SUBMITTED TO: Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Brigitte Urban

Suderburg Campus ,Ostfalia

Submitted by:

Raju Shrestha Water Management in Tropical and Sub-Tropical Regions

Suderburg campus, Ostfalia, Germany

24 September- 2010

Martikel – Nr. 50965105

ReportReportReportReport

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World Soil Museum TourWorld Soil Museum TourWorld Soil Museum TourWorld Soil Museum Tour

Wageningen, Netherlands Wageningen, Netherlands Wageningen, Netherlands Wageningen, Netherlands

Table of Contents

1. CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 ABOUT THE REPORT ........................................................................................................................................ 1 1.2 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE TOUR ............................................................................................................ 1 1.3 WORLD SOIL MUSEUM AND ISRIC ................................................................................................................... 1

2. CHAPTER II – SOIL FORMATION AND HORIZONS ........................................................................................... 2 2.1 SOIL FORMATION ............................................................................................................................................. 2

2.1.1 Soil-Forming Factors......................................................................................................................... 2 2.1.2 Soil-Forming Processes.................................................................................................................... 4

2.2 SOIL HORIZONS ............................................................................................................................................... 4 O Horizon ...................................................................................................................................................... 5 A Horizon....................................................................................................................................................... 5 B Horizon....................................................................................................................................................... 5 C Horizon ...................................................................................................................................................... 5 R Horizon (bedrock) ...................................................................................................................................... 5

3. CHAPTER III: SOIL REPORT ..................................................................................................................... 6 3.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................................................................ 6 3.2 CAMBISOLS ..................................................................................................................................................... 6

3.2.1 Significant Properties: ....................................................................................................................... 6 3.2.2 Properties Related to Climate and Parent Material:.......................................................................... 6 3.2.3 Formation Key Processes or Profile Development: .......................................................................... 6 3.2.4 Land Use Suitability: ......................................................................................................................... 7 3.2.5 Measures to Degradation:................................................................................................................. 7

3.3 TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF CAMBISOLS........................................................................................................... 8

4. CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSIONS............................................................................................................................ 9 4.1 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................................................. 9

References ………………………………………………………………………...…………………10

List of Acronyms

Al - Aluminium Ca - Calcium CaCO3 - Calcium carbonate CEC - Cation exchange capacity CLORPT - Climate, Organisms, Relief, Parent Material and Time EC - Electrical conductivity ECe - Electrical conductivity of saturation extract ESP - Exchangeable sodium percentage FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Fe - Iron IRB - International Reference Base for Soil Classification ISRIC - International Soil Reference and Information Centre ISSS - International Society of Soil Science IUSS - International Union of Soil Sciences NaOH - Sodium hydroxide RSG - Reference Soil Group SAR - Sodium adsorption ratio UNEP - United Nations Environment Program UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization USDA - United States Department of Agriculture WRB - World Reference Base for Soil Resources

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1. CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION

1.1 About the Report

This brief report is prepared on the three days visit of International Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC) and Wageningen University and Research Centre of Wageningen in Netherlands. The three days tour which was held on 2nd to 4th June 2010. This report is prepared on focusing the objectives of tour, about the World Soil Museum, Soil formation, Soil Horizons. This report also contains a detail description of Cambisols and conclusion about the tour.

1.2 Objectives and Scope of the Tour

This educational tour which was held to enhance the knowledge on soil science and its management, tropical plant science and a partial fulfilment of the masters’ degree course under Water Management in Tropical and Sub-tropical Regions at Suderburg Campus under Ostfalia. The basic objectives were focused on to deepen the knowledge on soil properties, formation, and their different classification as well as also to observe the different soils collected at World Soil Museum from different countries of the world. There was also opportunity to study the different literature collected in the library from different countries regarding the soil science, plants and water management. The scope of the tour was also associated with the field visit in Wageningen University and Research Centre to observe tropical plants and brief examination on the plant science.

1.3 World Soil Museum and ISRIC

ISRIC - World Soil Information which is known as an independent foundation. This foundation has been given with a global mandate and supported by the Netherlands Government. ISRIC- World Soil Information, established on 1966 is an expertise organisation in soils globally especially in tropical soils, data management and interpretation, taxonomy, soil survey, land evaluation and land use planning, soil conservation and soil fertility. The main aim of ISRIC is to make the awareness and inform through the soil museum, published public and discussion. Not only this, ISRIC will also conduct the applied research on land and water resources. This centre has good coordination and cooperation with Wageningen University and Research Centre. (www.isric.org) It has maintained a World Soil Data Centre which collects analyses and disseminates soil data and information worldwide and sets standards for documentation and data management.

