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Tempusssue 10 June 2012 http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/tempus

Human Resource Managementin Public Higher Education in the

Tempus Partner Countries

EN

A TEMPUSSTUDY

DOI 10.2797/89070

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HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationin

theTempusPartnerCountries

Thisreportistheresultoftwostudiescarriedoutin2011bytwoindependentexperts:

FloraDubosc,BudapestHungary,[email protected]

MariaKelo,BrusselsBelgium,[email protected]

The coordination of the overall exercise and the consolidation of both studies has been

carried out by Piia Heinmki and Philippe Ruffio from the Education, Audiovisual and

CultureExecutiveAgencyinBrussels.

This study has beenproduced within theframework of the European Union Tempusprogramme

which is funded by the EuropeAid Development and Cooperation DirectorateGeneral and the

DirectorateGeneralforEnlargementoftheEuropeanCommission.

Thispublication does not reflect any officialposition. The European Commission and the Executive

Agency cannot be held responsiblefor any use which may be made of the information contained

herein.

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PREFACE

Whereasreformsinhighereducationincountriesintransitionmainlyconcentrateonstructuresand

procedures,

the

behaviour

and

attitudes

of

staff

working

in

higher

education

institutions

often

appear to be a major obstacle to reform. Indeed, experience proves that conservatism and

reluctance to change are priority topics that need to be addressed when implementing reform

policiesandprogrammes.

Thismakeshumanresourcemanagementakeychallengewhenitcomestodesigning,implementing

and monitoring policies, in particular, in the public sector, where legal frameworks and

administrativerulesoftenlackflexibilityandadaptability.

In this context, I am proud to present this study which was launched in 2011 by the Tempus

programmeandcarriedoutby twoexternalexperts,with thesupportoftheunit inchargeof the

management

of

the

Tempus

programme

in

the

Education,

Audiovisual

and

Culture

Executive

Agency.

Thestudy is innovativefromacontentandmethodologicalpointofview.Firstofall, itaddressesa

topicwhichhasneverbeendirectlytackledbeforewithintheframeworkofthe22yearoldTempus

programme. Secondly, it covers the different categories of staff working in higher education

institutions,notlimitingitsscopeonlytoacademicsandthusemphasisestheprominentroleofother

categoriesofstaff.Moreover, it isbasedonacombinationofsourcesof information,rangingfrom

data collected at national level, to data collected from individuals currently experiencing reform

processeswithinongoingTempusprojects.

It complements previous studies, by demonstrating once again the potential of the Tempus

programme

to

support

innovative

activities

in

higher

education.

The

conclusions

of

this

survey

will

be

exploitedin2012/2013throughaseriesofregionalseminarstobeorganisedintheTempusPartner

Countries,inordertostimulatedebatesandexchangeexperiencesonthetopicsatstake.

Ihavenodoubt thatthissurveywillbewelcomedby thevariousstakeholders inchargeofhigher

education inthecountriesconcernedandbeyond,includingthe internationalcommunityofdonors

insearchofanalysesandevidence.

GilbertGascard

Director

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Tableofcontents

1. Introduction

2.

ExecutiveSummary

3. Methodology

4. Nationalpoliciesandframeworksinhumanresourcemanagement4.1 Approachestohumanresourcemanagement

4.1.1 Sharingofresponsibilitiesinhumanresourcemanagement

4.1.2 Nationalstrategiesandschemes

4.2 Legalframeworksandinstitutionalautonomy

4.3 Regionalcontextsandspecificities

5. Academic staff recruitment, career management and working

conditions5.1 Introduction

5.2 Recruitmentofacademicstafftohighereducationinstitutions

5.2.1 Studentnumbersandneedforstaff

5.2.2 Recruitmentprocedures

5.2.3 Recruitmentrequirements

5.3 Careermanagement:evaluation,trainingandmotivation

5.3.1 Evaluatingacademicstaff:studentsandpeers

5.3.2 Training

5.3.3

Promotionsand

motivation

5.4 Workingconditions

5.4.1 Contractualconditionsforacademicstaff

5.4.2 Sidebenefitpackages

5.4.3 Retirement

5.4.4 Salaries

5.4.5 Multiplejobs

5.4.6 Workload

6. Administrativeand technical staff recruitment,careermanagement,

andworking

conditions

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Recruitment of administrative and technical staff to higher education

institutions

6.3 Careermanagement:evaluation,trainingandmotivation

6.3.1 Evaluatingadministrativeandtechnicalstaff

6.3.2 Training

6.3.3 Promotionsandmotivation

6.4 Workingconditions

6.4.1 Contractualconditionsforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff

6.4.2 Retirement

6.4.3

Salaries

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7. Managementstaffrecruitmentandconditions7.1 AppointmentandselectionofRectors

7.2 AppointmentandselectionofDeans

7.3 Termsofserviceofmanagementlevelstaff

7.4 Careermanagement

8. Genderbalance

9. Agingofstaff

10. Braindrain

11. Attractivenessofjobs inhighereducation institutionsstrengthsand

challenges11.1 Overview

11.2

Regionalspecificities

11.3 Impressionsfrominterviews

12. Skillsandmotivation

13. Conclusionsandrecommendations13.1 Mainfindings

13.1.1Nationalpolicies

13.1.2Academic staff recruitment, career managements and working

conditions

13.1.3Administrative

staff

recruitment,

career

management

and

working

conditions

13.1.4Managementstaff(RectorsandDeans)

13.1.5Thewidercontext

13.2 Regionalspecificities

13.2.1CentralAsia

13.2.2EasternEurope

13.2.3Russia

13.2.4Maghreb

13.2.5MiddleEast

13.2.6WesternBalkans

13.3 Recommendations

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ANNEXES

Annex1BriefoverviewoftheTempusprogramme

Annex2Thenationalquestionnaire(addressedtoNationalTempusOffices)

Annex3Theonlinequestionnaire(addressedtoindividuals)

Annex4Overviewtablesofresponsescollectedthroughthenationalquestionnaires

Annex 4.1 Duration of contract and the legal employer of staff at public higher

educationinstitutionsAcademicstaff

Annex 4.2 Duration of contract and the legal employer of staff at public higher

educationinstitutionsAdministrativeandtechnicalstaff

Annex 4.3 The most significant nonsalary benefits of public higher education

institutionemployeesbystaffcategoryandregion

Annex4.4Theroleofnationalauthoritiesinsalarydecisionsbyregion

Annex4.5Averagestudentcontacthoursbytypeofacademicstaffandbyregion

Annex 4. 6 Overview of career progression by region: evaluation, training and

promotions

Annex4.7ProceduresfortheappointmentofmanagementstaffRectors

Annex4.8ProceduresfortheappointmentofmanagementstaffDeans

Annex4.9Percentageoffemalestaffinpublichighereducationinstitutions

Annex 4.10 Division of responsibilities and institutional autonomy on human

resourcemanagementissuesinhighereducation

Annex4.11

Main

challenges

to

higher

education

modernisation

by

region

and

staff

category

An additional annex is available only on the website of the Tempus programme

(http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/tempus/tools/publications_en.php) and provides detailed

statisticalinformationontheresultsoftheonlinesurveyaddressedto individualsinvolved

inTempusprojects.

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1Introduction

Formorethan20years,theTempusprogramme (seeAnnex1)providesauniqueplatformforthe

exchangeofbestpracticesinthemodernisationofhighereducationsystemsbetweentheEuropean

Union

and

the

Partner

Countries

involved

in

the

programme.

