usually not e x p l i c i t l y stated, which govern greetings,

choice of topic, i~ttsrrqptim and .D an en8 . ; . . . Constitutive rules in wech are those which cantto1 the weys in which a

qivm utterance of e given form is heard as rea l t r iq a given

I t folliwe Lhat usrims crlterle wil l heve to be taken

into account while detsrarining the i l locutlonary act perforared

by e piece of discourse, In other wards. i t La not o n l y the

explicit performative which hslpe to determine the ect but

also the other Linguistic and extra-linguist ic convent ions

T h e c r i t e r i a used for the identif ication of the i l l o -

cutionery act in the samples of EAdP texts analywd were:

(a ) the uae of t b e x p l i c i t perforlnativa in the text , (b) the

extra-linguist ic convent ions that govern ths interaction,

( c ) the structure o f the t e x t .

( e ) Ihe rhelor i ca l / i llncut ionary act can very ofLen be deter-

mined by the performative verb exp l i c i t l y uasd i n EAdP texts.

We (mold like to)infoer you tbt your order has been shipped an the ..... . and s h w l d reech you within the n e w t ten days.

We era sure you w i l l bet gleamed with the umeignmt and 1- ~orwarci to yaup next arder .

&re the swpticit use? of the verb 'int'orn9 used with

the f irst p e r m We* clearly indicates that tha act performed

by Ihe t e x t is Lhal of 'giving irrf'ocrnaCiorrl. According Lo

Austin explicit pochrlnat ives Fsre verbs in the simple present

tense md in the m=livn vr~irrn tmrl with a wbject in lhe f i r e t

pareon sinqular . In the ewenple given the subject is in f i r s t

pi3rsm plural and the verb phrase is 'would like to inform'.

But, a8 w i l l be discussed subsequently in th is chapter, in

EAdP, the subject I s very often in the plural ee the addresser

represents an institution and therefore writes on its behalf.

Further, the 'would like to ' element used in the verb phrese

is a convention characteristic of the formel nature of' €AdQ

and does rot' a l t e r the function performed. Therefore, i t can

be sa id that the utterance 'We (would l i k e to ) informm performs

the act of 'giving information'.

In another example qiven below i t can be men that

the verb used imperatively also helps us identify the i l l o -

cutimaty act: performed by I tw t .axt .

I am very much impreseed by the SANYO FX 50 CD and nalural ly w i s h to buy it a t the earlieet ~ ~ ) p e c i a i l y if it haa a. progrlrmable time. Pleaae be kind enough to wnd ms ths details regarding tb W e 1 and also the price in India.

P ~ ~ M o alsb inf'om am of COs wellable w i t h you especially foreign claesicels or semi- clessicals l i b Sa#rd of Plusie, Abbe stc.

In the extract of a latter reproduced above the expl ici t

marker 'please inform me' clearly points out thet the letter

performs the act of 'asking o r informtion' . This use is

a 1 so typ ice 1 of EAdP.

(b) thwevar, pcr rorm~l i v e verbs ure r w ~ L a lweys preaenL

in a text as exp l i c i t markers of an iilocutionery act. I n the

absence of e x p l i c i t markers one will have to take into account

the shared cmvent ions that aperate, like for example, the

relet; ionship betwoen the addresser and Ltre ddreasee. L e t

us consi der an e x tract of a Press Note to i l luatrate this point :

Text 3

BANCALORE UNIVERSITY hana €harathi, Bangalore 540 056

No : A C A / R ~ / ~ ~ - 8 8 Oatedt 12 -6.1987

PRESS NOTE

Sub: Calendar of Events for the Academic Year 1987-88 in respect of B,A,/B.Se./B.Com. courses,

I t is hereby mrtified for i ~ f o r m t i m of the Studate , Parato end the Csnral Public thet the Bangalare University has decided to start: the f i r s t term for B,A,/ B.SC./B.CUII ~ o u r s e s fram"4st OF Juty 3987. ALL achaissicms to tb first year cif ths degree rou~rc;a -11 be cmapketed a an ar fibsface 30,6.l&37 br the PttmfaaS,

kmmvar- Ihs laat date for admission w i t h pmsl fee af Ra. to/- *(Rupees ten ml y ) is f ixed upto 30-7-1987. fhs last .dste or ad~lission -11 mt be e w t d a d under any ci reurrrstanc8s. AL I the ekigibls candidates are therrerore required to gst thcsrnmlves enrolled for f i r s t year before the st ipulated date. t h s c ~ a s s s ~ Qor the I, I 1 and I11 year B.A./S.Sc./B.Cora. courses will co-rrcs f r o m 1-7-1987, k candidate ahall get admi- asian without the aligtbikity certificate when it La required far the purpose of a d m i - ssion, No Principal shalt1 admit s candidate w i t h o u t the el iqibility cert ifkcate wherever the e l i q i b i l i t y cert i r icate .is requkred for admission.

A 1 1 foreiqn nationals are required to produce the ~ 1 i q t b i l i t . y certificate issued by tho lhriversity Tor purpome of admission, Foreiqn Nationm1s w i l l not be a d m i t t e d w i t b u t (,he el iqibi1 i t y c e r t i - C i c m L e ,

Attendance i s c o m ~ ~ ~ s o r y , PrincipaLs w i l l r a t i f y the details of attendarrce in respect of each candidate f r a n t i m e to t i m e . Any ehortaqe of attendance over arrd ebove l i m i t s t ipulated wiL 1 not; be condoned.

Examinat ions w i 1 l begin f r o m 1-4-1988, Their sacredness shall h a v e to be m a i n t a i n e d . Datails of the Calendar of Events o r tha Academic Y e a r 3987 -88 have been not if ied separately at the Wiversity O f f i c e and at aJ t C o l leqes concerned -

The students and parents are requested to note this and co-operate w i t h the P r i n c i - pal& of the Callages and thg University, and adhere ta t h e Calender irrdicaCed above,

AL~MU~J~I thir, pcst~s note is a notification givlng infor-

matim tn ttm public sbwt the cor#nencecaanl of courses in

the tkriversity , it actually gives a aet o f instructions about

what mat be done in order to erlrol oneself, b r s Ltm cr i ter Sm

h i c h he1 phi us to d 8 t e r m i ~ that tb c~nmnunicat ive act p a r f o ~ e d

is that of 'g iv ing ingtruc tione' is mainly, the addresser - addressee re! a t ionmhip. T h e thivetsi t y which ha8 issued the

notification has the authority not o n l y to determine the

procedure for admissions like fixing the dete of admission

t o particular courses but also t o enforce compliance on the

part of the atudents/candidatss in this reqard. T ~ u s , though

the not if icat ion is nnt df rect \y addressed to the students,

it. is obviat~s L t~ r r t t fttncl ion t.t~zlt. i t perform is one o f

inslrurrtir~g the ~t. trd~nLs : ~ h i r l I.iw pmcredtjra l o be rollawed

for qet t ing admitled to part icular courses. In the e x q l e

cited one can not ice that while the text performs the secondary

act of 'giving informationt, the primary act is that o f 'giving

i n s l r w t ions ' ,

( c ) Somelines iL is Lhe syt~LacLic sLructhre and the structure

of the text *ich are crucial in identifying the illacutionary *

ect performd, To illustrate this a set of irrstcuctiond given

to candidates tak inq 8 carpet itive euminir#t im ir given below r

lent 4

1. Candidmte has to blacken the appropriate matebyNFIptwtct.1 only.

2. A t m sttrip ftt~nrrld t t r nn?rwr?r alwel bc folded, muL ilaCed, lorn ar spoiled, otherwise it cenrmt be accepted by the romplter Ssed mechine.

3. Do not use rubber bands/str inqs to prepare bunches of answersheets et any stege of the session.

4. Keep enswersheets in a clean plece. Avoid its contact with dust at eny st- of the session.

5. Drs mt write any remarks on the answer- sheet. Inviqilators should give the ir observat ions about any candidate an aseparate answersheet.

In the .above example there is a combinet ion of c r i t e r ia

which helps us in Ldentifyinq the illocutionary act es giving

instruct ions .

( i ) r?nrrmr~L ion nT t . 1 ~ raqr~i ramnla

( ii) the use of imperatives like 'do not .use rubber bendat, C

'& not write any remarks on the answersheet' etc.; the

u9e o f ~nodals lib shauld, has t o

(ii i )the addreesmr-addfeesee relatimahip. T h e ineti tut ion

cmducting the teat has the authority to ahfarce compliance

cm thevpsrb o f ths catrdidetear taking k b test.

Wing the thew criteria naaely t (a) t b use of ewpticit

p e c f o r r e t i v ~ , (b) -red imarledrp oC linguistic .nd extra-

linguietfc convent ions end (c) the structure or the text,

the fo l lminq chetor ice l / i l lacut i c ~ e r y actm were identif ied

as being characteristic of EAdP: (1) eskinq for informetion,

(2) giving informtion, ( 3 ) asking for c lar i f i ca t ion , (4 ) giving

clarif icat ion, ( 5 ) nrakinq m~nplaints, (6) adjusting complaints,

( 7 ) giving inatructionrr, (8) placing orders, ( 9 ) issuing

reminders, (10 1 mek ing annnurrcemer~ts , ( 1 1 1 male inq ecknow-

ledqements, (12) repart ing, (13) summarizing, (14) co*inetiana.

I I . Patterns of sub-acts typically found in EAdP

T h e rhetorical act performed by a piece of discourse

can be established either by reference to the occurrence of

certain l inguist ic elements or in Lerms of certain ewtra-

linguistic convent ions that govern the interaction. But t o

consider a piece o f discourse w i t h respect t o the major i l lo -

cut ionary ect rea l i zed mu1 d be to focus only on ' that ' conmuni - cation is achieved by the t e x t . In recent attempts a t discourse

1

malysis it has been shown Lhat i t i s inparLen1 to focus aleo

an 'but the mmuricatir~n is achieved. Attention here is

directed at the int.erclcL Imn1 ttspccta nf 1m1y~1+cp rrse. 4wordinq

to Wid&- (1979 : 147 ) , "ln t h i s approach, dif E-i-

cathe mt* are &fined intsrnoll y MI it u r s , w i t h rsCerance

to their ftnction w element8 OF disowcse stru~ture.~ Ha

nrentiw agreement, disagreement, initiation, relspmee end

elicitst; im es exmples of such ' interactive' acts.

I t fallows that evsty piece of discourse realizing e

particular illocutionary act ia made up of s series of eub-

acts which ere related to each other in a linear and hierarchicel

way. Therefore, as Coul thard (1977 : 148 ) points out, "readers

rmst contimrally work at interpreting a text and muet frequently

revise their i n i t i a l interpretation in the Light o f the occu-

rrence and value of succeeding locut ions ." In tha wards of

Widdouson, "I may, for example, interpret a particular remark

as a casual observation and then be obliged to revise th is

interpretation as the discourse proceeds and as i t becollw

apparent thet the remark was intended as, l e t u s say, an sxple-

nation." (p.146)

I t is therefore important ta study what sub-acts constitute

a major illocutionary ect and the sequence in which they occur

because 'rules o f use' lib 'rules af uaage' ere subject to

variation. Widdowsan observe8 that ".. . . . . just as there

are different kinds af uaa9e opr?ralinq in dislacta, 80 there

are different kinds of use aperating i n different universes

of discourse. Far exemple, we m y know whet i t Pa to explain

marething and h a t conrrtitutws agreement within the convent iana

accepted in our particular area of amis1 apsretiwr, but i t

&es not follow that we know whet counts es e scientific sxpla-

net ion or a legal aqceecnent . Problems arise when we attempt

to transfer rules of use Pram one m i v e r w of discourse to

mother . I take it that one of the' central concerns of formal

educatim Is to resolve this prablem and to extend the reper-

toire of such rules ." (p.143)

I t was found that each of the major illocutimary acte

ident i f ied i n EAdP discourse was made up of a speciPic sequence

o f sub-acts, Ihe sub-acts which cmst ilute the maJor illa-

cutionery acts ident if i ed , the sequence in nhich'they occur and

the c r i t e r i a used to identify t h e m w i l l now be discussed with

illustrations. 2

' 1 am very much impressed by the SANYO M CD snd naturally wish t o buy it a t ttn, ear Iiest especially i f it hes a praqradmable time. Pieass ba kind emnqh l o send me the deteile regarding the model end alwthe price in India.

The t e x t types given as examples are only those that are not ccmsideredcon~identiaL end *ich can be made public. m e , if tbce, is a predoninlsncta of a particular t e x t type in tbe illustratiana providad, this hes tam unevoitbble under the ci rcunrstems .

Pleasa alsa infaem ms af CDa available with you eapecialIy famiqn cLgaaica1~ or scmri-clesrricals like Sound of MIWic, Abba etc.