Photo taken in World Soil Information, ISRIC, Wageningen, 3rd June, 2010

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2. CHAPTER II – SOIL FORMATION AND HORIZONS

2.1 Soil formation

Soil is a natural body consisting of layers (soil horizons) of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics. There are three simplified views of soils like from the angles of agronomy, drainage engineering, and soil science (or pedology):

- In agronomy, soil is the medium in which plant roots anchor and from which they extract water and nutrients;

- In drainage engineering, soil is a matrix with particular characteristics of water entry and permeability;

- In pedology, soil is that part of the earth’s crust where soil has formed as a result of various interactive processes.

- Soil is life –support system. It provides supporting system for plants, roots and it has enough water and nutrients holding capacity for plants to make use of it to survive the life. Soil is one of the most suitable homes to micro-organisms where they are responsible for the decomposition of organic matter, mineralization and biochemical transformations from fixing atmospheric nitrogen. (Bulletin of Word soil Information-ISRIC, 2008)

2.1.1 Soil-Forming Factors

To a large extent, the soil-forming factors are interdependent, influencing one another in different ways. This explains the occurrence of a wide variety of soils. For example, the organisms (vegetation and fauna) are strongly influenced by the climate, and topography is influenced by parent material and time. Climate Climate has a major influence on soil formation, the two main factors being temperature and precipitation. In warm moist climates, the rate of soil formation is high, because of rapid chemical weathering and because such conditions are conducive to biological agents that produce and transform organic matter. This rapid soil formation in warm moist climates often leads to deep, strongly weathered soils. In cold climates, the rate of soil development is low, because chemical weathering is slow, and because biological agents do not thrive in cold or dry environments. In warm dry environments, soils develop because of physical weathering through the heating and cooling that breaks up rocks. In cold moist climates, soils develop through the physical effects of freezing and thawing on rocks and soil constituents. Soils formed under cold conditions are generally thin and only slightly weathered.

Photo taken in World Soil Information, ISRIC, Wageningen, 3rd

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Parent Material

The material from which soils form without changing properties is called parent material. The parent material are formed by weathered primary bedrock and secondary material transported from another places like colluviums and alluvium deposits that are already present but mixed or altered in other ways - old soil formations, organic material including peat or alpine humus; and anthropogenic materials, like landfill or mine waste. (Source: NSW.Gov).

Few soils known as “residual soils, can be formed and developed directly from the breakdown of the underlying rocks. These soils have the same general properties as the parent rocks. Most soils derive from materials that depend on natural phenomenon like wind, water and gravity which helps to transport from other locations. (Source: NASA)

Topography Soil vary from place to place that also depends upon a topography that can be flat, nearly flat, slightly sloping, moderately sloping, or steeply sloping. Each landform is characterized by a particular slope or sequence of slopes, and also by a particular parent material. Soil formation is related to the geomorphology (or landform), mainly because the movement of water and solids is affected by the slope of the land. For example soil material like bases, clays and minerals partical in the slopy area with good drainage system which are swept away and deposited on the sites. These soils contain Iron is oxidised resulting the ferric iron (Fe3+) which cause the reddish brown in color of soil. Similarly in depressions, valley sites with poor drainage system where soils generally deposited and remains wet in long period resulting the hydration of iron which gives the yellow and grey color of soils. By the further reducing environment which helps to form ferrous iron (Fe2+) causing blue or green in color of soil. ( DLWC Technical Report, 1999) Organisms (Flora and Fauna) The organisms that influence soil formation can conveniently be subdivided into higher plants (natural vegetation or crops), micro-organisms (moulds and other fungi), vertebrates (burrowing animals like moles), and meso-fauna (earthworms, ants, termites). These organisms mix the soil matrix and lead to the formation of organic matter. Moist conditions and high soil temperatures have a favourable effect on biological activity. Organisms are partly responsible for transforming and translocating organic matter and other soil constituents. They also improve aeration and permeability of soil by the holes and channels they form. Time Soil formation is a slow process that takes hundreds or even thousands of years. A younger soil will reflect characteristics of the parent material better than an older soil, since insufficient time has elapsed to permit significant development. In slightly sloping areas in humid tropical regions, where high rainfall and high temperatures cause intensive weathering and leaching, time is a predominant soil-forming factor. Human Activities Human activity also influences soil formation. Destruction of natural vegetation by changing the frequency and extent of natural fires or by soil tillage abruptly modifies the soil forming factors. These changes have influenced the relative distribution of forests and grasslands in