The

Tempus

programme

is

also

the

gateway to EU best practice in higher education modernisation and makes it possible, via the

publicationofstudies,toraiseawarenessamongstakeholdersofpriorityissuesinhighereducation.

Inaddition,thesestudiesalsoprovidematerialwhichcanbefurtherexploitedviaTempusprojects.

Developing the management ofhuman resources is becominga key challenge in higher education

institutions worldwide. Complex academic communities need appropriate career management

procedures,aswellasnationalpolicies,whichsupportthe institutions inrecruiting,motivatingand

keepingqualifiedstaff.

IntheTempusPartnerCountries,highereducationsystemsarefacingnumerouschallengeslinkedto

the

economic

transition

process

and

globalisation.

These

challenges

are

linked

to

quality,

level

of

statespending ineducation,adequacytotheneedsofthe labourmarketandsociety,theneedfor

appropriategovernancemechanismsandstructuresandtheaccesstohighereducationinparticular

forthedisadvantagedsectorsofthepopulation.

Asexperiencedinmanycountries,modernisationofhighereducationisnotonlyamatterofpolicies

and strategies, organisations and structures but also a question of behaviour and the attitudes of

individuals. Ongoing reflections and analyses by experts and practitioners about university

modernisation highlight among many other obstacles, the human constraints and the difficulty to

makepeoplechangetheirattitudesandadheretonewapproachesandmethods.Structuralreforms

oftenfailbecauseofthelackofcommitmentandmotivationofindividualactors.

InmanyTempusPartnerCountries,highereducation institutionsareconfrontedwithashortageof

staff (academicandsupportstaff) inquantitativeandqualitativeterms. Institutionsare lacking the

appropriate human resources to properly address the challenges at stake. Unsatisfactory working

conditions have an impact on the attitudes and behaviour of staff and create an obstacle to the

modernisation of higher education. Tempus projects in particular are confronted with this kind of

challengeswhentryingtomakemodernisationareality.

Developing the proper management of human resources is therefore becoming a key challenge

within institutionsandalsoatnational level.Newapproachestohumanresourcemanagementare

currentlybeingintroducedinmanycountriestosupportthemodernisationofgovernanceofhigher

educationsystems

and

institutions.

The study "Human Resource Management in Public Higher Education in the Tempus Partner

Countries" provides an overview of the challenges, conditions and limitations which may be

considered as obstacles to the modernisation of higher education. In particular, the purpose is to

investigate to what extent some unfavourable conditions, such as inadequate recruitment

procedures and lack of career progression schemes may be hindering the development of proper

human resources in higher education. The study concentrates exclusively on the public higher

educationsectorandregularlyemployedstaff. Itwas launched in2011andconsistedoftwoparts:

an online survey addressed to Tempus project participants to collect their individual perceptions

(later referred to as "the online survey / questionnaire") and a questionnaire addressed through

National

Tempus

Offices

to

National

Authorities

and

other

relevant

stakeholders

to

gather

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information on national policies and practices (later referred to as "the national survey /

questionnaire).

ThisstudyaimsnotonlytogiveanoverviewofthestateofplayintheTempusPartnerCountries1but

also to collect good practices and to provide examples on how countries or institutions have

addressed

the

challenges

that

they

are

currently

facing

in

managing

human

resources.

Most importantly, the study also aims to raise the awareness of institutions and policy makers by

helpingthemto identifycentralareasofdevelopment intheircountriesandtakeadvantageofthe

experienceofotherstomoveforward.

The report focuses on the policy measures and strategies which are being taken at macro

(governmentandministries)andmicro levels(institutions)andhighlightsthevarietyofapproaches

currentlyimplementedintheTempuscountries.

Thereportcoversawiderangeoftopics,including:

PolicycontextinthedifferentPartnerCountries

Recruitmentprocessesandpractices

Careermanagement

Workingconditions

Braindrain

Demographics

Attractivenessofjobs

Skillsandattitudes

When interpretingtheresultofthestudy itmustbekept inmindthatsometermsmayhavebeen

understoodin

different

ways

by

the

respondents

/countries,

in

spite

of

the

efforts

made

to

clarify

theminthequestionnaires.

Moreover,manytopicsaddressedinthestudy(suchasquestionsrelatedtoattractivenessandskills,

current challenges, etc.) are not based on hard facts or statistics, but on individual respondents

perceptionsofthesituation.

1 Partner countries covered by the study: Albania, Algeria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and

Herzegovina, Croatia (only in the online survey), Egypt, former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,

Georgia, Israel, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Moldova, Montenegro, Morocco, Russian

Federation,Serbia,

Syria,

Tajikistan,

the

occupied

Palestinian

territory,

Tunisia,

Turkmenistan,

Ukraine,

UzbekistanandKosovo(thisdesignationiswithoutprejudicetopositionsonstatus,andisinlinewith

UNSCR1244andtheICJOpinionontheKosovodeclarationofindependence).

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2ExecutiveSummary

Theaimofthisstudy istogiveanoverviewoftheways inwhichhumanresourcesaremanaged in

public higher education institutions in the Tempus Partner Countries. It is based on a survey

addressed

to

individuals

involved

in

Tempus

projects

and

on

information

gathered

at

the

level

of

the

nationalauthorities.

Inallthecountriescoveredbythestudy,humanresourcemanagementandstaffdevelopmentare

becomingissueswhichrequiremoreandmoreattentiononthepartofindividualinstitutionsaswell

as from thenationalauthorities.There isaneed to recruitand retainhighlyskilledandmotivated

staff in order to make modernisation of higher education a reality. While more attention is often

being paid to the working conditions of academic staff, it is slowly becoming obvious that

administrativeandtechnicalstaffalsoneedstobetakenbetterintoconsideration,inordertoensure

theircommitmentandcontributiontothedevelopmentofhighereducationinstitutions.

In

general,

it

can

be

noted

that

the

importance

of

human

resource

management

is

recognised

in

the

TempusPartnerCountries,butonlyafewofthemhavedevelopednationalstrategieswhichwould

concretelysupporthighereducationinstitutionsandgivethemguidelines.However,somesuccessful

nationalschemesarepresentedinthestudyandcanserveasexamplesofgoodpracticeinmanaging

humanresource issues.Theconclusionsattheendofthereportalso includerecommendationsfor

thedevelopmentofhumanresourcesinthecountriesconcerned.

Academicstaffmotivatedbutunderpaid

Transparentrecruitmentprocedures,goodcontractualconditionsandconcretepossibilitiesforstaff

developmentandcareeradvancementare importantfactors inattractingandmaintainingqualified

academic

staff

at

public

institutions.

Such

measures

also

ensure

that

staff

members

are

not

only

retained, but that their skills and capacities are constantly upgraded to meet the changing

requirementsetonthehighereducationsector.

Thefollowingtypesofproblemareasareidentifiedinthestudyinrelationtoacademicstaff:

1) Recruitment processes: high frequency of internal recruitment and lack of transparency of

procedures used, corruption and nepotism, use of selection methods and criteria that do not

supporttherecruitmentofthebestsuitedcandidatesforthejobs,restrictivelegalframeworks.

2) Careerprogressionandtraining:lackofprogressionprospects,prolongedtimespentwithinone

institution, inadequate performance evaluation procedures, limited training opportunities,

insufficient

motivation

and

incentives.