T h s ah-ects which cmstitute the major act or 'saCJry

for informet icrr ' are9 t

(a) drawing attention to a certain item by epecific

re Ts rence

(b) expressing a desire t o buy the item

( c ) requesting for more informetion a b u t the d e l

selec tad or about mother i tern

Different c t i t er im were used to identify the sub-acts. For

instance, in the sub-act (a) th nddreaser srd the addressee

have shared ktIoWledg8 of a certain item for eale. the^ letter

seems to have made some informat ion avelleble to prospective

customers about various models of e cerf ain (electronic)

item/gwd. The addresser is impressed with one of the models

md wishes Lo buy i t . The use of the e x p l i c i t performative-

'wish to buy' - helps t o determineUo wb-act a t (b). Likewise,

a t ( c ) explicit markera 1 ike 'Vlcase be kind enough to - send

ne Ua details ragerdiq the norkltag 'I~leaem - also inform

m~ about CDs available with yau" indicate the nature of the

sub-act nammLy, reguest i q for more infortnation. Haravac, a11

the sub-acts togsthsr constitute the major illocutionery act

OF 'ask.iW~ - for infotmatim'. - Furtbr, i t ust be .snL imsd

thet it m1.d be difficult to elter the wqusrrca in which

the wb-aeta occur, given the conventitma o f EAdP discourse

orqani zat ion .

We are i n receipt of your l e t t e r dated.. ..... and thank you for the interest showninwr products.

Y o u b d i n your letter expressed your desires Lo buy a SANYO model FX 50 #).We wish to c l a r i f y that we 6, n o C mmnfmture W's and am currently mabcinq m l y certain models rrom tlralr Lrm-in- one range. We ,hawever, are eervice agents for their products. We ate enclosing a leaflet for the 'products manufactured by us in collaboration w i t h . . . . . . . . .

In case y w require any more details, please contact Messrs ......... md Co, who are authorised dealelrs in .........

Sub-acts

(8) AcknowLedqinq the enquiry : - mut ine thank8 P

the criterion which helps ue identify the sub-act

is L t a ust? nT explicit markorti. fnr nrnnpla : We -- are in receipt

of your letter dated end thank y w .

I b) AccounCina Tot khe i m b i l & t y l o pive the specific i t em

of infomation eeked for

Here the addresser refers to the lette&/enquicy end

points out that they da mt mmuTacture the model eelacted

by the addressee. There are instances af explicit aerkera

indicatinq the sub-act.

For exernple : Y o u -- had i n your Letter expressed your de8ire

to buy ....... ; We wish t o that we do not menufacture.. .. -- --7

( c ) G i v ittq rc l evnt~ t . nvai \ni,le irlformnl inn

Thrr performat i ve verb is used e w p l i c i t l y b r e .

..... For example : We are enclosing a leaflet for the products

manufactured.

(d) Encouraqinq further contact

There are egain e x p l i c i t markers in the t e x t .

3. Winq for clatlflcatim

Text 6

Kindly refer to tho edvertiae~lent around the laask week of December of yous tang0 of ......... products in a leading English d e i l y 't&emirr you hed offered special prices to the buyem.

Uhen we contacked the dealer Pn o m m a m ~ . o a

Him. .......... WI ......... )he pleaded h i s in- drility ka r # 1 ~ , l y Inn d e l ~ ~ , ....... t l ~ d s a . a w r r i n whit-it wr! wnrn /~~tnrnnL~?tt JW INI? Imd rm randy sCwk aQ the asm. 1% cleilnebd L h e t the prices would be revised upwards from .......

We da not remember to heve seen in Lhe advar - tisemnt in expl ici t terms hi; the offer is v a l i d up t o ....... We do not understand why you or the dealer went8 to confuse ua,

We are still mansre oC tha exac t prices of yaur product and whether we w i l l be supplied at 014 rates OF new.

We therefare request you Lo clarify the above and also instruct yaur dealer to sopply us our tequi rement at nt d rates.

(a ) Orewinq attention to en earlier cr~mrmnicetion of the

addressee

T h e addresser rnekes s back-reference 1.0 the addressee ' e

w n announcemen1 . Mareover, \.here are expl ic L t express ions in

the text which bring out the reference.

Eg.: Kindly - ref- to the advertl8-t around last -k o f

December ....... wherein you - had offered apecia1 prices

to the buyers.

(b ) Explaining the mad for clarifiqation

Here the criterion used is the addreseer-addresees

mlat ionship. Ihe rsddeesser in raqmnse to an dvert ieaclssnt

~mmhrtcs s *rrIrrt f t . h ~ddressea) m d thinks that ha

is misled because the informat ion qiven by ths agsnt/dealec

is at vat- iance w i th thd inforllet im qivcm in the advert lesrsnt . The addressee, thatefote, apel ls out the datells 0f the iesue

which the addressee is asked to clarify.

(c ) Request for clarification

T line in the t e x t - "We, therefore, rapueet you

to c lar i fy the above" - has expl ic i t expressions (under lined)

4. Giving clarification

..... We ace in receipt of your Letter No.. dated ........ and thank you for the seare.

In your m v e lc l ler you had reqwsted us for certain clarifications on the prices of eaur ...... We are giving below the prices of al l out .....ern. ..

Model Price

the festival discount a c h w has been .......... ....... discant inued Pram Our dealer in

has quoted you the current prevalent price8 at the-tine of your enquiring with h i m .

. in cam yau require m y furthet clsri. ficatims, please get i n touch with us.

(a ) Acknowlmhincr tht request for clarification; routine

thanks

There are e x p l i c i t markers which determine this

sub-et ,

Eg.: We are i n receipt of your letter No, ., . , dated.. .. . . . and thank you For the seme.

(b ) C i v i t w ) Llrc clrrrificoLior~ requested for

the d e t a i l s which can c l a r i f y the issues raised

by the addressee heve been clearly spsl t aut by the sddrssser

i n two parts : (1) eGplicit etatsmnt Colloued by fectuel/

pertinent informat ion; ( 2 ) answering the query by the addresser.

( c ) Encoureqinq further contact

This is e x p l i c i t l y s tated in t h v t e x t w,..., please

get i n touch with us".

t t has coam to wr notiae that 4 . . e m . a*..

W e t boating S . . -lied to you ......... ........ v ide mr Invoice detsd ...... .... Itan bnan m l d by I)mr to WR, in....

VUJ w i l l madily appreciate that thiu fa a eeriaoa lap- an your pert, keeping in view the fact that the above f i r m ie not euthorised to stock and sell our consurner electronic products, Apart from precipitating aninogity among the dealers already existing in this mrket, we feel that such actlvl t ies w i l l leed to unhealthy cornpet it ion i n the net work.

Such being the case, we request yw to ref rain from trad ing our products to unauthorised sellinq agents i n Future.

Seekinq your co-operation in th i s matter, ws remain

lhe eddressee

There are e x p l i c i t tew tua1 markers here.

Eg*: " I t has come to our notice ......"; "you will readily

appreciate that this is a serious lapso on your pert ."

(b) U e s c r i b i q ---- Che act as a lapse - a l d f m i n t i f ~ Q o u t i to

(1) precipitate enimoei ty , ( i i ) load to udx?althy

c-ptitian

RequesLinq - the addressee Lo terrain Cra 8uch iwwo - I- In future - This is d e exp l i c i t in the text - "We request you

l a refrain f ram ....... *. Giving inst ructions

PRESS NOTE

Sub t Calender or events for the Acade- mic: Year 1987-88 in respect of P.C. Course9 in Arts, Science, Commerce, Educstion atc.

I t is hereby not if i e d far information of the Students, Parente md the General P t b l i c that the Bangalore U n i v e r s i t y Ma decided to s tar t the f i r s t term for courses P.G. in Arte, Science, Conmarce, Education etc., From 1st of August 1987. A l l admissions to the f i r s t year o f the P.G. Course shall be completed on or before 1.8.1987 by the Principals tiead of the Depart- nrents. Lest date for receipt of spplicationa h r t r ~ t rmwc lent w i 1 I h 15.7.1987. Entrance Lxems. w i l l be held between 16.7.87 and 20.7.87. Hawever, the last date far admissian with penal fee of Rs. lo/- (Rtqmen ten mb y ) in fixed upt.0 5.8.1987. T h e last d e b of admissim shall not bs extended mder any circumstances. A l l the eligible cand idtea ere therefore mquirsd to get themsielves enrolled for fimt year before the stipulated date. The classes for the Final P,G.Coursas will c-ce from I.?. 1987. Mo candi- dete ehall get addasion withaut ttm eligibility

cartif icate rllen I t i s required for the purpose of admission. No Prlncipals/Head of the Repact- mnt. *all whi t . . CB crwrdichle without m eligl- t ~ i l j l y ~ar1iTlcsrI.c. nlwrrrzvcrr l l rc eligibility CCCL J f'icrlln i s r ~ ~ c p l i t - 4 Tor utbni~aiorr .

A t 1 Ttarr? i q~ I - 1 rrrr? rsqui md In prnducc !.he el iqihi l i Ly ccrt Sf icnle lasued by the University for the purpose of admissrion. Foreign Net imals w i l l not be admitted without the e l i g i b i l i t y certificete.

Attendance is cmpulwry. Principale/H00 w i l l n o t i f y the deteils of attendance in respect of each candidete from time t o time. Any shortage of attendance over and above L i m i t st ipulated w i l l not be condoned,

Examinations w i l l begin from 15th April 1988. Their arrcrsdneon shal l have to be main- tained. Details nf Lhe CsLendar of Events for the Academic Veer 1987-88 have been not i f ied aeparstely eL t . k Univer3ity Office tnrd st a1 1 C n l lcyari/Dq~art mr!rlLn c:o:tcerned.

T h e students snd pnrentn are requested l a note t h i s erld co-npernte w i t h tile Principle/ HM) and the University, and adhere to the calendar indicated above.

REGISTRAR

(a ) Drawing aLtenLion Lo wlmt the i ~ l s t r u c t i m s are about

and for whom they are addressed

This sub-ect is made e x p l i c i t i n the i e x t - "It. i s hereby

notified .....,... ( i ) that the Banpalore Lhivetaity ha9

rhc.:icJF?rl 1 ) r r t t ~ r t LIE I t.erm, (hi) for inf'ornreLion of

students, parmts and Genera 1 PubLic.

Here the cr i ter ion which kelps w to Qtermlna t b

&-act is the addresaer-ersssee re le t laaehlp. Ihs hi-

vers i ty *ich has issued the notification alab instructs

the students about the conditions needed to be Fulfilled

by then, in order to get themselves admitted to particuler

cOUC988

In this case we have the instance of the indirect act

r l f instruct inq Lhe csndicbtss . for sq. "1 ant. data for roce ipt of oppl icet inns for entrance

I.csI. w i l l he 15.7.H7", "No cmwjriete d~ell get

admission without the eligibility certificate

when it is required for L h e purpose o f admlssi~n,~

Although in i so l e t ian these locutions can be a s i d to perform

the act of giving informaton, in the context of the t e x t they

certainly perform the act of giving instructions. They cen

be paraphrased as fallows:

' Y w i - q h t ~ l d s t h n i t. yn4~r innl, irnau h r i t * entrance Lest *

on or before 15.7.8.7.

A l l canclidstas stmu1 d 8ubm.it their applications for the - 2 - entrance test on or before 15 -7.87.

YOU wst produce tha eligibility cart iCicete *trenevar requimd

for the purpose oP adslission.

of' tha ir~struct i o n m end extend co-operst ion -- -- There ere axplici t markers in the t e x t Pndiceting

this eub-act .

Ep.: ' T h e students en6 parents - are requested to make o note

of thia and eel-operate w i t h the principals.

7. Placinq en Order

Text $0

........ \ l~ t t \k ymn Inr ytnw t p d ;t\ i t ~ n of' reqardinq the ....... w e wrote to you about. Enclosed you w i l l find our off ic ia l order No..... for ..........

We understand thet you w i l l allow a discount of 15% of f the cover price of Rs ......... Please send the qoods by inter-city express as we need them urgent l y .

Oelivery before ........ is a firm condition o f this order and we reserve the right to refuse the goods delivered after that time. 6

Thankim~ - end ecknowledqing - the quotet ion

T h e Tirsl line explicilly elslcg thia - !hank pu

for your quotation af ...... (b) confirrirm asreed terms of payrent, discount stc.

Ttm various terns are e x p l i c i t l y mmtiansd fn ths

~ g . We waderatsrrd C h e t yaw w i l l ellmu rrs a discount of

lSJ1;ofTtha ~ ~ ~ e ~ p r i c e o F Rs........

(4 Gfvinq specific details reqarding made of. delivery

The details ere e x p l i c i t l y spelt out in the t e x t .

( i ) Please send the goods by i n t e r - c i t y express-

mode of t ranspor t

( i i ) Delivery before ....... is a f i r m condition

of this order - dete of delivery

8. Appointment Orders

....... is appointed es ....... in ....... on a selary o f Rs.. ....

Itm shove e p p ~ i r r L l r m r 1 is ~ubject LO the approve1 of /he b c d of TcusLeea and the Director o f m........

tI~/Shtl i f t cpvarrmd by ths rulee, r e p - latimrrr :w~d dccisinrw r,T l tw b s r d or Trustees and tlm Uimclar of.. .....