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many areas. Thus, human interference which will change the soil properties depends upon time. 2.1.2 Soil-Forming Processes

Physical, chemical, and biological processes of soil formation are highly interactive. The physical processes involve changes in properties such as water content, volume, consistency, and structure. The chemical processes involve changes in the chemical and physical-chemical compounds of the soil. The biological processes involve changes influenced by the organisms living in the soil. The major processes are summarized below. Physical Processes The main physical processes of soil formation are:

- The translocation of water and dissolved salts, or of suspended clay particles; - The formation of aggregates, which is a major cause of soil-structure development; - Expansion and contraction as a result of wetting and drying of clay particles with a

2:1 type mineral; - Freezing and thawing, this causes soil-structure development in cold and temperate

climates.

Chemical Processes Chemical processes of soil formation worth mentioning are:

- The solution of salts. - The oxidation of organic matter or in the formation of acid sulphate soils of pyrite. - The reduction of organic matter or iron compounds. - The formation of clay minerals.

Biological Processes The processes in which organisms, especially micro-organisms affect soil formations are:

- Mummification (i.e. the decomposition of organic matter and the formation of humus) - The transformation of nitrogen by ammonification, nitrification, denitrification. - Homogenization of the soil resulting from the activities of small animals (e.g.

earthworms, termites, and moles )

2.2 Soil horizons

A soil horizon having different layers which possesses physical characteristics in the earth surface and they are parallel to the soil surface. Horizon formation depends upon geological, chemical, and biological processes and occurs over long time periods. Soil horizons are described and classified by their color, size, texture, structure, consistency, root quantity, pH, voids and boundary characteristics.

A capital letter is used to represent the each main horizon, after then several alphanumerical may be used by modifiers highlighting particular outstanding features of the horizon. The main alphabet like the sequence of O-A-B-C-R used generally in the universal, whereas some variation exists between the classification systems in different parts of the world.(soil horizon -Wikipedia)

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The following horizons are described here as per their position from top to bottom within the soil profile. O Horizon

The “O” stands for Organic and this layer is largely dominated by the presence of organic materials. These layers are covered many heavily vegetated areas and there is no presence of weathered mineral particles. This horizon is also known as humus.

A Horizon

The A Horizon is a kind of layer which lies in the top of soil horizons or known as 'topsoil'. A Horizon contains more organic material and fewer portions of clay or sesquioxides. This horizon is darker in color than deeper layers. It is one of suitable place for soil organism such as earthworms, arthropods, fungi and many species of bacteria for biological activity and these soil organisms are often concentrated in the plant root.

B Horizon

The B Horizon is commonly referred to as ‘subsoil’, and lies below of A horizon. This horizon consists of minerals layers which are rich in clay or minerals such as iron or aluminum and also contains organic material which is deposited by leaching process but very little humus. This layer is known as "zone of accumulation" and divided in three sub horizons like B1, B2 and B3 according to Australian system. They may also have ‘stronger’ colors i.e. is higher concentration of chroma than the A horizon. Plant roots can penetrate through this layer. The color of layer is usually brownish or red because of the clay and iron oxides (rust) washed down from A Horizon. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_horizons)

C Horizon

The C Horizon lies below the B horizon and it is simply named in the sequential order ‘after’ A and B within the soil profile. This layer contains large shelves of unweathered rock so that it is little affected by soil forming processes (weathering). For example like Ghost’ rock structure which may be present within C horizons and also contains parent material. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_horizons)

R Horizon (bedrock)

R horizons basically lies at the base of the soil profile and composed of partially-weathered bedrock. In this horizons largely continuous masses from hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer, while depositional will often appear very distinct. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_horizons)

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3. CHAPTER III: SOIL REPORT

3.1 General

Each soil has been observed and described in different aspects like their significant properties, forming processes, suitability to use and possible measures to protect from degradation.