3) Working conditions: limited research opportunities, political pressure and lack of autonomy,

excessive working hours, varying contract durations, low salaries, the necessity to take up

multiplepositions.

These problems affect the Tempus Partner Countries to varying degrees and are being tackled

through different measures. The study shows some positive tendencies towards more open and

transparentselectionprocedures,astrongerfocusonstafftrainingandtheintroductionoffinancial

incentivesandrewardschemes.Itcanalsobenotedthat,whilesalariesareusuallyconsideredtobe

lower than in equivalent positions outside public higher education, other advantages such as

employment stability, interesting work and a wellregarded social status continue to be seen as

important advantages of academic posts in public higher education. It should also be mentioned

that, in many countries covered by the study, academic staff values the possibility to work in the

universityenvironmentandconsidersteachingasavocation.

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As far as recruitment procedures are concerned, it can be noted that academic staff in Tempus

PartnerCountries ismost typically recruited via opencompetitions.However,also the traditionof

internal recruitments continues to be widely spread while, in a small number of countries, the

recruitment falls under the responsibility of the national authorities. In most of the Tempus

countries,

academic

staff

at

public

higher

education

institutions

is

directly

employed

by

the

institutions or their subunits. Contracts are usually concluded for a determined period, while

contractdurationmayvary(mosttypically5years).

Intermsofchallenges,manyTempuscountriesarefacedwithproblems linkedtotheagingofstaff

andtheneedtorecruitanewgenerationofstaffmembers.Braindrain isalsobecomingaserious

issue insomecountriesand incertaindisciplines,notonly intermsof internationalbraindrainbut

evenmoretypicallyasaresultofcompetitionfromtheprivatesectortoemployacademicstaff.

Administrativeandtechnicalstaffsatisfiedbutundervalued

Administrativestaff

and

their

commitment

and

skills

can

be

crucial

to

the

successful

modernisation

of institutions and it is therefore necessary to pay careful attention to their recruitment, career

management and working conditions. However, in the countries investigated, their role does not

alwaysseem tobeconsideredof primary importance to thedevelopmentof thehigher education

sector.

Overall,there is lesscontrolbythenationalauthoritiesovertherecruitmentofadministrativeand

technical staff and open competitions are less common than for academic positions. Recruitment

decisionsareusuallytakenbytheinstitutions.Intermsofworkcontracts,thereisacleartrendthat

administrativeandtechnicalstaffcontractsarelongerindurationthanthoseofacademicstaff.Itcan

alsobenotedthatsalariesofadministrativeandtechnicalstaffaremoreinlinewithsalariesoffered

forjobs

outside

public

higher

education.

In

addition,

the

relatively

good

additional

benefits,

the

employmentstabilityandthereasonableworkinghoursmakeadministrativeandtechnicalpositions

relativelyattractiveinmostcountries.

The study shows that one of the challenges in respect to this category of staff is the lack of

appropriateskills,inparticularlanguageandITskills.However,thedevelopmentoftrainingschemes

for administrativeand technicalstaffdoesnotseem to beahigh priority inmost of thecountries

investigated.

Managementstaffpoliticalpressureandlackofrelevanttraining

Management

staff

(Rectors

and

Deans)

naturally

holds

a

key

role

in

the

development,

strategicpositioningandmodernisationofhighereducation institutions.Therefore,themanagementofthis

particularlycentralhumanresource isofhigh importancetothesuccessof institutionsand indeed

forthemodernisationofthehighereducationsystemsasawhole.

Thestudyidentifiessomeproblematicissuesinrelationtothelackofopencompetitionforpositions

in senior management, their often politicised selection or appointment, the lack of adequate and

transparentselectioncriteria, the lack of relevant trainingopportunitiesand the different kindsof

political pressures that management staff may be subject to. However, also some interesting

examplesofgoodpracticecanbefound,underliningtheincreasedwilltoachievetransparencyand

to select the effectively best candidates able to support the strategic goals of the institutions and

theirmodernisation.

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Regionalfeatures

It is difficult to summarise comprehensively the specific features of each region, but some main

aspectsthataretypical,particularlyproblematicorwelladdressedcanbeidentifiedforeachofthe

sixregionscoveredbythisstudy.

In most Central Asian countries, unattractiveness of jobs in higher education is considered a

significantproblem.Lowsalaries,ahighnumberofcontacthourswithstudentsandrelativelyweak

side benefits contribute to this situation. Moreover, low salaries often lead to the need to hold

multiplepositions.Institutionsareindependenttodecideonpromotionsandhaverelativefreedom

instaffappointments.However,theRectorsofinstitutionsareappointedbynationalauthorities.The

genderbalanceofstaffisrelativelygood,withsomevariationsacrosstheregion.

The level of PhD attainment among senior teaching staff is among the lowest among the Tempus

regions and language and IT skills are reported to be an area that needs to be addressed. On the

otherhand,systematictrainingofstaffisavailableforacademicstaffacrosstheregion.

Manycountriesintheregionfaceanegativedemographictrendoftheoverallpopulationandneed

toreducenumbersofteachingstaffinthenextfiveyears.

InEasternEuropeancountries,jobs inpublichighereducationarealsonotconsideredparticularly

attractive:lowsalariesandrelativelyweakbenefitspackagesmakethepositionslessattractivethan

possiblealternativesintheprivatesector.Thesituationisespeciallyworryingforacademicpositions,

whileforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff,theconditionsareconsideredmoreattractiveinrelative

terms.Multiplepositionsarealsoanissueinthisregion.

In several Eastern European countries the recruitment requirements are set by the national

authorities,

which

mean

that

institutions

have

little

freedom

to

steer

the

selection.

Similarly,

institutionshavelittleautonomyfordecisionsregardingsalariesandtheimplementationofrewards.

Ontheotherhand,institutionalbodiesmayoftendirectlyselecttheRectorandothermanagement

levelstaff.

TherearecurrentlyarelativelylowproportionofPhDcandidatesamongsenioracademicstaffinthe

regionandthelackofforeignlanguageskillscreatesaproblemforthemodernisationofthesector.

Thereisverylittlesystematicstafftrainingavailable.Infact,Europeanprojectsareseenasoneofthe

most importanttrainingtoolsavailableathighereducation institutions. Internationalbraindrain is

lessofaconcernthancompetitionfromtheprivatesector.Atthesametime,institutionsarefaced

withaneedtoreducenumbersofteachingstaffinthenextdecade.

As intheotherexSovietcountries,also inRussia,jobs inhighereducationarenotconsideredvery

attractive, due to the high number of contacthours with students, the lack of opportunities for

researchandlowsalaries.Russiatriestofindnewwaystoattracthighlyqualifiedstaffintothesector

for example by the creation of new types of higher education institutions with a special status,

special funds and extended academic freedom. Institutions enjoy a relatively high degree of

autonomyfortherecruitmentandthepromotionofstaff.

StafftrainingconcentratesoninstitutionalinitiativesanditappearsthatEuropeanprojectsareseen

asoneofthemain trainingtools.Themainskillsshortage is in theareaof foreign languageskills,

while IT skills are widespread. International braindrain does not seem to be a serious cause for

concern.Rather,theactualcompetitioncomesfromtheprivatesectoratnationallevel.