He/Sb Iltrould report fat d r ~ t y ror tb i th to the ...... along 4 t h the cerrtificetes in original .

( 8 ) Speciryinq Ihe pere~n beinq appalnlad, the pomC l o

which appointment i a ~ nade end the dete of appointment

The &-act i s made expliei t in the tex t .

Eq . : ..... .... is being appointed as ..,.... from ....... (b) Ewplici t. l y stating tho conditions far appo in tmt

The mndit ions are explicitly stated in the text.

q . : ( i ) T k s b v e mpprrintmnt i s subject..lo the approval of

( i i Me/ShE? is qnverned by the rules/regulat ion* . . . . . ( c ) Instructing the appointee when t o report for duty

The use of the verb with the modal 'ehaL1' indicates

t h i s sub-act.

Eg . : He should report for duty forthwith

Two types were identified in this act i

This 1s I.0 bring tn ynur kind attenlion LttnC ne lmve mt. meivcld p y w n t rram your office for our fot lowing invoice :

Invoice M. and date Ikwunt

Clur wale8 repeeemtat ivss heve celled an you aeveca1 times in the aborts m m e c t i ~ ~ . Our auditors have rahwd wriars n b j a t i m e to long pending sutt l w n t of accaunta.

Y o u w i l l kindly agree that suppllsa on crsdlt bash are effected a, the underatending that peyrnenLs w i l l be effected within e short tins. But it is regrettable that the above invoke i e pending fram euch a lonq time. Ue request YOU to kindly look into this i-dietely end arrenge paymnt without further delay,

Thanking you d essur in) yw of wc beet service9 a1 a l l times.

( 8 ) Drawinq attention t o B certain obligqtion unfulfilled

T h e sub-act is made explicit: in the text.

€9.: 'This is to bring t o yaur kind attention ...me,m. 8

(b) Orawinq attention to previous reminders

I t has been e x p l i c i t l y mentionad that 'Our sales

representatives heve celled on you wveral times.'

(c) Explair~inq the terns of agreement to the addressee

and requastinq him to take p r a g t ' a c t i m

T h e carditirnrs are ~ x p t ici t l y sttiled in the lex l .

€9.: 'Srpplies wr credit basis are affected.'

(d) Fomal ly reassurinq the Bddtegsee about. future aarvics

€9.: '..... aswcinq you of aur best serv i ce s at ell times.'

We thank you fat the usluabie patronage extended by you to us in keeping tha deposit with us. T h e above 8ai d deposit matures' on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perhaps you have a l ready sent y w r renewal instructicns to us , but in case you have mt done sa we request you to Let us h v a t h e m eer ly . I f , on the other hend, you want us to deal with the amount in eny other manner b y adjuatnrent to your . . . . . . . . =count, w e s h a l l be qled to receive ynur ear l y instruct ions for prolnpt camp- \ ience .

Sub-acts

( a ) Thankinq for patronage i n the past

fhs pwriormative verb ',.hankg usod explicitly in

the text helps us iden t i fy th i s sub-act.

Eg.: We thank you for the valuable patronage extended

(b) Fqrmally rcmindinq the addressee about the need

to renew h i s pat ronaqe

T h e reminder about the maturity of a diq~aeit is stated

e x p l i c i t l y in the t e x t .

€9.: T h e above said deposit matures an . . . . . . 9

( c ) Pecwadlnq the addressee t o renw his patron=

This cub-st lo perforsd i n d i r e c t l y - "Perhaps you

have already sent - ywr rctwmal itratructiwm l a noM

Tho, addreessr is obliged ta the addressee for keeping

the deposit with hia/thecn md Lherefare can only persuade

the addressee t o renew the deposit without enforcing cornp-

liance. b

( d l Askinq for inslructians about what alternelive arrenqe-

nrents t o be made

There i s the use o f e x p l i c i t merker - ' I r on the other

hand . . . . . . . t

f b addresser who cannot compel the addressee to

renew the deposit has also l o await instructions from the

addressee For other ways of dealing with i t , in came he decides

not t o renew the deposit.

T h e analysis presented above is only to indicate

the interactive aspect of €Ad? discourse, that is, to ehow

b YBC~OUI) mh-act8 amstitute s major rhetorical/illo-

cutionery act, the ways in rhich they cn, be identi f ied a d

the suqwme in which they occur. But the ides hers i s mt

that illocutionary ect c m be mads up of only those sub-

w t m L h t hrrve been presented in I.- melysin. We recapits

/hat. there car1 be var ist ims . Neverlheieea , the convent ima i

:b:ttt~rcr err F.fitIP ~ ~ i - u * c ~ ~ r * r r - tbwn ~ n ~ t nl lirw rmrr i t r r i r ~ i La rtrtuja

of sub-acte nbr imumereble wquencem of their occurrence.

An averall view o f the different sub-acts that consti-

tu te different i l l o c u t i m a r y scts paints to anather feature

in €A# discourse organization. I t can be noticed that there

are qenera lly four stages in CAdP discourse and certain sub-

r ~ * l . s e i111 qrm1pet1 t ~ ~ d c r 9 pz~rl. itWul sir ~ t r l c ~ .

Staqr? 1 Lul-rib1 is l~irty 4 . 1 1 ~ cmmmr pu i r r l i1T rorerer~ce

( i ) drawing attention t o s certain item, ection, previous

comnunicat ion

( ii i ) thank inq the addressee far previaus canrnuricat ian , despatch of order, patroneqe . . . . . . . .

( i v ) rmindinq the addressee &out a certain ectim that.

he has tn t,ake.

are the &-acts lhaL can be qrcwpsd toqelhr in lh is elage.

Staw I t Preparinq the qraund for the main act

T h e eub-eta that can be included in this atage ares

( i ) expressing rp desire ta perform mn action

( l i ) explaining the need roc the action thet io perfrormd.

( i i i ) describing the sddrea~ee'a action es a lefrse end ex-

plaining the cmseqrmncaa

Stage - I11 The nein illocutionary sct i s perrormd in t h i s

slags,

The sub-acts in this stage are t

( i ) encoureqinq further contact

( i i ) ( re )assur ing ebwt best services/pronrpt a t lent ion

( i v ) forme 1 1 y request irq the addressee l a en tend co dparat ion

( v ) sumning up w i th eva luat ion

The following is an example o f stage-wise organi zetian

of EAdP discor~rse . Text 14

T k n k you far your letter nf 3 Feb in which you said you had ceceived a wrmq delivery to your order (130,1695).

I have looked into this and it epOears thet you have ordered f r o m en out-of -date cate togue .

I b v e instructed cwm ar my drivers to dsIivar the pins finiehinq dreasknq tables tomorrow a d pick rrp the carrsignmt at the seam ticms. Rathar than sendinq a credit rrnta, I w i t 1 cmwot irlvniccz &.I4451 irlcludo mother No.TOP67, with the d e l i v e r y .

There is elso a Winter 84-85 catalogue on its way to you in case yorl have mislaid the one 1 originally sent you. Nevertheless, if we find they ere sat isfactory w e w i l l contact you a t once.

T h e m n v a n t ions o f FA@ discaurcle requi re that a piece

of discourse is arqmized in these four stages far a p a r t i -

curer illocut iansry sct to be perfornsd. I t is neceasery

for an addresser to operate w i t h these convent ions because

the occurrence of Lhe sub-acts in lhe respective stages form

the ' m s t i tut ive rules' of EAdP discourse organi tat ion.

I1 I . L i n k s between sub-acts typically found in EAdP

T h e sub-scts that occur i n any piece of discourse t o

mke up a major illocutianery act are related to one another

in cerlain racqnirble ways. I t I s lh is retat ionship between

them rhich kits them together to form e cohesive whole.

Hany writers b v e discuesed the importance of cohseiw,

in language. ~ s ~ u i e h c ~ (Turner, 1973:72), "believed b a t

a l l f l m t snd affective cnrapr~aitimr dapanda on tha eonns-

ctionn, ad an rn i~~lerdepenrdernry of sarr lsnc~e.~ Hallidey

and Hesan (1976~5) -eve that, wcohasiac.r le pert af the

system o f a language ."

Cabsion, in the words of Halliday end Haaan (p.10),

"....... refers to the range of possibilities thet ewirrt

for link inq mmthinq w i t h what has qme before ." Thus, there

cnri k O(IC?R~OCI w i t t ~ i n n ~ # ? I I ~ . C ? ~ I P C , , kCmr?n m n l m c n ~ rrnd

also betweerr sub-uclu or ma j c~r i 1 ~ Q C U L ioriery HC La.

1. Cohesion wikhin a sentence

' I f you happen to met the admiral, don't tell - h i m

h i s shipt@ gone down. - The rohesive relation in this sentence lies in that ' h i m '

and 'his' in the second half of the sentence heve t o be decoded

by reference to ' the admi ra 1 ' in the f i r s t hal f .

2. Cohesion between sentences

'F i rs t , he has no experience of this kind of work.

Next he dmmd no sign of binq willing to learn.' -'

b r e , 'next ' establishes a relatian betuebn the mmterrces

by referrinq to a wccesrion in tho arwmnt.

Crhnlve ntlst. imrr twLnr?cnr ~rh-ml.n w i l l be d i n c t ~ ~ s e d

in detail in this section with part iculer rererencs to €Ad?

discourse,

Notable atudies on the crmcepl of mheaion and ways

in which i t is achieved i n English ere Halliday and Hseen (1976)

snd Quirk e l sl (1985).

Hu 1 1 i chy w ~ d Ilrrgtl~r di rtct~~ifl five k it~cln or cohert ion,

They am : ' reference ' , 'subst i tr~t ion', 'el 1 ipsis' , 'con-

junct ion1 and ' lawical cnhcsion' .

A, 'RcTcrctwa' (y , 3 1 4 7 ) i ~ s cfczl'irtr?r.l rlrr, ". . . . . . l l w rcl tr l iatl

between an element of the text and something else by reference

to which i t ie interpreted in the given in~tance.~' (p.308-M9).

For example, in the nursery rhyme 'Doctor Foster went to Clouceater

in a shower of rain. He stepped in a puddle right upto h i s L

middle and never went there q e i n ' , the items 'he' d 'his'

in the second. sentence are interpreLeble o n l y by reference

Lo 'Dnctor Faster ' in the f i r s t .

oReferanceg in qeneral may be aT trro kincla - * E w ~ a t i c a

rrrl 't h i , Ilm li~rnr~r i r r rcrrararmt-r* r w ~ l s l r k , ltnr C.ow1

trr ttm niCtmtim rwwl t . 1% mfcrrczwc, Ln itema w i t h i n

the text, Endophor ic reference can again be or two t y p e

- catapharic end anaphcic. Cataphoric reference$ ere forward

pointinq references in the t e x t (eq. - 'This i s how he seid

i t ' ; ' - the rules of the c o e p y ' ) *reas anephoric references

are backward paint i q . (eq. nursery rhyme quoted above).

Only endophor ic reference is s a i d to be cohesive.

Cohesive reference may be of three different kinda-

peraorre 1, demmnCrtrCive and camparat iva

1. Personal reference i s by means of the peraonal pronouns,

possessive pronouns and passessive determiners. The th i rd

persor$ronoune are nearly nlways endnphoric but the f l r e t

wlrrcl mct)rw! pc? rsrrrr prof w)a rrisr mriy :I l m hnvn cuqrhor i c referonce . Personals referring to the addresser or the eddressee are

t y p i c a l l y exophoric. This occurs i n letter writing, in f i r s t

person narrative, in advertising, in of f ic ia l dacu~lents

addressed to the public, and in not ices. fa give m example:

' T h e tkdical Director thanks you for your atten- dance at the X-Ray Unit and is happy to inform that your f i l s is satisfacltary. Ycnr dmuid keep this letter and take it with you therevet youhave en k-cay in future . I

(paw)

Ptwearrclle referrinp to persons or objects a thr than the edd-

ressat or addresass are rmdophor ic and maat often enegharic.

Scmtiaea s pronoun, aspscially ' i tg can refer back not to

a single ncoun or noun phraee, but to e longer stretch, Exewls:

'Curtsey h i l a you @ re think ing whet to say . I t save8 the . A 1 ice wondered e 1 it t le at this, Gt she was ta, much in me oc ttw m e n to m e ~ i e v e i t . *

Here the f i rs t *it ' lafers to the whole of t+ f i r e t sentence

and the second ' i t ' to the whole of the f i r a t two sentences,

2. Oefnonstrative reference knvaIves tha' dmmetretives

(this, that, these, those), the definite ar t ic le 'tho' and

the adverbs 'here', 'there1, 'now' and 'then', A l l theae

are a form of verbal pointing and indicate proximity i n text

to the sentence i n which they occur. Ihe demonstratives 'this'

and 'that ' may also be used l ike ' i t ' to refer to e lanq atretch

of language. The item 'this' in the example given et (1 ) ebove

has th is function,

3 Canperat ive reference nay be el the; general, expressing

Lhe Identity, similarity ar difference between things, or

part iculor , expreasirrg a qua lf tat ive or quantitative comperimn

Example r ( 6 ) t t 's the - atme report err the one we saw yest n r h y

0. tSubst i tut in~~' (pp 88-14 1) is dcrined ns a qraanret ical

relatian, where o m l inqr~istic item substikulea foe e langrrrr

one. The substitute item is therefore inter~retable only

by reference to the original longer item. There are three

kindaof subelitution : nominal, verbal end clsosel.