3.2 Cambisols

A Cambisol is a combine soil which is formed with a beginning of soil formation by either color change with compared to parent materials. During the formation of Cambisols, there is evidence of parent material transforming from structure formation and mostly brownish discoloration, increasing clay percentage, and carbonate removal. There are different ways of soil classification systems refer to many Cambisols as: Braunerden (Germany), Sols bruns (France), Brown soils/Brown Forest soils (older US systems), or Burozems (Russian Federation). FAO coined the name Cambisols, adopted by Brazil (Cambissolos); US Soil Taxonomy classifies most of these soils as Inceptisols.( WORLD SOIL RESOURCES REPORTS ,2006)

3.2.1 Significant Properties:

These are young and weak to moderately developed buried soils with weak horizon differentiation. They are relatively low weathering condition and contain low humus and clay. Soil contains low base saturation. They have good water holding capacity and good conductivity and porosity. PH values are normally neutral having PH 5-7 and carbon nitrogen ration also lies 0-20. Lacking the brittle consistence of the fragic horizon having CEC > 16 cmol (+) kg- 1; or ECEC > 12 cmol (+) kg-1; or 10 percent weatherable minerals; or ≥10 percent water-dispersible clay; and thickness of 15 cm or more. (Dr. Otto Spaargaren, ISRIC-world Soil Information)

3.2.2 Properties Related to Climate and Parent Material: Cambisols are especially developed in medium and fine-textured materials which are derived from a wide range of rocks like mostly in alluvial, colluvial and aeolian deposits. (Cambisols-Wikipedia). The soil structured development through the leaching the carbonates and formation of silicate clays and sesqui (hydro) oxides as result of weathering of primary minerals. 3.2.3 Formation Key Processes or Profile Development: Cambisols are characterized by slight or moderate weathering of parent material and by absence of appreciable quantities of illuviated clay, organic matter, Al and/or Fe compounds.

Photo taken in World Soil Information,

ISRIC, Wageningen, 3rd June, 2010

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Cambisols has a combic B horizon and no diagnostic horizons other than an ochric or an umbric A horizon or a molic A horizon. These A horizon is overlying a cambic B horizon with a base saturation (by NH4OAc) of less than 50 percent and lack of salic properties. There are lacking the characteristics diagnostic for Vertisols or Andosols as well as lacking gleyic properties within 50 cm of the surface. (Note provided by Prof. B. Urban during Holland visit ) 3.2.4 Land Use Suitability: Cambisols are generally suitable for good agricultural production and are used intensively. Cambisols with high base saturation in the temperate zone are among the most productive soils on earth. These soils having more acids are less fertile and used for mixed arable farming and as grazing and forest land. Cambisols are used intensively in tropical zone for food production and oil crops. Cambisols in the humid tropics are typically poor in nutrients but are still richer than associated Acrisols or Ferralsols and they have a greater CEC. Cambisols with groundwater influences in alluvial plains are highly productive paddy soils. Cambisols cover an estimated 15 million square kilometres worldwide. ( WORLD SOIL RESOURCES REPORTS ,2006)

. 3.2.5 Measures to Degradation: To prevent from land degradation due to intensive agriculture or forestry or urban use, a careful land preventive plan is required, such that it preserves the topsoil and prevents compaction and crusting. Some of the preventive measures are (i) Organic residue Management or Agro forestry: it maintains and increases the nutrients and water holding capacity and (ii) Lining: it corrects for acidity and aluminium toxicity and for this fertilisers must be carefully applied. Therefore, maintaining soil fertility by manuring, mulching and/or adequate (i.e. long enough) fallow periods or agro forestry practices, and prevention of surface soil erosion is important management requirements.

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3.3 Types and properties of Cambisols