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Positions inhighereducation intheMaghrebcountriesareconsideredmoreattractivethan inany

otherregion:allstaffhascivilservantstatusandrelativelyhighsalariesandinsomecasesverygood

benefits packages. As all staff members are civil servants, recruitment requirements, salaries and

promotions are decided upon mainly by the national authorities. Promotions are based mainly on

formalcriteria,suchasyearsofservice.Duetothefavourableconditionsandoverallattractiveness

of

positions

in

higher

education

institutions,

there

is

little

competition

for

the

best

candidates

at

the

nationallevelfromprivatecompaniesforexample.Mostcountriesintheregionhavehighnumbers

ofPhDsinacademiaandagoodlevelofskillsofstaff.Ingeneral,thereislittlestafftrainingavailable.

Oneoftheproblemareasintheregionseemstobetheresistanceofstafftochange.Furthermore,

thecountriesoftheregionwillneedtorecruitadditionalstaffinthecomingyears inordertocope

withtheincreasingnumberofstudents.

Ageing does not seem to pose a serious problem to the sector. Gender balance has not yet been

reachedhoweverandthefiguresarelowespeciallyinacademicpositions.

IntheMiddleEast,someofthemainattractionsofjobsinhighereducationinstitutionsarethejob

stability

and

good

additional

benefits.

At

the

same

time,

salaries

are

not

considered

attractive,

which

leadstotheneedtoholdmultiplepositions.Thestudyshowsthatthisisactuallytheonlyregionin

which most countries report a defacto decrease of salaries in the past 10 years due to inflation

growing faster than salaries. For administrative staff, the attraction ofjobs in higher education

institutionsseemshigherincomparisontootheralternativesthanforacademicstaff.

Recruitmentrequirementsarerelativelystringentandoftenmoredetailedandcomprehensivethan

inotherTempusregions.ThereareaveryhighpercentageofPhDholdersamongsenioracademic

staff. Lack ofskills is notconsideredaserious problem,but rather the attitudeof staff to change.

There isagoodawarenessof the importanceofstaff trainingacrossthe region.Training isusually

organisedbyinstitutionsandisoftentakenintoconsiderationinpromotiondecisions.

Some of the countries in the region suffer from severe international braindrain, especially to the

richer neighbouring countries and the imbalance in gender distribution is a problem especially in

academicpositions.

IntheregionoftheWesternBalkans,highereducationjobsareconsideredrelativelyattractive.The

salariesareconsideredrelativelygoodinmostofthecountriesoftheregionandcontacthourswith

studentsareamongthelowestacrossTempuscountries.

Inmostcases,institutionsareindependentindecidingaboutpromotionsandrecruitmentandthey

may also put in place financial incentives. The lack of integration of the universities in several

countriesisanobstacletoreformingandharmonisinghumanresourcemanagementpracticeswithin

the institutions. Selection processes are now most typically open to all qualified candidates and

importantchangestoincreasetransparencyhavebeenimplementedintherecentyears.TheRectors

areelectedbytheinstitutions,sometimesinvolvingallstaffandstudentsintheprocess.

Thereisverylittlesystematictrainingavailableforstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutions.While

thereisscopefortheimprovementof languageskills,themain issueintheregionseemstobethe

lackofflexibilityofstaffandtheirlackofadaptabilitytonewrequirements.

StaffinWesternBalkaninstitutionsisrelativelyyoung.Asbraindrainisacauseforconcernformany

countries of the region, some national schemes have been established to deal with this

phenomenon.

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3Methodology

Thisreportsdrawsonthreemainsourcesofinformation:

1) a

questionnaire

to

the

National

Tempus

Offices

in

27

Partner

Countries

participating

in

the

programme(laterreferredtoasthenationalsurvey/questionnaire)

2) SitevisitstonineoftheTempusPartnerCountries.

3) anonlinesurveycarriedoutinMayJune2011targetingapproximately3000peopleinvolvedin

TempusIVprojectsintheTempusPartnerCountriesandEUmemberstates(laterreferredtoas

theonlinesurvey/questionnaire)

Terminologyused

Termshavebeenusedwiththemeaningstatedbelow:

Academicstaff:professors,lecturers,researchers

Administrative and technical staff: staff in academic or administrative departments performing

administrativeandtechnicaltasks

Managementstaff:DeansandRectors

Seniorandjuniorstaff:judgementwas lefttotherespondentsaccordingtothedivisionthatmade

mostsenseineachcontext.Usuallytheformerreferstoprofessorialpositions(assistantprofessors,

fullprofessors,

etc.)

and

the

latter

to

non

professorial

level

staff

(lecturers,

teaching

assistants,

etc.)

Civil servant: term indicating staff employed typically by public authorities (e.g. the state) as

permanentstaffandwhooftenenjoyspecificbenefitsrelatedtotheposition

Higher education institution (HEI): all types of staterecognised, postsecondary educational and

vocationalestablishmentswhichofferqualificationsordiplomasatISCEDlevel5and/or6,regardless

ofwhatsuchestablishmentsarecalled(University,Polytechnic,Institute,College,etc).

National authorities: entities having legal decisionmaking powers on institutional issues, such as

Ministries,theGovernment/CouncilofMinistries,theHeadofStateandsoon.

Regionscoveredbythestudy

CentralAsia:Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,Uzbekistan

EasternEurope:Armenia,Azerbaijan,Belarus,Georgia,Moldova,Ukraine

Russia

Maghreb:Algeria,

Tunisia,

Morocco

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MiddleEast:Egypt,Israel,Jordan,Lebanon,theoccupiedPalestinianterritory,Syria

Western Balkans: Albania,Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia (onlyonline survey), FormerYugoslav

RepublicofMacedonia,Kosovo2,Montenegro,Serbia

1)ThequestionnaireaddressedtotheNationalTempusOffices(NTOs)3

A comprehensive questionnaire on human resource management in higher education was sent to

coordinatorsofNationalTempusOffices in27PartnerCountries.Thepurposeofthequestionnaire

wastocollectinformationtoanalysetheextenttowhichhumanresourceissuesinhighereducation

institutionsareadriveroforachallengetohighereducationreforms.

Theaimofthequestionnairewastocollectdetailedinformationonissuesrelatedtohumanresource

managementatthenational level, includingnationallevelregulations, laws,initiatives,policiesand

activities

related

to

the

theme.

The

questions

referred

to

the

employment

conditions

of

regularly

employedstaff(excludingstaffonprojectrelatedcontracts) inpublichighereducation institutions.

Thequestionnaire(Annex2)wasdivided intotwomainparts,addressing1)concreteproceduresin

humanresourcemanagementand2)humanresourcepolicies.

TheNationalTempusOfficeswererequestedtoconsulttheNationalAuthoritiesaswellasthelocal

EU Delegation in filling in the questionnaire. In addition, some of them organised consultation

meetingswithhighereducation institutions,TempusHigherEducationReformExperts (HEREs),

orotherrelevantentities.OtherNTOsevensurveyedallpublicinstitutionsintheircountries,thefinal

questionnairebeingtheresultoftheaggregationoftheinstitutionalreplies.Thefinalquestionnaire

wasendorsed

by

the

national

Ministry

in

charge

of

higher

education.