1. Ndmina1 subetitution involves tb m b s t i t u t i m or

8 noun as head of a noun phrase by 'om' or 'onest,

rrc ttm ! r i d r ~ t i tut. inti or a dm10 I ~ I J I I pl~rnso b y '!.I=

8888'. Eq.2

0 ) My ktlif'c is Lao blunt. I must get e sharper - one.

b) Give m s i x currant buns, 1 '11 have -- the senre,

2. Verbal aubst itut ion is by means of Ida', as d i e t inguished

Crom LIw nuxi 1 iory c , r~rld i 1 ar~bst. i lu los Tor the

lexica 1 verb.

Eq.: Did ynr~ see Jim lest week? - Yes 1 - did. *

3 . Clausal substitution is b y mans of 'so', for apositive

clause and 'not ' for a nagat i v e one.

Eg.: Am you qoitrg t o the conference? I f - so, we could

travel totjether.

C. 'Ellipeie' (pp 142-2251 la rrinritnr La wbatitut.lcm,

~rccpt. 1 . in t.tw c:lna nt al l lpnls the ~ ~ m l i t u t icm i s by

nothing. Here an obvioua structural gap occurs, which can

m l y be f i l l e d by 9 praviaua rareranca, As w i t h erubst i tu t ian ,

e l l i p i s may be nominal, verbal or clausel .

1 . t4omim1 ellipsis fnvalves the aniesim ar the head

o f a noun phrase, somet iws together with sow modifiers.

Eq. : Four other oysters follcmed them. And yet another four.

2 . Verbal e l l i p s i s involves the m i s s i o n of the l ex i ca l

verb f ram e verb phrase. For example :

I f anr, were t o hear t-ha snippet o f a mnverssLion-

' I t may or i t may not' ana could know Lhet i t war

elfipt.icsl, since ttwre is rm l ex i ca l verb. This would

be recnvnrahlr! rrom R previnns ultornma swlt as,

' Is it going to rain today?'

3 . Clausal ellipsis, unlike clausal substitution is

not concerned with the ellipsis of -1s clauses

but with ttw ellipsis of large arts of clauses.

Eq.: ' W h o was playing the piano? - i ? e t e ~ was' .

0 . 'Conjunction' (pp 226-273) refers to qmcific devices

for link inq one sentence to another. There ere a mmber of

wtds - cmjmcticms and adverbs - which fuLFII this fmct'im.

lhey clay be divided in10 rour groups t additive, advatsative,

causa I m n d tempera I.

Additive ccltljurctims simply add m e aentance as

if i t were additional Infotnmtion or an efterlhouqht.

Eg.: 'and', ' furthermre', 'besides', ' incidentelly' ,

' for instance', 'by contrast' etc.

Adversative conjunctions draw a contrast batnsen

the sentence they introduce/contained in and the

precedinq mntanca with which Lhey form n coteaive

relat ionship.

€9. : ' ye t ' , 'however', 'nevertheless', 'on the other

hand', 'on the contrary' , ' i n any case', etc.

Cnr~ne 1 ccwi,jrnw:l imrs makc n cause l 1 ink between tm,

NMI LI?IW'OS . Eq. : 'hence9, ' therefore' , 'consequent l y e , 'as e

resul t' , ' thet being so', 'otherwise' , " in this respectg

etc. +

Tempera 1 can jmt ions make a time l ink, usual1 y a

ssquential nature, between orre sentence and anolhcr.

Eg.: ' then', 'after thatP, 'previously', 'thereupocr' , mmanwhite', ' f ina l l y ' , 'from mu me, ' q ~ t o nm' etc.

E . 'lexical cabsirno (274-292) refers t:n the use nF the

earn, similar, or rslated wards in r#rccassius srtcrlmces,

so tbt the latar occurrences of such words rsfer back to

and link up wilh previous occurrences. here ere two brood

types of lex ical cohesion: 'mi tsrat ion' anb 'collocetion' .

1. 'Rei terat ion' may be of four kinde.

(a ) the sam word may be repeated in successive

though not conk iquous sentences . Fq. : There was a large mushroom growing mar hare . . . . .

She stretched herself up an tiptoe, end peeped over ttre edge o f the mushroom. -

(b) e synonym ar near synonym af e ward m y appear

in e following sentence.

Eq.: I turned t o the ascent of tho peak. T h e climb is perfectly easy.

( c ) s word may he? replaced in a ~allowinqsantence

by another which is secnanticslly euperordinete

to i t ,

Eq.8 Henry's bought himelf a new jaquar. He pract ical ly l ives in the - car.

Here 'Jaquar' i s e term that is ineluded in

C h e t-era r , i.e., car i s a wperordinate

term toJagusr .

(d) a mrd may be replaced in e fol lwinq sentence

clam of objects*

Eq-t ' W h a t ah91I I da with a l l this cmckery?'- 'Leave the - stuff thece.

2. 'Collocation* refers to Lhe hebitual canparry which

etc. Cohesion can resul t f r o the occurrence of a

word's collocates.

Quirk e t a1 (1985t1437) state that, "the relation

between parts of a text is achieved by connective features

that f a l l into four categories : (a) praqmatic and semantic

implicat ibn (b) lexical linkage ( c ) prosody and punctuation.

(d) qramnat ica 1 devices,

The focus here is main1 y orr gremnat ice1 devices of cohesion

nhich have been discussed under the follwing main headst

( i ) Plece snd tinre relators C

( i i ) Tense, aspect, and narrat ive structure

( i i i 1 DeLerminers, profar-, atld e l l i p l a

( i v ) Oiscdurae reference

(v) Tbtextual roleofadverbiele

( v i ) Cmrdiml im nnd subordinat Om

( v i i ) tla lmrL plnryMJ by cprrrql. i n ~ s

( v i i i 1 Part icipmt Involvement

( i n ) Infocmt ion ptocesslng

The description of cohesive dcrvicsa in EAdP presented

In thia sect ion draws large1 y on Hallidey and Hasan.

In €Ad? sub-acts i n FI piece o f diecourse are linked

ueiny expl ic i t mnactinr) dcvicea. Wtz d1011, d i ~ c u n ~ L)W(II

rmder lhe heeds namely, Reference, Substilution, Ell ipsis,

Conjunction #rd Lexical Cohesion as in Hellidey end Hasen.

A. Reference :

There are instances o f Lhe use o f Personal reference,

Dernonstrat i v e reference and Cornparat i v e reference.

T h e pronouns i n the f i r s t person and the pronoun in

the 8~cond person are quite often used eraphoricalXy in the

t e x t . This is when the reference is to the addreseer and the

addresses. For example in Text 5 the sub-mct 'accowrtinq

far ths inabi l i ty t o give the specific itern o f information

asked for ' is linked to the earl ier sub-act 'ackmmlsdging

the enquiryQ using personel references l i k e Y a u )rad in your

let ter expressed your denire to buy ....... Wo - wish Lo c l e r i f y

that s d o not n d a c t u t s .....

f t mmt be nentioned hers that when the uss o f the

personal pronouns is exqhoric the link i s implicit and there

is a pragmatic irnplicet im i n the cohesive re1 a t ion.

Instances of the &eaive/anaphoric use of third

person pronouns, possessive pronouns and' dernanstrativee

can be found in the following :

........ ...... ( i ) *When we cnr~tacted the dealer in M/s ........ an - he, pleaded - h i s inabi l i ty to supply two ........ ........ model s, and i n which w e were interested as - he had no ready stock af the same.' ( T e x t 6 )

Here the sub-act 'explaining the need for clar i f icat ion'

i s linked to tb sub-act 'drewing attention Lo the ear list

commieat ion of the addressee ' .

( i i ) ' I t hss came to our notice that ....... rnodsl beering S 1 . b . ........ supplied t o you vide our Iwaice Na ..... deted ......... has beon sold to you by w s . . ...........

I m I....... 1

' Y o u w i l l readi ly appreciate that - t h i s is a serious l-se on your part, ......... Apart from precipitating anilnosity ammq the dealers already existing i n - this market ......' ( T e x t 8)

The darmatrative ' th is* , is a anapkric refereme

*ich helw ta link the --act 'describing ths action as

a Lqae and point iq out i ta carrsequemree* with ths eerl ter

sub-act of. 'drawinq attention to a cartein action an the

port af t.M mh4renmc1 .

( i i i ) In the sari# t e x t , in the l ine, 'we fsel'thet such acti- vities will lead to h e a l t h y mmpetitim-n the network ' the under l i m d i tecn is an ewqle of cornperat i v e reference. It is again srraphor ic and helps to explain the consequences of the 1 epse descr ibed.

Substitution

As for aubst;itut;ion the use of two specific merkers

....... namely 'the same' and 'the above is frequent in f A d P

and seems to be characteristic of this type af discourse.

Far exemple :

( i ) 'We are in receipt of your l e t t e r No.. .... dated ........ and thank you far thesame(1ext 7 ) --

( i i ) ' In your above letter you had requested us fat certain clerifica- ......... (Text 7)

( i i i ) ' T h e - nhnvn n~pointmnl. i?r nrrbjsct 4 . tb npprava1 or the UaardoF IrusLeos.' ( l e n t 11)

( i v ) *Our sales representatives have called on you in the ebave -- ccmpqctian { T e x t 12)

......... (4 ' T h r _.- ~ b n v e - aaid deposit netures on ( T e x t 13)

However, there a no noticeable instances of verbal and

clausa 1 subst itut ion in EAdP probably . because these tend

to occur mom in cairn1 conversation then in a form1 variety

As has been painted cut, apeciCLcity of mCermce

and reetatemmt of the eddcesseegs utterencas is an implicit

convention in €Ad?. Am a result, *ellimisg ,rhich mounts

to omirslon or 'aubst ltut im by zero' ia approprietsly absent

in EAdP var iaty .

0. Conjunctions

O f the different types of conjunctions diecussed

ear l i er , additive conjunctions l i k e 'end' are uaed to link

clauses within a sentence and not so much t o link sub-acts.

Adversative conjunctiam ere used more often as connecting

devices than even cauaa 1 or tempora l, conjunct iona.

Eq.(i) Y o u had in your letter expressed your desire to buy a SANYO Rlndsl FX W1 CD. We wish to c l a r i f y that we dr, nclL n#lmlfacI.trrc 3's mwj are ct~rrent ly making only certain d e l s from the ir two-in-ane range. We, however, ere service agents for their praducts.

(Tent 5 ) (advecsat i v e )

( i i ) We are enclosing a leaflet for the pmducte manufectured by us incol1abretianwith . . . . . . .

Incase you require any mre deteils, plaaw contact E s . ........... a d Co., crho are uthorieed dealers in m . r n a * . * o . r n o m

( Text 5 ) ( sdvureat ive)

( i i i We Q not c-r to M v e men in ths advsrtiearnsnt in explicit terms thmt the offer Im validupto .........

. & do nol understand why you or the dselar wrnta to ~xwlfuZ3e UB . W e am a t i l l uurwere of the @ w e t prima of your prduct - rwrd whether we will be supplied a t old rate@ or new.

(Text 6 ) (temporal)

( i v ) We are st ill, unaware of the exact pticss'of your product and wbt)rer we will be supplied at old ratse or new.

We therefore request you to c l a r i f y . the above and also instruct your dealer to aupp ly ue .our requiraent at o ld rates.

( v ) Apart f ram prec i p i t a t inq animasi t y among the deelers aI.rr?rldy nxint inq in thin market., m fee1 that such mLiv iL iss w i l l lead to urthealtl~y mqatition in the net work.

Such beinq the cast, we requcs~t yau to ref rain frnm -, -- Lradinq our products to wisuthoriftcd aellfnq agents in future.

(Text 8) (csusa1)

( v i ) You will kindly agree that tha supplies on credit baeis are effected on the understanding that paymnta will be effected within a short ti-. - But i t is regre- Ltable that the s b v e invoice i s pending from such alonq ti-.

(Text 12) (advecmativv)

( v i i ) T h e above aaid deposit matures on . . . . . . . . Psrhapa you have already sent; your renewal instructions to tm, but in case y o u heve not dnne m ws request you to 1st us have them early. If, on the other hand, you w a n t us to deal w i t h the a ~ l a u n ~ i ~ a r t ~ ~ h e ~ a n n e r by id justment to your . . . . . . account, we reha11 be glad to receive your e a r l y imtructims for prompt camp1 ience .