Eutric Cambisols (CMe): Cambisols having an ochric A horizon with base saturation of (by NH4OAc) of 50 percent or more at least between 20 and 50 cm from the surface but which are not calcareous within this same depth. Cambisols having B-horizon is not a strong brown to red. There are lacking of vertic properties and lacking of ferralic properties in cambic B horizon. There are not available of gleyic properties within 100 cm and permafrost within 200 cm of the surface. (Lecture note provided by Prof. B. Urban during World Soil Museum tour, Wageningen, Netherlands) Dystric Cambisols (CMd): Cambisols having an ochric A horizon and a base saturation of (by NH4OAc) less than 50 percent at least between 20 and 50 cm in some part of the B horizon. There are lacking of vertic properties and lacking of ferralic properties in cambic B horizon and gleyic properties within 100 cm of the surface. (Lecture note provided by Prof. B. Urban during World Soil Museum tour, Wageningen, Netherlands) Humic Cambisols (CMu): Cambisols having an umbric A horizon or a mollic A horizon overlying a cambic B horizon with a base saturation (by NH4OAc) of less than 50 percent. There are lacking of vertic properties and ferralic properties in cambic B horizon. There are not gleyic properties within 100 cm and permafrost within 200 of the surface.(Lecture note provided by Prof. B. Urban during World Soil Museum tour, Wageningen, Netherlands ) Calcaric Cambisols (CMc): Cambisols with an ochric A horizon are calcareous at least between 20 and 50 cm from the surface. There is absence of vertic properties and lacking of gleyic properties within 100 cm of the surface as well as lacking permafrost within 200 cm of the surface. (Lecture note provided by Prof. B. Urban during World Soil Museum tour, Wageningen, Netherlands) Chromic Cambisols (CMx): Cambisols having an ochric A horizon and base saturation of (by NH4OAc) of 50 percent or more at least between 20 and 50 cm from the surface but which are not calcareous within this same depth. Cambisols which having a strong brown to red cambic B horizon (rubbed soil has a hue of 7.5 YR and a chroma of more than 4 or a hue redder than 7.5 YR). There are lacking of vertic and ferralic properties in cambic B horizon. There are also absence of gleyic properties within 100 cm of the surface and lacking of permafrost within 200 cm of the surface. (Lecture note provided by Prof. B. Urban during World Soil Museum tour, Wageningen, Netherlands) Vetric Cambisols (CMv): Cambisols having an ochric A horizon which show vertic properties are lacking of gleyic properties within 100 cm of the surface as well as absence of permafrost within 200 cm of the surface. (Lecture note provided by Prof. B. Urban during World Soil Museum tour, Wageningen, Netherlands) Ferralic Cambisols (CMo): Cambisols having an ochric A horizon and a cambic B horizon with ferralic properties but lacking of vertic properties. There are lacking of gleyic properties within 100 cm of the surface and lacking permafrost within 200 cm of the surface. (Lecture note provided by Prof. B. Urban during World Soil Museum tour, Wageningen, Netherlands) Gleyic Cambisols (CMg): Cambisols which show gleyic properties within 100 cm of the surface but lack of permafrost within 200 cm of the surface. Gelic Cambisols (CMi): Cambisols having permafrost within 200 cm of the surface. (Lecture note provided by Prof. B. Urban during World Soil Museum tour, Wageningen, Netherlands)

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4. CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSIONS

4.1 Conclusions

This type of educational tour is really very fruitful for students. Most of the important information is received by observing the Museum of ISRIC regarding the different world soil profiles, factors of the world’s soil formation and climate change and its impact on soil and water. By visiting in Wageningen University and Research Centre, this helped us to understand more details about the tropical and subtropical plant. Really such kind of visit is essential for the student, which helps to build the confidential capacity not only theoretically but also practically. Personally for me, this tour helped to enhance the knowledge and skill on the soil and water sector. So I would like to recommend that such kind of educational tour should be organised and continued for the students of soil and water management sector.

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References

1. Bulletin of World Soil Museum, ISRIC, Wageningen, Netherlands

2. Cambisols-Wikipedia

3. Dr. Otto Spaargaren ,ISRIC –World Soil Information , eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/events/.../2DAY/Cambisols_OSpaargaren_U.pdf

4. DLWC Technical Report, 1999

5. Lecture Notes on Soil Science held at lecture class at Suderburg Campus, 2010 and World Soil Museum, Wageningen, Netherlands.

6. NSW.Goverment, http://www.naturalresources.nsw.gov.au/care/soil/soil_pubs/parent_pdfs/ch2.pdf

7. NASA ,http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/soilform/deposits.htm

8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_horizons

9. http://www.fao.org/landandwater/agll/wrb/default.stm

10. http://www.fao.org/docrep/W8594E/w8594e07.htm

11. http://www.isric.org

12. World Soil Resources Report- World reference base for soil resources 2006, FAO, ISRI and International Union of Soil Science.