2)Thesitevisits

Tocomplement,verifyandenrichtheinformationcollectedthroughthequestionnaires,toobtaina

more indepth vision of the circumstances, to better interpret the information collected and to

identify examples of good practice, a number of sitevisits were organised between May and July

2011.Thevisitswereconductedbytotheexternalexpertsinchargeofcarryingoutthestudy.Atotal

of nine countries were selected for the sitevisits, maintaining a regional balance and a spread

betweensmallerandlargerhighereducationsystems.Thecountriesvisitedwere:

WesternBalkans:

Albania,

Serbia

EasternEurope:Armenia,Ukraine

Maghreb:Morocco

MiddleEast:Jordan

CentralAsia:Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan

Russia

2 Thisdesignationiswithoutprejudicetopositionsonstatus,andisinlinewithUNSCR1244andtheICJ

OpinionontheKosovodeclarationofindependence.3

The

National

Tempus

Offices

are

responsible

for

the

local

management

of

the

Programme

and

monitoring of the projects in each Partner Country. They act as contact point for the overal

Programmeineachpartnercountryandarefundedundertheaccompanyingmeasures.

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Thesitevisitslastedtypically23daysandincludedanumberofinterviewswithrelevantindividuals

fromthefollowinggroups:

Ministry level(personsdealingwithhumanresourcesatpolicy levelandpersonsresponsiblefor

practicalmattersinhumanresourcemanagement)

Atleast

2higher

education

institutions

currently

involved

in

Tempus

projects

(persons

from

the

centraladministration/managementlevelandacademicandadministrativestaff)

RepresentativesoftheTempusHigherEducationReformExperts(HEREs)

TheNationalTempusOffice

TheEUDelegation

Otherstakeholders,ifrelevant.

The interviews addressed questions both at the macro and micro level, i.e. nationallevel policies,

strategiesandregulations,aswellasinstitutionalpracticeandindividualperceptions.

The information collected through the sitevisits has been instrumental in gaining a better

understandingof

the

mechanisms

in

place

in

different

regions

and

countries

and

has

made

it

possible

tobetterinterpretdatacollectedthroughthequestionnaires.Thecaseexamplesandgoodpractices

included in this report have been mainly collected through the sitevisits and consequently

concentrate on the 9 countries visited. This is naturally without prejudice to the number of good

practiceexamplesoradvancedsystemsofhumanresourcemanagementpotentiallyavailableinthe

othercountries.

3)Theonlinesurvey

Between 19 May and 29 June 2011, approximately 3000 contact persons involved in Tempus IV

ongoingprojectswereinvitedbyemailtofillinaquestionnairepublishedonline.

Thepurposeofthequestionnairewastocollect informationfromstakeholdersdirectly involved in

projectsandactivitiesrelatedtothereformofhighereducationinthecountriesconcerned,namely

ongoing Tempus projects. It was targeted at 3 different categories of respondents in order to

provideacomplementarypictureofthesituationseenfromthreedifferentangles,includingfroman

EUpointofview:

persons involvedinTempusprojectsandworkinginapublichighereducationinstitutioninone

oftheTempusPartnerCountries(CAT1);

persons involved in Tempus projects and working in other institutions / organisations in a

TempusPartnerCountrywhichisnotapublichighereducationinstitution,suchasprivatehigher

educationinstitutions,

companies,

ministries

(CAT2);

and

persons involved in Tempus projects and working in a higher education institution or other

organisationintheEuropeanUnion(CAT3).

Knowing that the realitymaydifferwidely from the theory and legal/administrative frameworks,

the aimof the onlinequestionnairewas toprovideadditional informationandevidence from the

ground in order to complete, nuance and confirm the information collected through the national

questionnairesandreflectingthusamoremicrolevelanalysis.

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Structureofthequestionnaire

Thequestionnaire(Annex3)wasdividedinfivedifferentsections:

The first section focusing on the identification of respondents, with questions allowing their

classification

into

three

target

categories

(CAT

1,

2

and

3),

defining

their

staff

profile

(e.g.academic staff / administrative and technical staff / management staff (Dean/Rector) and the

countryoforigin(wheretheirinstitution/organisationislocated).

RespondentsfromtheEUmemberStateswererequestedtoselectoneTempusPartnerCountry

whichtheyaremostfamiliarwith,inordertoprovidetheirperceptionsofthesituationofhuman

resourcesinthatparticularcountry.

Thesecondsection,withquestionsaddressedtoallrespondentscoveringthedifferenttopicsof

thestudy;

The

third

section,

with

questions

addressed

only

to

respondents

working

in

a

public

highereducation institution in a Tempus Partner Country (CAT1), aimed at gathering more precise

information about human resource management at their own institution, such as career

managementpractices,evaluationofstaff,workload,demography;

The fourth section, with questions addressed only to respondents working in a public higher

education institution in a Tempus Partner Country (CAT1), aimed at gathering information on

their personal situation, such as status and contact, workload and activities outside their

institution,salaryandotherbenefitsandrewards;

Thefifthandconcludingsection.

Responsesandrepresentativityofthesurvey

Atotalof550questionnairesweresubmitted,ofwhichmorethanonethirdwerefilledbyacademic

staffworkinginapublichighereducationinstitutioninaTempusPartnerCountry(table1).

These550answerscoverall28TempusPartnerCountries.Itshouldhoweverbeunderlinedthat60

repliesweregivenforRussiaand69forSerbia,meaningthat24%ofallanswersconcernthesetwo

countries(table2).

Itisalsoworthnotingthatoutofthe173respondentsfromtheEuropeanUnion(CAT3),36%chose

oneof

the

Western

Balkan

countries

on

which

to

answer,

19%

chose

one

of

the

Eastern

European

countriesand18%choseoneoftheMiddleEasterncountries.

Furthermore, it should be noted that 17 of the Tempus Partner Countries where assessed by less

than19personseach,namelyAlbania,Algeria,Armenia,Azerbaijan,Belarus,Egypt, Israel,Kosovo,

Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Montenegro, Morocco, Syria, Tajikistan, the occupied Palestinian territory,

Tunisia,Turkmenistan.

Duetothelackofarelevantnumberofanswersconcerningthesecountries,thedecisionwastaken

toanalysetheirdataatregionallevelonly.

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Table1 Profilesoftherespondentstotheonlinesurvey

Nrof

responses

%ofthe

grand

total

Publichighereducationinstitutionina

TempusPartnerCountry(CAT1)

Academic

staff 200

36,3%

Administrativestaff 67 12,1%

Managementstaff 37 6,7%

Total 304 55,2%

Otherinstitution/organisationinaTempus

PartnerCountry(includingprivatehigher

educationinstitutions)(CAT2)

PrivateHEI 25 4,5%

Ministry/publicbody 18 3,2%

Researchorganisation 6 1,0%

Private/publicenterprise 10 1,8%

Other 14 2,5%

Total 73 13,2%

Highereducationinstitutionorother

organisationintheEuropeanUnion(CAT3)

HEI 154 28,0%

Ministry/

public

body 3

0,5%

Researchorganisation 3 0,5%

Private/publicenterprise 7 1,2%

Other 6 1,0%

Total 173 31,4%

Grandtotal 550 100,0%

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Table2Breakdownoftherepliestotheonlinesurveypercountryandtypeof

respondents

Respondents

PersonsworkinginPersonsworking

in

Total

apublic

higher

education

institution

inaTempusPartnerCountryaTempus

Partner

Country

(notina

public

HEI)

the

EUAcademic

staff

Adm.