(Text 13) ' ( edusrset ive )

Lexical cohesion

Reitsration i n u pcednmintrnl rcseturc in thia variety

because, em atready mentioned, the addresser restates what

the addressee night have said in an ear l ier carrnunication

for purposes af certainty and ecnpheaie .

( i ) 1 mveryrnuchiapressedbytt~eSANYOFX%endnsturel ly wiah to buy it . . . . . . . Please be kind enough to sand me de ta i l s reqarding - the model.

( t e x t 2)

( i i ) We srs in receipt of ymlr let.tar &Led .. . . . and L t ~ n k yau far the in leree t ~ h w n it1 our products.

Yrvll t v ~ d in yt: l e l t e r cxpcesaad your desire to b r ~ y a Swtyo model FAX 50. We wish to ctertry that m! do r~nt mnufacture Sanyo Model -- FX 50 and are current l y meking

(Text 5)

f b descsription in this thesis of how the sob-acts,

diacusacd i t r 1 . 1 ~ prcv ~CIIJR mcl i(n113, are lil19uLal ico 11 y tea-

lited in EAde discourse ls based an Lhe &t ion o f the 'cleuee~

complex* in H a l l i d y (1985).

According to Halliday, ".... 8 asnteke can be inter-

pteted aa a CLAUSE. COMPLEX : a Head clause together w i t h the

o t b r clauaaa that modify i t ." (p.192)

Example r

I t won't be surgrisinq~ if paa~le cmplaln) iF ttrey &n9L puttiah him

Head modifier M

I if he's quil t y l

M

lie adds that, " ....... .. the notion of 8clauee-cornplex1

enables us to account in full for the functional organizetian

of sentences ," and that, ".. . . . . in the enelysia of 8 written

t e x t each sentence can be treated 8s ane clause-complex,

with the 'simplei (one-clause) sentence as the limiting

case." (p.193)

Ha1 li day ex tends the concept of a clause-complex

"along two separate vectors, by introducing two d i s t inct

sets of a1 ternat ives :

( 1 ) the type o f inter-dependency, or ' taxis' , (2 ) the loqico-

~ m l . ic re l nL ion .

( 1 ) He points out that where one element in a clause-

complex modifies another there can be two typee af

mlationshipa between them. Eithec both the elements

in the clause cornpl8x can be of the sane rankletatus,

with one ' initiated' and the ottwr 'cca~timrinq' or

elscasnt being dependent an the mdif i sd . The formr

kind af relatiemhip i s known as Qsretanilr and the

latter Hypotewis. Thua, t b r e can be two types of

clauses in a clauss-rolrplex, nensly priaery and

m m d s r y . T h e primary i n the in i t ia t ing claune in

a peratact ic struclute, md the dominant independent

clause in a hypotactic; dreraas ltm sacondery i s

the continuing clause in a paratactic structure end

the dependent c 1 euse in a hypot ac t ic .

( 2 ) Hal i icky says thet the lagico-senrant ic relations

between e primary m d secandery member of e clause

complex can be qrouped into a small number of general

types, based on U.la two fundamental reletiml~hips

of (1) Ex~ens ion and (2 ) Projection. 1" the came of

expansion, the secondary clame sx&nds the primary

clause, by (a) elaborating it, (b) extending it at

( c ) m a m i n q i t . In the case of projection, the

~condary clauae is projected thrwqh rn the primary

clsrrm, which inntrrlan i t . nn ( r r ) a locution or (b) m

idea,

defines each of these cetega~ies with exemplea

as fol Lawe t

I(.) €laborbtian : One clause e x p & nathet by s l a b -

rating rn it (or 80- paction of i t ) ;

reetat inq it in other wotde, specifying

in greater detai l , coaunenting or

exmplif ying . Eg.: Jahn didn't wait, he rdn awey (pclratactic)

John rrm nwny, which nurpr ised everyone (hypntmcl.ic)

I( b) FwI.mrninrr z lltwr r l :nrw rxprrndn nnr~l.lmr by crxt.r?nd iry

beyond it. : addinq aome m elenrent,

giving en exception to i t , or offering

an a l ternat: ive . Eg.: Jahn ran away, and Fred stayed behind (P)

John ran away, whereaa Fred stayed behind (H)

I(c) Enhancement : One clause expands another by embel-

lishing around it: qualifying i t

w i L h same circmetantial feaLutt

of time, place, cause or condition.

Eg. a Jchn w s s scared, so he ram away (P)

John can away, because he woa scared (HI

2(8) tacut tan r One clause is projcscted thtouqh ernather,

uhich present8 i t as a lacutlon, s

construction of wrdinp.

Eg. : John saidt "I'm runninq away 2' (P)

Jahn aa i d he was running away (HI

2(b) t&e : One clause is pro jacted through another,

*ich presents it es an idea, a canstru-

ct ion of meaning.

Eq.: Jdn thought to himwlf' 1 run sway" (P)

.hhr~ tburjht. h? wnr~\d run away (H)

I t was found that the sub-acts are reelizsd v e r i o u ~ l y

using i t 1 e cl ntJRna :IS wl 1 0s ~ \ n u g ~ - t ~ ~ m p l e x e s in t At#"

diacourse. Some of the examples of single claosee used in

EAdP discourse ere :

( i ) We are giving b e l w the prices of e l l our products.

( i i ) The fest i v e l diecount schm hes been digcantimed

( i i i ) Our-deaLec in ........ has w t e d y w thm correct a.

prevalent prices at thrs time of your enquiring with h im.

( i v ) The ags of retirement in the Univereity is 60 yaere.

( v ) Ha shall handle a t least 28 units of class per week.

hi) Hs -11 have no claim or preferem28 for regular

appoint mt .

L A 8 diecourse ere :

( i ) We are i n rmaipl of y w r letter NO... .. .. dated ... .... end thenk you for the ssrne.

( i i ) We Chertifore request you to clarify the above and

also instruct your dealer to supply us'our requitsrent

at o l d rates.

( i i i ) I n case you require any further clarif icetion, pleese

c p l in touch w i t h rrs.

( i v ) You will readily appreciete that thi8 is e serious

lapse on your part .

I t was noticed that both types of relationships namely

'expension' and @pro jec t imB occur between the primary clause

and secondary cl ause of cl ause -camp lexss in €Ad? discourse.

or 'enhancementB. Since b r e v i t y , conciseness and precision

are scmre of the chief cbracterist ica of EAdP diecourse, a

there is very l i t t l e scope in auch a variety to resteta the

' t b a i s q of the primary clause or exsmplifytclarify it with

an lexa~ple or explanatory comment. Tbrefors, there i s the

m&ed absence of 'eieboretion' w u type a? srpmeim in

€ A 8 dfacourae. A few examples of the usa of 'extension*

( i ) We are in receipt of your letter &ted . . . . . . end

thank you for the aam.

( i i ) He have al l the items in stock and w i l l be advisinp

you in mar future.

( i i i ) We ere in receipt of your letter dated ... ... end

thank you for tb interest shown in wr products.

( i v ) Thank you very much for your order end ws look forward

to hear inq f corn you aga in .

( v ) We have accepted the draft, end the benk Bhould be

sending you an advice short l y .

( i ) Pleaae send the cpods by inter-cily .ewprees es we

need them urgently.

( I i ) I f you mad references, we w i l l be glad to upp ply

them.

( i i i ) Should you require any other c lar i fhat im, please

domt hesitate tocontectus,

( i v ) We w i l l ello* you to csrel your cmtrrt i f it w i l l

hslp ycnr tn met ynur mm camritnentb with ovareems

customers.

(4 But i f we ate prepered l o force out way beck Into Chle

market, 1 would suggest the following:

€Ad? also uses cLause complexes which heve

instances of both extension and anhencement within

them. For example :

( i l This fell in dennand continued until two yeers

ago when we found aur share of tha market had

fal len tr, u i x per cent, end from that lime

has shrunk t o three per cent.

( Li) We are sorry about the inconvenience you heve

experienced and will tell your Alan to repair

the damage es soon as rs have your confirmation

that they can begin work.

There are also instances af 'projection* i n thia \r

var iety of diaourse. T h a projecting verbs which tend to

recur in this variety ate those Like, tclalm*, @requeatP,

' T e e l ' , 'think*, t d a r s t m d p , @appreciate8, 'regret*,

*point out I, * tell , 'went iont , infornt , 'augg~st ' , 'agree* ,

( i ) Hs claimed that the prices would be raviaed upwarde

( ii) We regret that we have to turn down your order,

(ii i) We feel that euch activit ies will lead t o unheelthy

cornpgti tim in the market,

( i v ) We think that sufficient time hes elapaed for us t o

be a1 lowed t b terms we have asked for.

(4 We can tell you that the dispute h a been ae t t led

and we are back to normal production.

( v i ) I think 1 wqht to point out that th i s is the fourth

Cime you have claimed on a shipment.

( v i i i ) I slrrjuld also mntim that further claim6 nay affect

your premium when the pol i c y is renewed.

(iw) I agree that the clairns have bean small.

( x ) We w u l d like to inform you that a nu*sr of pieces

of crockery nere damaged in shipcrrsnt ,

I t can be aclen that, in EAdP, dngle cleue~s are used

for atetirig factwl AnfocmaLirn end epecifying inekructims

rdwtrne~ 'uta~m-tnmpIexml nra rmd while perfarrinq m t e

1 i ke uukriw ledqitrq md L l ~ ~ t t k iq, ewplalning, persuading,

clarifying and so on. in other words, single cleusss are

generally i m d u b n Lhs h e t i o n is 'ideetiorrel', whsraae

clause-complexes are used Tor both the 'idea1lmale and

' interpersona 1 ' purposes.

The analysis of the samples also reveals tha t a clause-

complex is frequently expanded using 'extension' e t steqes

I and I V of the discourse that is, while eatablihirrq a conmoo r.

point of reference or while cl~~inq/conc~uding the piece

of writing. (3.2.2 11) This also points to the f a c t that

the rout ine and cmventiana 1 acts of 'thatking', 'acknow-

ledging ' , 'encouraging further contact ' , 'courteous leave- takinge which ere interpersonel in nature are realized using

'extension' in a clause-complex. In the other stages o f the

discourse, where the function of language ie more ideational

' enhancement ' 'is used.

Instances of the use of 'projection' i n EAdP discwres 4

can ha seen whern the writer nxplmins hls p n l t i o n ar rotates

a point of view firmly and clearly. Also, the projecting

verbs in such instances of lampage use function em the e x p l i c i t

performtives which enable ane to identify the rhetorical/

illocutionary act petf'ocaed either by the dillurourw e9 a

tholearat the level af'thesub-act.

*11iday says thet there ace awpliclt mcrrkars of

Table 7(4) Principal markers of extending c l w a a --- - - -I -I -LdaLI- - - - - - - - - - " - - -C Iw Io . I I -----~------~m-m--.-m

Paretactic Hyeotact ic - 1 - - 1 1 L 1 - 1 - - - - 1 - ~ - ~ ~ - ~ I L 1 - I O . . m----------------

F ini trs Non-fini te

( i ) addition 'and', pnsiLiv@ bolt^... )

end o n l y while, but elso where88

besi dm, apart from, ea wtl 8s

'nor ' , regat i v e (rleilhc~lr) mr

'but', edversa- (snd) yet, t i v e but While

whereas without o ~ - ~ ~ - ~ - - - - - o ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ - ~ " I I I I r r ~ * ~ . . ~ - I . . o ~ I . ~ o - a . - ~ ~ . . - ~ m ~ * ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a

( i i ) variation but not ,not.. . but. - instead o f , insteed; rep la- rather than

cive

'except', sub- only, but, except except for, t rec . except that rather than

t i v e

( i i i ) 'alter- net ion' *o r t , ctt I.r?rrrnlivo (rril.!mr.. . . ) or (elm) i F ,.. . ran1

Cthen)

( i ) temporal

mars the (and) meanwhile, (when)

different time later (and) then, and + afternarb

different time earlier and/but + before that/ i irst

( t i ) Spatial

Sam place

k r m e md + in thet wey,(and) thus

cornpar ism pos i t ive and + similarly, (and) so, thus

(Ov) r n r r n r r l - w ~ ~ d i ~ i m ~ ~ t l t:rrr~r;c ttrfoc L (nnd)so, HI^ + thererare

effect cause for : (beceuse)

conditian:poei tive ( a d ) then; md + in that case

condit iontmgative or else, (or) otherwise

concessionconsequence but, (and) yet, still, but + nevert bless

consequence cwlcsssicm ( though) - C I I I - - - - - - ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - - * . , ~ . . ~ * * * ~ ~ I . . o o ~ I ~ . . " . . - - ~ ~ . . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -

F ini te Non-rini te --*- ~~~*~I - - -o-~-amI) - - - - . .m- . .L - - - - - I . . . I , - I - . -~ - .m-~-"~

eonjurtim mjmctia, p e m i t ion C I I ~ - - - - M I I U . L ~ I w - - ~ - r - m - I----rr-rrrrrr-r- rrrrrlrrrrr-rr- I ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

same time; extant es ,whi le

serw tiam; then, as soon eer , point the rnornent

in I the course/ process of)

same t ime ; thenever ,every spread time different time: later after ,since since after

different time : before ,unt i l/ until before eer 1 ier t i l l

*"-----I)-------..-"-I-IIIIIIIII----"I--.II*..--..~-.--.-.L~*rL.c-.LI-.LI**.---I--

saw place; ex tent as far as

same place; paint *re

same plece: wherever, every-

by (mans of)

m p e r ison as,asif , l i k e , like the way

----~~l~--lI.--~l-L---~~-l-----I~-IIII.~.LLIoII~ll"".III---C-ann~--I---LLI

CmJRe t W!FISOtI BUBO, flB, B ~ ~ K ? O , in case, aeeirrg that, conaidering

cause : purpose in order that, ao that

wi th, through ,by, st, as a resul t of, bclcause of, in ease of ( in orderleo as) to, for (the seke of), with the aim of, TOP fear o f

dit icm t if, provided tbt, it In th event of p6eiti~ W 1- 88

mlaw but for , w i ttmrt

d l t i m r wen if,eithaugh man If, *wits, Ln rorrcsss ive elthouqh wits of,withmrt

I n the ssmpkce anelyzed it w a e noticbd hat en extending

clause in EAdP is generally ewqerrded ming bnd@. Anather

marker which wae identified but nhich c m be said to be in-

Frequent is 'apart from'.

Cy.: ( i ) We crre it1 recaipl of ywr Lelter - end llwrrk you

for the same.

( i i ) Apart - Crnn precipitating animosity emong the

dealers alresdy exiatirq in this markel, wm

feel that .....,. 1 principal markera of an enhancing cleuse in EAdP

were f w d to be ' i f ' , 'as', ' in case*, 'dmn', 'ee e m es8.. . . . V. I b orcmizatim of the memem~ in m c l y ~ r #n €.kp

1

Hatlidey (1985:38) observes t t ' . . . . . in e l l

lwages the cl- has the character of a ~ 8 a g 8 ; it hee some

form of organinttion qivlnq i t t h stetua o f e rxnnuricetive

trvarrl ." 4ki rarrt.inr ( w ~ l @ r l * r rnrl 1 tart t Imm ncrr r l i f h r m d wnyn

in *id thia may be d i c r v e d . ~e dmmrvis tbt, "in tqlish,

a9 in reny other lanquaqes , the cl wae i s organized ee e mesags

by having e special stetus assigned to one pact OF it , the

element in the clause is enunciated a8 the flume; this than

combines with tb remainder aa that tha tm, parte together

constitute a message." (p.38) The latter part of the cleuse

is called the Rhwns. In other words, the! rr#86sge~ in e claurrs

c of' r, 1lum- mmhimwi wit.tr rt R-. tbmvr?r , ttw

Theme is the more important part of the clause as i t is this

pnrt which eiqns 1s wticlt the c l mrna is cpinq ta ho ebaut .

T h e Theme OF a clause can consist of aP ther are nominal

group, an edverbial group, prepositional phrew, or a group

complex, phraae eomplex or ' themst ic equat iv8 ' . Examples

of these cetegor ies are t

(nom,cp) the duke hprs given my awrt that teapat

(adv,qp) very carefully sha put h i m back m his feet -in

(prep. w i t h sobs and he sorted out t b a e of the phre-) tears largsmt uire.

(9rp. theWa1msard werewalkiryclaaeelhmd -lex the Carpenter ,

(phrase cam- Tom, T a m , t h a stole a pig actd awey did run plex ) piper's ~ m r

Whst w a a thmt teapot Qgve to my

thl \ i dny d m e r v m t h t t,ln?tc? m be tun k LW M lHRnwarr

in a cbcLeretive clause. ?hay ace *Unmarked' end 'Harked*.

In the mrrd~r of Hallidey, Wrr ahall mfer to tha mappinq Theme

onto Subject as the WWtKEO T H M L ~Tadsclatat ivec lauw. . . .

A Thene that is something other then the Subjet, in a dscla-

ret ive clause, we shal l refer to a, ei MEO THWE~. (p.49)

The exanoples of unmarked and marked theme given b y

Halliday are r (p.46)

Unmarked Them WRKED THEHE

1) 1 twd a IilLle nut-tree 1) Merrily, we r o l l elom)

2) A w i r ~ e o l d o w l l i v e d i n 2) On Saturday night f Lost m OR^ my wife

is fallen 3) ;fti,"Lyddinq the King

4) Whet I want is s proper c q o f coffee

In €A@ discourse the Theme of the clauees are most

often *Urnnsrked* as the Subject is chosen aa the Theme. The

category of items gemre l l y chosen es the Subject are t . #

(1) minal group w i t h pronoun am He;d, (2). m i n d group

withcommnowr es b a d . €9.: - ~ ~ I ~ - o - - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ " ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I - * . , ~ ~ ~ ~ . L ~ L . I ~ - I . . ~ I I w o ~ * I ~ ~ - ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ - - - -

( i ) we . ' ' . . are in .recei&.of your lettst

(ii) the f e e t i v e l . .

discomt scheme hs8 been .diacmt inusd

( i v ) Wa hsve completed a t c mmF((et mmecch cm I.antim) cmmtmr mr#r t. Im

- - ~ ~ - o e ~ C - m I - - - v - - I - - - - n I , . L . L 1 1 L - - - - - - C - - C m ~ - - * - ~ m " - . L ~ ~ - - " ~ ~ - ~

Helliday also discussea the not ion of Mu1 t iple lhsrne Ln

a clauee complex *re the part of the clause functioning

es Theme has e further internel structure of its own, This

internal structure of a mu\ t i p l e Theme ia based on the idea-

tional, interpersona1 and taxturrl fmct inne of lanquags

use.

Hallidey maintains that, "there is always en ideationel

element in the Them. There may be, but ere not necessarily,

interpersonal and/or textual elenrents as well." (0.53)

He also points out that the typical sequence of thaw

elements is textual, interpersonal and ideatianal end that

whetever follows the f i r s t ideational ejement o f the cluss

hc?ms n pnrL nf (.he fthrwm,.

The ideetimal ela#l#nk within the lhae fe referred

to as the TOPICAL. THFHE end k b r e i s r# fucthsr tharadic

st ruc tu t~ wikhln lb t.r lp i r?ml timum. Hmevef, lhsre i s khe,

possibility of further structure ulthfn t textual and

interpacsrursl compmentm af the Theme,

The tux tual element within the Thane may have m y conbi-

nat im of cant iwat i v e , struc turaf and cnn junct i v e themem

in Lhal order (1 ) cont lnualives ate items l i k e ' y e s ' , @mi,

'well ' , 'ah', ' n o w ' , (2) sttuctural t b s car, bw either

c o n j m t i m ~ or relat ives .

(8) m j u n c t i m s l i k e 'end', ' o r ' , 'nor' , ' e i t h e r ' , 'neither*, but, y e t , when, rrhi le, before, after because, if, although, in case, in spite of the fact that, in the event that

(b) r e l a t i v e s l i k e which, who, thet, when, where, whetever, whichever, whoever, whenever, wherever, honevet

( 3 ) conjunctive themes can be conjunct ive Adjuncts l i k e

that is, in other rmrda, for instance, in any case, anyway, actually, in fact, as a matter o f fact, also, moreover, besides, on the other hand, however, mvsrtheless.

The interpersonal element within the Thsm amy have

(a) A modal thane Like probably, possibly, perheper, frankly, hometly, &rmtnd.bly, *ibthwt any doubt, broadly epeaking, in general term, by chance

(b) Cha finite verb la the V, in a yes/m intermqat ivo

cleuee

finite topical Rhme

(c) the vacat ive element - terms of address

An analysis of a clauseamplax havinq a multiple Them

would then be a3 r o l l w e t

we1 1 but then Am surely would'nt the best be t o idea oin the t ...--* "--I-----.--------"----"----------------- --.---o-----w--------J-------w

cwlt i - 8t . r~- ccln jurl- vtlcri- mrldnl h i l a lapicel mral iva ct.r~rn 1 ct ive I. i vt? .- 0--------~-9-----~---c----------------o-o---*n---*-o-oa----*m*--o

Tex tun l f nterparsona 1 f dent im I

There am instences of multiple Theme in clauses

in €A#, But the internal structure within t b Tharne fre-

quent l y hss textual and ideational cornparrsnt8, but not

general1 y any interpersonal component, The textual element

comprises only the structural or conjunctive themes. fhie

occurs in sonlerrces begifmitry with a tcaheaive' element.

I t ie elm noticed tbt these cohesive device6 @cur mra

often than nat in the i n l t i e l poritim in EAdP. €9.1

In CS- Wr rcrpri ce my further clariflcal.imr, - l - - *o - - -w* - - - - - -L I - I . r IC1 -*LI"C C I I I I I I I I I I I I I I D I I C I I I I

strucLura I toe ico l ~ ~ - ~ - ~ w I - I I I I - ---I-

However, the last date for admission is fixed up to .. . with a panel fee of k.10

- -CI - - - - - - -~V-- I - - - --------u--a---*----

tex tua 1 ideat iana l - - - C I - I - I I " ~ ~ C I ~ I I I L " - - L C I r - I " - - . c ' I ) I - ~ . , - . c I C -

rtfm

Such b i n % the case W& ~qUQ8ty0u b . * . . m o m ---*e--o- - - -"---"--- . - - - - -""-3.IoC.c--I~C -00- - C 1 I I I I I I I I u I

conjunct ive Loe ica l *-no-.* --e--.---*-n-.--U. -------

V I . Discourse atretegiea typically faund an EAdP

Quirk et el (1985t' l435) observe thet, "ReIstiona1

st.ructures can be realized by e nuder of dia4coursm desiqns

or strategies that have Men w e l l described within the the-

tocica1 tradition since am?ient tima. S a e af the nast

artatandimj may be seen in brme of the following rnstaphorsr

( l ) d.r?p, ( t i ) dubirr, ( i t # ) aback, ( f v ) bn4rwu-n."

T h e strategy of 'stape i s aften fwd in inrrtcucticmal

material and is also employed in description, narrative

or arqument. Quirk et el use the follawlng exmple to i l lu -

strate thie form of discourse orgaarizat ion:

"The 100-metre race was run i m d i a t e l y after I W I C I ~ . his was followad by the w-nrstre mlrry . After a brief interlude with en acrobetic d i ~ p Isy , qmctetors sp,read around the track to watch the f i rat cycling event ."

I h s ' I i liirni 1ar t o the 'strrpi pcocedure in

moving from point t o point . But in e stepped text the course

i s "unidirectionaIw whereas in chain "the direction may

curve, the course double beck, and the ultimete paint be

unpredictable ." The chain strategy is sa id to be used -re

often i n ref lactive or exploratory discourse. .The eranple : given is :

")lamlet poignant i y represents the indeciaione that plague us a Not that indecision is the worst of nut i l l s . In some ways decisivsness can be nroce dRnrmjing. M m y peapie lmve decided on l h i r caurses of action too repidry, with disaet roue resu1 ts . U E t d 10 i 8 a cvp~~)umntat i v e of this tendmy, though here uv have other fectom to c~naidbr such as jeelausy errd the wt l influence of e supposed Criend. Friendship In itsslf', of course . d . . . . . .. 11

I C t.hR 'slw' prrmttktrc i~ merknd by m j r m C R

l ike 8Lhrm', 'next ' , 'ad than', LhmM in chain are expreftsiona

Like ~ u t ot c ~ l r a e ' , 'BY ttm way* etc.

T h e steck procedure is one in which ths otg~nizat ion

of discourse is well planned and, therefore has unity. But

the prtlqreaaim is rnt mcessar i l y litwet as in the case

of step. In the words of Quirk et 81, " .... .. ue heve e o ~ t h i n q

more like a vert ica l structure, with a sound foundation (often

cal led the ' topic' sentence 1, an accumulation of leyers' ,

the fwndat ions. For example t

"There i s something very unsatisfactory about the max im 'Honesty is the best policy8. I t seems to equate virtue with profi t , y'et out* common experience denies this. We could e l l cite instances of where an hanest and virtuous act ion has brouqht diseppointmnt and even ruin. We could equelly point t o people who have beheved with qross dishonesty and have become successful, powerful, malkhy. In m y caee it is surely rather immoral to incite people to honourable blehavfour by 8eeming to praise reward. Honesty, if it requires a motive, must be valued far reason8 other than *policy' ." (p.1436)

Because o f the neat ntqenitatim involved in stack

procedure, i t dcrea not mcur in informal carverisatim or

writing.

The 'balance' strategy resembles tk 'stack' in

effort orr the perk of the edbrsstmr to ueiQh both slds8 of

the point, alacmt as i f he wsa enticipeting objections errd

cros~curtanle in the mind of the eddressed. t b markers qene- * r a l l y f w d i n belancing are expmsrriona l i k e 'on tho one

hand ... ... .. but an the other hend'. The rollowing piece

has been c i t e d as an itlustretion of the balance technique

used with 8 dominant stack procedure.