and

technical

staff

Mgt

staffTotal

CentralAsia 25 13 9 47 13 16 76

Kazakhstan 12 9 3 24 7 3 34

Kyrgyzstan 4 3 1 8 1 4 13

Tajikistan 0 0 1 1 0 1 2

Turkmenistan 1 0 0 1 0 3 4

Uzbekistan

8

1

4

13

5

5

23

EasternEurope 44 21 12 77 12 32 121

Armenia 7 3 1 11 3 4 18

Azerbaijan 0 0 2 2 2 2 6

Belarus 2 5 2 9 0 3 12

Georgia 11 3 0 14 2 5 21

Moldova 7 4 4 15 1 3 19

Ukraine 17 6 3 26 4 15 45

RussianFederation 16 9 5 30 5 25 60

Maghreb 12 7 3 22 1 7 30

Algeria 3 3 2 8 0 3 11

Morocco

6

2

1

9

0

3

12

Tunisia 3 2 0 5 1 1 7

MiddleEast 24 3 4 31 15 31 77

Egypt 3 0 2 5 3 8 16

Israel 3 1 0 4 1 5 10

Jordan 11 1 0 12 3 6 21

Lebanon 0 0 0 0 7 4 11

Syria 6 0 0 6 0 6 12

theoccupiedPalestinian

territory 1 1 2 4 1 2 7

WesternBalkans 79 14 4 97 27 62 186

Albania 10 1 0 11 2 3 16

BosniaandHerzegovina 7 0 0 7 7 9 23

Croatia 9 3 0 12 2 6 20

formerYugoslavRepublicof

Macedonia 14 2 1 17 2 16 35

Kosovo 0 1 0 1 2 4 7

Montenegro 9 1 0 10 4 2 16

Serbia 30 6 3 39 8 22 69

Total 200 67 37 304 73 173 550

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Regionalandcountryaggregates

For the purpose of the analysis, the data collected was aggregated by region as shown in Table 3

below.

Table3

Breakdown

of

the

replies

to

the

on

line

survey

per

region

CentralAsia:13.8%ofallresponsesreceivedconcernthefollowingcountries:

o Kazakhstan 44.7%

oftheresponses

providedforthisregion

o Kyrgyzstan 17.1%

o Tajikistan 2.6%

o Turkmenistan 5.3%

o Uzbekistan 30.3%

Total 100.0%

EasternEurope:22%ofallresponsesreceivedconcernthefollowingcountries:

o

Armenia

14.9%

oftheresponses


o Azerbaijan 5.0%

o Belarus 9.9%

o Georgia 17.4%

o Moldova 15.7%

o Ukraine 37.2%

Total 100.0%

RussianFederation:10.9%ofallresponsesreceived

MiddleEast:14%ofallresponsesreceivedconcernthefollowingcountries:

o Egypt 20.8%

oftheresponses


o Israel

13.0%

o Jordan 27.3%

o Lebanon 14.3%

o Syria 15.6%

o theoccupiedPalestinianterritory 9.1%

Total 100.0%

Maghreb:5.5%ofallresponsesreceivedconcernthefollowingcountries:

o Algeria 36.7%oftheresponses

providedforthisregiono Morocco 40.0%

o Tunisia 23.3%

Total

100.0%

WesternBalkan:33.8%ofallresponsesreceivedconcernthefollowingcountries:

o Albania 8.6%

oftheresponses


o BosniaandHerzegovina 12.4%

o Croatia 10.8%

o formerYugoslavRepublicofMacedonia 18.8%

o Kosovo 3.8%

o Montenegro 8.6%

o Serbia 37.1%

Total 100.0%

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Remark:Thestatisticaldocumentinannex(availableonlyontheTempuswebsite)dedicatedtothe

detailedresultsoftheonlinesurveyalsocontainsdatabycountry.Sincenotallcountriesgathered

enoughreplies,thestatisticscoveronlyalimitednumberofthem(table4).

Table4Percentageofrepliestotheonlinesurveyforcountrieswithmorethan19

replies

Country Code%oftotal

responses

o BosniaandHerzegovina BA 4.2%

o Croatia HR 3.6%

o formerYugoslavRepublicofMacedonia MK 6.4%

o Georgia GE 3.8%

o Jordan JO 3.8%

o Kazakhstan KZ 6.2%

o Moldova MD 3.5%

o RussianFederation RF 10.9%

o Serbia

RS

12.5%

o Ukraine UA 8.2%

o Uzbekistan UZ 4.2%

Disclaimer

As the intent of the online survey was to gather impressions and perceptions of individuals, the

answershavetobeinterpretedwithcautioninthelightofthecomplementaryinformationprovided

inthenationalquestionnaires.

When

looking

at

aggregated

figures

(by

region

but

also

by

category

of

staff)

the

data

has

to

be

interpreted bearing in mind the overall number of answers received and the profile of the

respondents.Asamatteroffact:

- Outofthe304responsesgivenbyindividualsworkinginapublichighereducationinstitutionina

TempusPartnerCountry(CAT1),only12%weregivenbyadministrativeandtechnicalstaffand

7%bymanagementstaff(RectorsandDeans).

- 50%ormoreoftheanswersconcerningTajikistan,Turkmenistan,Egypt,Israel,SyriaandKosovo

were provided by staff working in a higher education institution or other organisation in the

EuropeanUnion.

- Thebreakdownofanswerspercountrydoesnotreflectthesizeofthehighereducationsectorin

eachPartnerCountry.

- Some counties seem to be underrepresented, namely Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan,

Tunisia, Israel, the occupied Palestinian territory and Kosovo. The answers concerning these

countries represent less than 2% of all 550 responses while other countries such as Ukraine,

RussiaandSerbiaarecoveredbymorethan8%ofall550responses.

- Thesameremarkappliesatregionallevel.TheMaghrebissignificantlyunderrepresentedinthe

sample and gathered only 6% of all 550 responses, in contrast to the Western Balkans which

represent34%

of

all

responses.

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- Within one region, some countries are less represented than others. This means that regional

datamaybebiasedbytheunevendistributionofanswersbetweencountries.Forinstance:

- Tajikistan and Turkmenistan were covered by only 3% and 5% (respectively) of the responses

providedforCentralAsia,whereasKazakhstanrepresents45%oftheregionalsample;

- AzerbaijanandBelaruswerecoveredbyrespectively5%and10%oftheresponsesprovidedfor

EasternEuropewhereasUkrainerepresents37%oftheregionalsample.

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4Nationalpoliciesandframeworksinhuman

resourcemanagement

4.1

Approachesto

human

resource

management

Thetermhumanresourcemanagementhasbeenusedinthisstudyinthebroadestsense.Inthis

report, human resource management is considered as something wider than the technical

management of recruitment procedures, contracts and salaries and including also a strong

developmental and strategic approach. Issues such as training schemes, incentives and rewards,

evaluation and staff development support and systematic planning of future staffing needs are all

partofwhatisconsideredhumanresourcemanagement.

Atthesametime,mostofthecountries investigated intheframeworkofthisstudyhaveaslightly

more restricted understanding of the concept of human resource management and concentrate

often

on

technical

aspects

related

to

hiring

and

management

of

staff.

While

institutions

withincountries may have taken more proactive roles in developing more comprehensive strategies to

human resource management, countries with national strategies aiming explicitly at the

developmentandreinforcementofstaffareveryfew.