"For a spring break, Cumbria te herd to beat, fhere is or course e strong risk of bad mather durinq the early mmths of the year. Un l tw crklwrr lrmnd, ttw arrr l y tourist is rewarded by m p t y roads and ttw! reeling that he has the rtamt.rysirh t.0 hirn~lr. Not a l l the hate18 are n , i t is true, rrnd yau rnny he obl igcd to drive on to the n e x t v i l l q e . But this is wel l affeet by the welcome that awaits you in a quest house *re you rnsy turn out t o be the only resident. E a r l y visitors to Curnbria rarely regret their in i t ia t he." (p.1436-1437 )

'Ihb 'stack' procedure i e the dominant discwrss

strateqy used in EAdP. This is nhvicwsly because this var iety

of language is hiphl y rormel and the discourse we1 l-planrrad.

T b 'chain* d vbai aca ' procedJres - roul d ' take away the

cherac tar is1 ics of clar i l y , yreciaPon cpnd conciamess very

essent ial to € A 8 dlscrourno . An exmple of the stack procedure

uasd in this variety is :

T h s boxes in hich the sweaters were packed were d e m d and looked as if they hed ben broksn open in trensit. From yaur invoice No*....D. we est imete that t h i r t y gernanta have been etolsn to the value of Rs. 1, S0,000. And beceuee of tho rurnnaging in the box-, quite a few other garnsnta were c ~ s h a d or stained and cannot be aold ee n e w art icles Ln our a).raps.

As the sa le w s s an a c.i.f. basis end the far- warding cotnpeny your sgents, we sugqael yau contact t h e m with regard to cornpenmat ion.

Y w w i l l Find a list of the demeged a d missing art ic les etteched, d the consignment will be put to one s i d e until we receive y w r instructrlms.

I t can be noticed that t h i s piece of writing is a unif ied

whale. It. i s a cnmplnir~l. M t r l t lm shipmnt of demmqmd swatare

diicti is clear l y 51-rrtcd irr l l l c t~ayinninq. T h e detcllle per-

taining t o the damaqe are explained in the &sequent pere-

graph, the suqqest ions Tor ~ l ~ t ion ere spell out in the n e x t

and the t e x t ends wi th sn eppropr iate conclueion. a

Beaidea 'staclc' t b other procedure found in €A# . '

i s the * step * procedure. 1t1Ss i s wed rhen ths pime af die-

course pewfarrn the act of ' g i v i n g imtructiorrs', particulerly

3. lmrt ruct ATA/CIU\ Lo take 'nut enswatsherats, count them carefu1ty and make bunches aa per ina twct ims .

Emure that a l l autsidmrs leave the premisas before the teat -sassion begins.

Direct the candidates to their respective bloc kn . Keep the blockwise bundle8 of booklets ready.

Have around and see that the prescribed a c t i v i t i e s are carried out.

II. t I t i t 1 l r t ~ C Llrcrt? i s a ccrrrelaliorr b c l ~ c n

Iha discourse st rrjtsqy rwod end t.he i t locutionary act perfornwd.

The step procedure is used Jien the major illocutianary act

is that of giving instructima, especial1 y when the instru-

ctions are enumerated. T h e stack procedure is uaed in the

case of the other illocut ianary acts, where diecourse orga-

nization is unif ied but mt necessarily lineer .

V I I , linquistic a d etyliatic features typically f w d in

Cryeta1 and Oavy (1969). furnsr (1973) . Enkvfat (1964,

1973) end f oular (1986) d i s c u ~ ~ s verious 1 lnq~isk ic features

with ace & y l i s t ice11 y signiflaent, But tb akylist ic

.tiqnif icmm of I f twyt is l ic ceteqoriem dqmda rrpon the varlaty

af lmguaqe and the situation in which it i a r mad.

W i t h met to CAdP, the foitowing linguistic features

w r e found to be s t y list icall y siqnif icant .

A Persme 1 promme

0 Noon phresam

C Verb phrese~ with psrt icular reTerence to the wsr?

o f moda 1s , voice, tense and aspect.

0 Adverbia I s

E St.ructure rrf rlstjseri rind the type nf processen they

M ? I ~ C R C ~ L

A. Personal pronour~s

Leech and S v s r t v i k ( 1 9 7 5 ~ 5 7 ) point out that the fitst

end second person pronoun8 heve reference to the eituation

as fol lows :

We (m, our, cCr:.) qrmrp of pecsple inrlr#dinq the apaaker '

You lyaur, etc. ' tbIresrer ' (rringular)

'a group of -pis, Including

Lha hearer bat excluding

A djstinction le lrrnde bctwban 81nclusive &', where

'We' includea the eddressee and ganclusive - Wem, r e it

excludes the addressee. Inclusive *we8 (us) Is often wed

by writete o f baolcs :

Eg. : - We not iced ear lier on page 200, that

I et - us mw turn t o another tctpic . . . .

Puirk eL a1 (1985 ) refar l o th i s use of 'Weo as the 'Aul.horieI

WeD. The inqlusive *Wet is a l s o used in formal writing,

*re the writer de l ibera te ly avoids the use of ' I ' , which

may be fe l t to be somewhat egotistical. For example, the

writer of a piece of scholarly writing may prefer 'As - we showed

in Chapter 2 ' , to 'As - I showed in Chapter 2. *

In € A M , the f i r s t persan (p lura l ) namely, 'Weo/'Our'/

'Us' is uaed predominantly. &at 'We' here does not include

the addressed. The addresser uses the plural beceuse (8) he

represents an inst it.ut ion, end (b) the casmmicat im ia

formal and pub1 ic. However, the fi ret person:*I ie sbnret ims

mad vlhctcl lhe ~~drlrcrtmr writes in his individual enpncity,

although he m i q h t he w r i t i n q on behalf of tb organization.

this i a found when ttwz nrMrnsser is a sole-trader or when

he can take declsians or accept c e ~ a i b i l % t y independently.

€9.: ( 1 ) - We wrote to you m 10 August end enclosed

mpy invoices..... Qfsass sand - us e reply.

( l i ) - Inmcwrrrytn1.ellyau'thrtt - I w i l l r m t b t ? ~ b l e

to met my b i l l . . . due on .,.,.,, >

The sacond person ' Y o u ' ia a lso used in the plural

senee as EAdP is here used for public comunicetian,

0. Noun phrases

A r m phrslra is a phrase which can function es subject,

object or complement of a clause ar 8s prepouitionsl comple-

ment . I t is called e noun phrase because the word which is

its HEAO(i.e., main per t ) is a noun.

In the sentence

John found the new secretery in.his office a vary attractive women - NP1 NP2 * '"5

*jmL cc~mp lrmnl. . Alrtcr, ' t r i 9 of T ice ' dii dl in n pnrt t ~ f l,tw

abject is a prepoai t tma l complement end constitutes yet

anather noun phrase.

In a narn phrase, the b e d iwn oen be accoqnanfsd

by o t b r it-ma namly, *lerminsra (the, his, 8, st=.)

or modifier(.). M i f i e r e which precede the heed ere celled

pre-modifibts (69. nem, , very aLtractive) and those which

follow thrr b a d are called p o s t - d i f i e r s (ego in his office),

T h e structure of the English Nowr phreee can be repre-

sented as t

Noun Phrase I

t I Determiner( s) PremodiTer(e) Heed Pant cnadifier(e)

The noun phrases which repeetedly occur in EAdP are of

the pattern Determiner + Prmodifier + Head + Poatmbdifier

there the determiner is noat often an artic le (def ini te) ,

the prernodifier a w n and the postmodifier a prepositionel

phrase.

€9 ( i ) the admiss ion t ickets of candidates

( i i the prices of a l l our models

( iii ) the camnencemnt of the test

( i v , Ule diecrelinl of t h e m m a g e m m t

(v) the rules or the company

( v i ) . atokenofyauracceptence

{viP) ths cmtfnuolnce of servic=a w i t h the company

( v i f i ) A l l thrs blank. b o x - in the respome abet ,

Ihe definite artlcke 'tb* i s wrad in the positian of' the

dste~cnlner raost often because the idemt i t y Ls establiahrrd

by the p s l d i f ' i c e t i m Llmt rollwe the r ~ w r (tsed). llere

it is the forward-point ing or cataphoric use of 'the' ,

The modificat. lan of the Heed in a Nowr phrere is generally

' restrictive ' in EAdP, probably becaulre spacificity and I)

precis ian are esaent ial in a1 1 comunicstion used for admf ni - s t r a t i v e purposes. The d i f i c e t i m given to tha heed aT

s mun Wrsss does not provide eddikional informt.lm but

is essential far identifying the head. This cen tw o noticed

in a l l the examples of Noun phrases (€AdP) given above.

the other noticeable features which characterize

noun phrases in EAdP are : L

(8) the use of abstract nouns a s thg head of B noun phrase

Eg.: ( i ) the comrencelnent of the 'feet

(b) the absence of adjective cts premodif iere

(c) the predominant use of nominal prsmodifisra

EQ.: ( i ) the admi~sian tickets of csndidrrtss

Since nomine 1 ptemodifieers have a classifying function,

their frequent use alm contribute8 to the mpecificity of

reference that is charsc ter ist ic of EAdP.

(d) the frequent use af prepositionel phrases for past-

nrodificet ion

fq.: ( i ) the: admission t i c k e t s - of candidates

( i i i ) the camnencernent o f the lest --- ( i v ) thediscretionof -- ttw,raanaqem nt I )

( v ) the rules of the company -- a token oF y w t acceptance

( v i i ) the continuance - of service -- with thecompany

( v i i i ) a l l the blank boxes i n the rsswnse sheet --

f t can be seen thst these features ate chsracteti@tic

of formal written la(lguage and often go with an impereonel

s t y l e .

C. Verb phrases

Verb phrases eorrsiat eittmr of o 'main verb' or o f

one or mre *auxiliery verbs* togethar wkth a 'meln verb*.

Eq.: !hay ut i l e aeuerel 1eLtaro in their orrice everyday w

They have been w r i t f let tare e l l morning ART=+

Auxiliary verbs helps thn mein verb to make up the

verb ghraes. There ate two typss o f wwilieeiest primary

auxi l iary verbs and mdel auxiliary wrb. T h a primary auxi -

liary verbs ere 'do', 'havet and 'bet. Modal auxiliaries

are those like 'cant, 'neyt, 'shalt'. w i 1 1 c o 1 d , 'night',

'hid', 'would', 'nntst ' , 'ought to ' , *need4, '&re',

Modal auxiliaries help to express a variety o f moods,

emotions d a t t it.udes. h n q the different uses af the mbdsl~,

those that are relevant to interpersonal aspects of language

use have been considered here as they are more relevant in

a description of EAdP.

1. M a l a cen be used to exprees (a) an obligation or

(b) a request .

Leech md SvarLvik (1973 rl43-145) umntion 'must',

'tmve to', 'dmII0, I . d 'ebuld' 1138 Chnae modale

rrhich are p n e r e l l y used to express obligation especially

in the formal use of language.

(8) ' h a t ' and have (gat) to + infinitive both express

abliqat im, bm~t thare could be e diffecmce between

them. 'Must8 involves the speaker's eutharity, eq.:

You must be back by 2 O'clock, while 'hmve (got) to'

involves a u t h r i l y other than ttwt of tho speaker,

eg.: 'Yrxrhave tosiqnynurnallp,here*.

(b) 'Ought to ' end 'should' express an obligation which

may not be f u l f i l l e d .

Eq.: 1 ouqhL - t.a p l ~ m ~ ? my parents taniqht (but I prabably

won't have l i m e ) . - A l l students should submit the ir work b y e given date

(...... but some of them don't!)

( c ) 'Shall ' in Lhe sense of 'obligation' or 'insistence'

is normally limited to of f i c ia l regulations and other

formal documents :

Eq.: rtlr? mt- ica4.y ' 3 tmmirrat ing carnnitl.ne ahs l l cmminatt?

me person far the arfica af President.

(dl T h e auxilier ies n i l l/nould, can/cwl@ rhieh are used

to indicate 'wilLinqness' end 'ability' Elre also

often used to make pol i t e requesta.

€9.: - W i l l y w pass the salt? Can yoo poss iblygive am a lift? _.

~crmrsrtly lhn pnrjt. Lmwm t'orm of lnadals indicate greater

pal f teness . Eg. 2 - Would you p lease pas8 t b se l t?

Could y w lend m y w c pen? - I t was noticed that in EAdP d e l e were u8ed restr i -

c t ive ly . Only certain modals l ib '&eL1*, 'should', *willt

and 'nwld' occurred more than the others end -re used &tile

performing certain i l locut i m a r y acts like 'gi.ving instructions'

or rhen the addresser wished t o enforce en obligation an

Eg. : ( i ) A t no stage - should the anawemheete be folded,

mutilated, torn or spo i l ed

( ii ) Invigi 1 ators should give their obsarvat ims

about any candidate on a geparete sheet.