4.1.1 Sharingofresponsibilitiesinhumanresourcemanagement

Accordingtothenationalquestionnaires,humanresourcemanagementis,inmostcases,considered

thejointresponsibilityofthenationalauthoritiesandpublichighereducationinstitutions.However,

in almost equally many cases, human resource management is considered mainly the task of the

institutions. In some cases, the fact of institutions being solely responsible is a result of a lack of

national

strategies

in

human

resource

management,

as

is

the

case

in

several

Western

Balkan

countries,partlyduetotheheritageoftheselfmanagementcultureofformerYugoslavia. Inother

countries,suchasEgyptandGeorgia,humanresourcemanagementisconsideredanimportantarea

of institutional autonomy and as such, not interfered with by national authorities. However, as

humanresourcemanagementisoftenunderstoodinaratherrestrictedsense,thefactthatinmost

countries,nationalauthoritiessettheframeworkforcontracts,salariesandrecruitment,mayhave

ledcountriestooptforsharedresponsibility,evenincaseswherehumanresourcedevelopmentis

notpartofthetasksofoneorbothlevels.

Inasmallnumberofcountries mainly thosewherestaffat highereducation institutionsarecivil

servantsandemployedbythestate humanresourcemanagementisconsideredmainlyorentirely

the

responsibility

of

the

national

authorities.

Based on the information provided in the national questionnaires, Map 1 shows clearly that in

Central Asia and Eastern Europe, the responsibility is usually considered shared between the two

levels,while inmostWesternBalkanandMiddleEasterncountries, it isprincipally the taskof the

highereducationinstitutions.InMaghrebcountries,wherethesystemofhighereducationishighly

centralised,themainresponsibilityforhumanresourcemanagementlieslogicallyatnationallevel.

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Map1SharingofresponsibilitiesforHumanResourceManagementinthenational

context

Source:Nationalquestionnaires

Primarilyresponsibilityofthenationalauthorities

Sharedresponsibility/collaboration betweeninstitutionsandnationalauthorities

Primarilyresponsibilityoftheeducationinstitutions

4.1.2 Nationalstrategiesandschemes

While,accordingtothenationalquestionnaires,the importanceofhumanresourcemanagement is

recognised

in

many

countries

and

regions

included

in

this

study,

very

few

countries

have

set

up

national level strategies that dealwith staff issues (Map 2). Most countries in the Western Balkan

region,aswellasanumberofcountriesacrosstheotherregions,havenotprovidedanyindicationof

nationalstrategiesonhumanresourcemanagement. InsomeothercountriesnamelyAzerbaijan,

theoccupiedPalestinianterritory,Israel,Syria,Belarus,TajikistanandMoroccoitseemsthatsome

elements related to human resource management have been integrated into overall national

strategiesoneducation.Onlyfivecountriesreportedonspecifichumanresourcerelatedstrategies.

ThesecountriesareMoldova,Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,EgyptandAlbania.

Integratinghumanresourcerelatedobjectivesintotheoverallnationalhighereducationstrategiesis

astep in the right direction,as itshows that the importance of the issuehas been recognised, to

some degree, by the national authorities. However, in most of these cases concrete action and

national level schemes supporting the realisation of the set goals and objectives are not well

developed.Nevertheless, insomecountrieswherespecificstrategiesonhumanresources inpublic

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highereducationhavebeenelaborated,somefinancialsupportandspecificschemestosupportthe

achievementoftheaimshavealsobeensetup.Someexamplesofthesecanbefoundinthisreport.

Map2Countrieswithnationalstrategiesforhumanresourcemanagementinpublic

highereducation


Specifichumanresourcerelatedstrategiesexist

Somehumanresourcerelatedelementsare integrated inoverallnationalstrategies,orthecountryhas

startedthefirstphasesofstrategicapproachestohumanresourcemanagement

Noindicationofanationalstrategyonhumanresourcemanagementinhighereducation

National strategies are considered very important by institutional actors and they are needed to

support and give direction to institutional initiatives. Furthermore, the budgets linked to the

implementation of human resource development strategies may be fundamental in supporting

institutionalactivities in thisarea.National level recognitionof the importanceofhumanresource

management and development, backed up by concrete policies and schemes, provide institutions

withafertileenvironmentinwhichtodeveloptheirownschemesandstrategies.

4.2 Legalframeworksandinstitutionalautonomy

Institutions do not operate in a vacuum, even where no national strategies on human resource

management

exist.

Several

different

legal

and

regulatory

aspects

influence

the

way

in

which

institutionsareabletomanagetheirownhumanresources.Indeed,thedegreetowhichinstitutions

maydeterminethenumberofposts,contracts,recruitmentrequirements,promotions,salariesand

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theteachingload,dependsonthenationalframeworksandconsequentlyvariesbetweencountries

and regions. Table 5 gives an overview of the issues in which institutions enjoy autonomy and in

which,ontheotherhand,decisionsaretakenorhighlyinfluencedbythenationalauthoritiesorlegal

frameworks.Inmanycasesthetwolevelsinteract,collaborateorjointlyinfluencethefinaloutcome.

Legal

frameworks

at

national

level

are

often

important

to

maintain

minimum

standards

across

institutions,toprotecttheemployeesandtomakesurethatpublicfundsareusedefficiently.Atthe

same time, institutional autonomy in issues related to staff recruitment, promotion and

implementation of financial and other incentives may be an important way to ensure the

competitiveness of institutions and to motivate their leadership to develop institutional strategies

andschemestosupporttheinstitutional,aswellasnationalobjectives,intermsofhumanresource

management.

The number of posts in public higher education institutions is often determined by institutional

needs on the one hand and national requirements (e.g. on studentstaff ratio) and available state

budget,ontheother.Insomecasesinstitutionsproposethenumberofstafftheyexpecttoneedand

seek

then

approval

from

the

national

authorities

for

the

number

of

posts

that

can

be

filled.

In

the

majority of countries, the decision regarding the number of posts is in fact influenced by both

nationalauthoritiesandinstitutions.

Decisionsregardingcontractualconditionsandpromotionsareusually lefttothe institutions,apart

fromthemosthighlycentralisedsystems,suchastheMaghrebcountries,EgyptandSyria.However,

promotioncriteriaaresomewhatmoreofteninfluencedordeterminedbythenationalauthorities.

In most cases, individual salaries depend on both the national and institutional level. Often the

nationalauthoritiesdeterminethebasicsalaries,whileinstitutionsmayusepartoftheirownbudget

to integrate the salaries of one part or all of their staff. In some cases, the salaries are de facto

determined

by

the

national

level,

as

institutions

do

not

have

the

financial

resources

necessary

to

implementadditionalfinancialincentives.

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27

Ta

ble5

Divisiono

frespons

ibilities

an

dautonomyo

fhighere

duc

ation

institutions

inhumanresourcemanagement

issues

NA=na

tionalauthorities,includingnatio

nallaws

HEI=highereducationinstitutions

Both=jointdecisionmaking,orinfluencesfrom

bothinstitutionalandnationallevel

Numberof

postsinHEI

Recruitment

requ

irements

Contractual

conditions

Individual

salaries

Annualstudent

contacthours

Promotion

decisions

academicstaff

Promotion

decision

administrativ

e

staff

Promotion

requirements

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

Kazakhstan

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Kyrgyzs

tan

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Tajikistan

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Turkme

nistan

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Uzbekistan

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Armenia

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x4

Azerbaijan

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Belarus

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Georgia

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Moldov

a

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Ukraine

x

x5

x

x

x

x

x

x

Russia

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Source:

Nationalquestionnaires

4Nationalauthoritiesforacademicstaffandhighereducationinstitutions

foradministrativestaff

5

Highereducationinstitutionsalone

foradministrativestaff

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Numberof

postsinHEI

Recruitment

requ

irements

Contractual

conditions

Individual

salaries

Annualstudent

contacthours

Promotion

decisions

academicstaff

Promotion

decision

administrativ

e

staff

Promotion

requirements

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

NA

HEI

both

Algeria

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Morocc

o

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Tunisia

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Egypt

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Israel

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Jordan

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Lebano

n

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x6

oPt7

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Syria

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Albania

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Bosnia

and

Herzegovina

x

x8

x

x

x

x

x

x

Kosovo

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Montenegro

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Serbia

x

x9

x

x

x

x

x

x

former

Yugosla

v

Republicof

Macedonia

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

6Nationalauthoritiesforadministrat

ivestaff

7

OccupiedPalestinianterritory

8

Recruitmentrequirementsforacademicstaffaresetbynationalauthorities

9

Highereducationinstitutionsalone

foradministrativeandtechnicalstaff

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4.3 Regionalcontextsandspecificities

Theanalysisofthenationalquestionnairesmadeitpossibletodistinguishdifferentregionalpatterns.