( i i i )No cend idate she11 get edmiss im without the

al iq ihi l i l y rerl ificata.

( i v ) PrincipnIs - w i l l r m l i f y deteila or attendance

in respect of each candidete from ti- to time.

T h e past tenae farms 'would' and 'could' at8 used

to sake paLi te requests.

tq.: (i) We wwld - mrociaLe your prompt nctim.

( i i ) We would - like to make a dsciaicm on th is

wan, so we would eppreciats an early reply.

( i i i) Could you please send us c k t a i b o f ywr m e s s Lyres which are being advertimd

( i v ) - Could you tell u, if t h caeeettea ace leading brand narrres?

( v ) Could you send us your la tes t cetelogw and price- l i s t , quot Lng your met co-t i t i ve prices?

( v i ) the provisione 1 order Na.. . . . . which you enclosed will- be sufficient, but - wwld you -return any pert of the c m s i q n m t you have not s o l d within

2. 'Tense' and 'aspect' are s a i d to relate the happening

described by the verb t o time in the paet , present, or future . English hes two simple tenses: the present tense end the

past tense md two merked sspects t the progressive aspect

end the perfect i ve aspect .

(a) As hes bean pointedout the illocutionary act performd

by a l e x t . i t 1 CAdP c m very often be identified by

rm oF ttw pertortnative verb. P e r f o r ~ t i v e m

ace chnrnctarirt?d by lhe use of ttw simple present

tense in the active voice and a subject in the f i r s t

petson singular.

(b) The preaent perfect tense is wed mainly in reports

and to indicate e state leadlng \~p t o the present

ticrre.

Eg. r ( i ) Arees of accounting end adslnlstratlm - have been mademi zed -

( i i ) lhe v i t a l area of storing end retrievinq infar- mat ion hes been over looked. -- md to lrldicntc past event w i t h results in

the present time . fg.: ( 1 ) Over the past. Few years the f i r m - has expanded.

( i i ) I t -- hascome taour rmtfce that ....... ( c ) The simple past tense is uaed to record/report abwt

events that happened i n the pest, This is the chsra-

cteristic tame used in EAdP hila performing the

act aT srlaunar ir irq.

....... ( i i ) T h e tion.Secretary Shri proposed the aplprwa I of the proceedirqe .

(iii T h e Hon.Sectetery preeerrtsd the nsw list of &ere.

( i v9 The Hon, Treasurer premqted the eccounts.

(dl Tha pest perfect Is usad to indicate dbbecshift

iwd.0 t 14, i*~rt: nrml n hut lh lo l l nl l l l Inn t-atr r ~ ~ l

ml'evance . Eq.: ( i ) Y o u - had in your letter e-xpreclsed your desire

to buy

( i i ) I n your atmm letter YOU - had requested For certain clarificatims.

3. , Ihbutleaf t lw passive

L.eech md Svartvik (p.25) point, out. that 1 . k use

o f the passive voice and the 'introductory i t ' in sentences

md the nvoi &we of paraan8 1 pronouns l i ka ' I ' , 'Youo , and

' W i ? ' a r c '~t!rtl.t~rr?s ~f I'ornrr~l w r i tLen l q u q q e and oTt.nn qn

with an impersonal style. h e y illustrate t h e e f'eatures

with ttw f o l l w i n q example :

Announcement fcm ths Librarian

1 1 has been mted with cancscn that the stock nf bmks i n \.he I lbrary has bean declining alarming 1 y. student.^ are asked to remind them- selves of the rules for the borrowing and return or b o d s , w d to bear in mind the needs of the s t u h t s . Qensltiea far avacdw books w i l l in the future be s tr ic t ly enforced.

EAdP end in CAdP there is a preference for the use o f the

passive voice bmetlse r)r the impcsmal, sty le of wri t inq. Ae the

speaker dwa mCwieh to reler d i ' m t l y to hinsslf. personel

pronow8 l i k e @ 1 @ , ' Y a r ' , . 'We* ate avoided, gensr ic subjects

m~bjats t i h 'applicantss, 'naclbera* md 'certificates@

are preferred md alsa the passive voice is wed. Sometime

the sentences begin with an ' introdoctaty it ' .'

Eg. : ( i Applicants are required to aand copies of . . . . . . . . ( i i ) Hsrnbers should be prepared to appear before

the camni ttee.

(iii ) Certificates w l l l be given to a l l the part iciperrte.

( i v ) 11. is twrchy rnrt i f i sd that l.tre' h r m t Ccwwra1 Iwdy m ~ c t i r q or ....... w i l l be treIc) ......,

( v ) I t is hereby not i f l ed for information of students, parents end the genere1 public thet .......

I t was m t i c i e d that the paasive voice i s generally

used while performing comnunicat ive functions l i ke 'giving

instruct inns' ar whi Le ' iasuinq pub1 ic/orficial mtif ' ical lon' . T h e pasaivq voice is not used so much when the piece of discourse

perform F ~ ~ J C ~ I ftrtwl. irnm l ikrr 'mk inq far iriiarmat ian' , 'ptn-

cinq an order' rld sn on heclnr~~e these functians <Ir, nat have

Hasevec , the active voice is used trhen

(4 the addresser refers to h i m a e l f

€9.: t i ) Wlm*econtect&UwdeaLer

( i i ) 5 give belar tb prices of a l l wr ..... ( i t i ) !I& raqwat you to reCreln ftar .

thrr agent of the ectiwr mads t o be highlighted

Eg.t [i) Shri 'X ' resided wee the meting in *Y@. the absence a Shri

( i i ) T h e Hon. Secretary propoaed the approval of the proceedings,

The use of sdverbials

Atr ruiwrb&nt rr.r $1 clmlnr? r?lemt?nl rrrri f i ~ n c t i m nn rrn

adjunct, disjunct or c ~ n j m t . Syntactica'lly adjuncts are

integrated within the structure o f the clause to a t least

some extent whereas disjuncts and cmjurcts ere not inte-

grated within the clause.

Adjuncts ere general1 y used to indlcete t ime, place,

€9.: (a) Ihe naeLinq a t ~ r t s Lomorta - a t eimt -- om clock

( c ) They began arguing Loudly

Dis junc t8 expmsa the addmswr *o evalmtion/conent

of what is beinq said.

m a (a). - Fcadc&, m mr, rppeaeed to be #ti- eL the

(b) Peremally, t Qn@tapptoveof this.

( c ) There a r e twelve pwp fe pre-nt , t o be precise.

Con j m t s have e coc~mctitm fmtlarr. b y indicmte 8

the cmnection between h a t is being eaid end nhet wae said

before.

Eq. t (a) I sent h i m e persona1 inv i ta t ion , Me will therefo: be there tomorrow.

(b) A l l aur friends ace going to KodaikaFwal. ---* ~ w e v s t ne are qoirrq t o Ksslwni c .

In €A# edjuncts are generally used to indiceta

time and rare ly place,

Eg.: (1) - Tim

( i) 1 ha rest i v a l discount scbme has been d i ~ o n t inue . I , - .I..... I..

L . i i 1 T f r z s ~ h u r r nr i r m n irncrr ma# inkn d r a m t f r

( i i i ) We request y r ~ u to refrein Qrm ttadinq a prnckel.cr t n trrtrn~tlnr imd sm l l lng egents --- I rr f uLu1

( i v ) Hs shaul d report for duty forthwith

(2) Place - (i.) .We feel that wchg~tfvtt iC) l )wif l &uadtocarheeL~

-,,L a L 1 U e , LL- -,La Y - t

is wry Little that i% attitudinal. hers and the addceeersr

dess not afier any cement an *st i s being said,

Hcmavar, cwrjtncts ere ueed quite frequently in €Ad?

because thiq variety iar exp l i c i t l y coheclive. A feu examples

of the use of cmi juncts in EAllP are r

(1) We, honevcr, arn service eqsntrr for their producte.

( i i ) We, - therefore, requast you to c la r i f y the ebovs.

it is convent imal. I t is used t o maintain the tune of polite-

ness in the discourse.

Eg.: ( i) We reqast you t o kindly look into this immediate! y

( ii ) Kindly refer to the advert iwmunt,

E. - The w e of clau8es

He11idsy (1985) crhserves that ctauaes can tepreuent

tl~rae rneirr I-ypcn or prncreanns. t b y ate (3 ) meter ial pmcos~es,

(2) mmtal processes end ( 5 ) relat imal promsaw.

(1 "!kterisI pracsasea ace procaesar, aQ 'doing', fhcy

ewpmss the ml im that cxuo entity dDIa wmkhing + lhich

uy be dme ' toa $om o t b r etnt l ty ." (p.103)

Eg. t

- - - - . -- - - - - -- - -- - - -- - -. - --

Actor Process

dissolved PJ ~opnAbk!!%!---.- =====$k!=) l (g@~S=f = = = = = 5 S Z Z = Z = 3 = 3 ~ t = = b S = Z = = r Z = .----------

Actor Process Gas1 - - - - ~ ~ - - * - - ~ ~ o ~ - - - - - - - - - z - - r . ~ ) - ~ ~ o ~ - - - . ~ - ~ ) a - - ~ - ~ a - - o ~ - ~ - - - ~ o - ~

( 2 ) Mental processes are processes of 'sensing' end include

cl ouses or feel inq, think inq and perceiving.

Eq.:

Cm Yw fee 1 that throbbing ~ - - ~ - - ~ - ~ ~ - ~ ~ - ~ - - - ~ - ~ - . ~ - ~ - - . ~ r - . ~ ~ - - I l r o . c m o . L w - ~ ~ o ~ ~ - ~ - ~ ~ o o - ~ ~ - ~ ~ - - - - - I I - ~ ~ - " . ~ ~ . * - " - - " ~ - - ~ L I C - - Z I - - L - - . L * - - - - n D - a - - - - - ~ m L I - * - - ~ -

Pro- Smser - m ~ s Phcmofflenon Per - -cept ion

( 3 ) Relational prcnceea are prt~esser, of i , the

centre1 mming of clauses of this type being thet somthing

i ' Further, relational processes an be (a) intanelve,

(b) cimmatant iel, ( c ) prmcrasniva.

Eg. t (8) Sarah is w i s e (intensive)

(b) Itm met inq is m e tussday (circumstmtial)

( c ) We tlever a p i e m Ipaseesive)

In clauses which reprerant nrate~iel pracessa8

were found to be used prechminantly. This is becauee, here

ane ie mainly concerned with 'rrhat s o m m *dose9 or 'whet

is dam' rather t.han with hmm fealAngs/ar emotions ar a

's tate ' .

I t is significant that the material proceases repre-

sented by the clauses in CAdP ere most often abstract proceswa

l i k e tdissalvel, 'convene1, 'resign', 'mtLfyt , *claim',

' request ' , ' inform', 'crlar i f y * , 'complain' and so on rather

than concrete processes 1 i ke 'catcht , *kickm, *oBke4 , 'bake9 , 'ki11' , etc. F r r r t h r we natice that khs verbs cbate-

cteristic of EAdQ are 91m verbs of canrnrwrication and are

often used performtivet y.

~ ~ " - - - - - - - " " - - - - * - - - m - - * - - " - - - " ~ ~ * o ~ ~ - o ~ " - - - * w o -

He claimed thet the price8 would @ revised rlpmrds 3 ~ ~ ~ = t 3 ~ ~ z t ~ ~ t = t ~ = ~ = = ~ t 3 ~ f t 1 P ~ C ~ f t s t ~ t ~ Z s ~ ~ x ~ ~ : ~ ~

I h s rest i v a l diecount schtnre has been

discont inusd

The &script ion of the target slituetion in t e r m of

(1 ) the typical wri t ing a c t i v i t i s a that are perfarmsd in edmfni-

strat ion, (2) the conmnunicat i v e functions thet are reeL5zed

while performinq these ac t iv i t i es and ( 3 ) the perceptions

of the target Leerrrers about the exist ing EAdQ teechinq pro-

qrnmrws and U=ir 'WFYI~FI ' (13hnpt.er 11) logether with the des-

cr ipt ion of the target lmquage in terms or ( 1 ) the typical

rt~etor icel/i 1 locut ionary act9 performed by the tents w e d

for dminis trat ive plrpclses, ( 2 ) the patterns of discourse

orqenization with particular reference to the intecectionel

functions thet character ize a piece of EAdP discourse, ( 3 ) the

cohesive devices and the discourse strateqias thet era used,

end (4) the linguistic and stylistic feetutqs that ere chars-

cteristic of the variety (Ctmpter I l l ) farm the basis on which

a pedegoqy for teaching €A@ b s been developed.

been possible to decide (a) w h m t iterne ehautd tie taught in an

EAde teechinq program, (b) what mthodotogy uauld ensure

developmt of the mqui red ctoclnwcicat Sve ebi t Ities, and

( c ) &at rneter la18 mnrl d e i d FWrd ~t~emgthen tb te.chinp/leaming.