InCentral

Asia,

important

differences

exist

between

countries

within

the

region.

While

Kazakhstan

and

Uzbekistanhavetakensignificantstepsforwardinestablishingnationalstrategiesandschemestosupport

the development of human resources in higher education, institutions in other countries in the region

receive lesssupport inthisarea from thenational level. InKyrgyzstanoneoftheshort termpriorities in

highereducationistoimprovecareerdevelopmentopportunitiesforhighereducationstaffandtoimprove

the quality of teaching staff and career development tools. However, these plans have not yet been

translatedintoconcreteactionplansandschemesatnationallevel.

CountriesinEasternEuropedonothaveconcretenationalstrategiesonhumanresourcemanagementfor

the moment. Indeed, only Moldova has set up a comprehensive national strategy on higher education

which also includes aspects of human resource development. While concrete action plans have not yet

beenset

up,

there

is

recognition

in

many

countries

of

the

region

of

the

fact

that

the

inadequate

salaries

paid to staff in public higher education weaken the sectors development. In a similar way, while brain

drain isasignificant issuefortheregion,nosystematicschemestocombatthephenomenonexistatthe

national level inthecountries investigated. InGeorgia,significantchangeshavetakenplace intherecent

yearsto improvetherecruitmentandpromotionmechanisms intopublic institutionstomakethemmore

transparent and better able to select the best candidates. However, as human resource management is

seenasthesoleresponsibilityof institutionsthemselves,there isnonationalstrategyor initiatives inthis

area.

In Russia, there also appears not to be any substantial national strategy on human resources in public

higher education and no national schemes on human resource management have been identified.

Consequently

there

seems

not

to

be

any

specific

funding

of

human

resource

management

related

initiatives,suchastrainingorrewardschemesatthenational level.There isaneedtoenhanceskillsand

retainqualifiedstaff inpublic institutions,butcreatingsystemstoachievetheseaimsismainlylefttothe

institutions.Infact,competitionforwellqualifiedindividualshasledmanyinstitutionstoinvesttheirown

resourcesintrainingschemes,additionalfinancialincentivefundsandmobilityandresearchopportunities.

In the Maghreb countries, the higher education system is highly centralised and issues related to the

recruitment, promotion, contracts and salaries of staff at public institutions, are mainly managed at the

national level. As student numbers have risen rapidly, there is a need to recruit more staff across the

region.Whilejobs inhighereducationareconsideredattractivethankstogoodsalary levelsandthecivil

servantstatusofemployees,thereisalackofavailabilityoftherightprofilesthatmeettherequirementsof

the

higher

education

system.

No

specific

training,

development,

or

staff

management

schemes

have

been

identified.Humanresourcemanagement isratherunderstood inrelativelytechnicalterms,assomething

relatedtorecruitmentandcontractualproceduresofcivilservants.

IntheMiddleEast,systemsareconsideredrelativelydecentralisedandinstitutions,autonomousinterms

ofhumanresourcemanagement.ExceptionsinthisrespectareSyriaandtheoccupiedPalestinianterritory,

where human resource management is still highly centralised. The importance of human resource

managementisrisingacrosstheregion,butchangesarelefttotheinitiativeofinstitutions.OnlyEgypthas

asubstantialnationalstrategywithastrong focusonretrainingandupgradingofskills levels, including

thoseofthemanagementlevelstaff.Mostcountriesintheregionhaveseensignificantincreasesinstudent

numbers in the past 10 years and many of them need to recruit more teaching staff, with higher

qualificationrequirements.Assalariesarenotalwaysconsideredattractive,inparticularincomparisonto

salaries paid by the private institutions, or by institutions in richer neighbouring countries, retention,

motivationand incentiveschemeshavebecomevery important.Highereducation institutions inmanyof

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thecountriesoftheregionlamentthelackofnationalstrategiesandinitiativesinthisarea.Animportant

exception is theoccupied Palestinian territory,withaspecificnationalscheme toattract highlyqualified

expatriatesbackfromabroad,intothepublichighereducationinstitutions.

IntheWesternBalkanregion,highereducationishighlydecentralised,sometimesalsoattheinstitutional

level

(with

highly

autonomous

faculties)

and

human

resource

management

is

considered

the

responsibility

ofinstitutionsorasinthecaseofSerbia,forexample,oftheirsubunits.Institutionsenjoyhighautonomy

in setting up recruitment systems, in determining the number of posts and salaries, even if in certain

countriesthenationalauthoritiesarealsoinvolvedtoacertainextent.Ingeneral,thereisalackofnational

level support and initiatives, in terms of human resource management, with the exception of Albania,

wheretheimportanceofhumanresourcedevelopmenthasbeentakenonboardalsobythenationallevel

authoritiesand the strategic priorities arepushed forwardbycollaborative action from the national and

institutional level. There is an increasing awareness in the country that something needs to be done in

terms of staff training, better conditions of work and increasing attractiveness. However, in all other

countries, initiative is left principally to the institutions. One typical feature of this region is that, as

distinguishedfromtheothers,thetrendistowardsanoverallyoungerstaffthan10yearsearlier.

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5AcademicstaffRecruitment,career

managementandworkingconditions

5.1

Introduction

The recruitment procedures and criteria, as well as contractual conditions and possibilities for staff

developmentandcareeradvancement,areimportantfactorsinattractingandmaintainingqualifiedstaffat

publicinstitutions.Inaddition,thesetoolsareimportantinensuringthatthestaffskillsandcapacitiesare

constantly upgraded to meet the changing requirements, set on the higher education systems. Some

problematicissuesrelatedtothesubjectofthischapter,asidentifiedthroughthenationalquestionnaires,

theonlinesurveyandthesitevisitinterviewsconcernthefollowing:

1) Recruitmentprocesses:highfrequencyofinternalrecruitmentandlackoftransparencyofprocedures

used; corruption and nepotism; use of selection methods and criteria that do not support the

recruitmentof

the

best

suited

candidates

for

the

job;

restrictive

legal

frameworks.

2) Career progression and training: lack of possibilities for career progression; prolonged time spent

withinoneinstitution;lackorinadequacyofperformanceevaluations;lackoftraining;lackofsufficient

motivationandincentives.

3) Workingconditions: lackofresearchopportunities;politicalpressureand lackofautonomy;excessive

workinghours;permanent/shortcontracts;lowsalaries;thenecessitytotakeupmultiplepositions.

Eachoftheitemslisted,doesnotpresentthesamechallengeineachregion,country,orinstitutiontothe

sameextent.Afeaturethatcanbeconsiderednegative inonecontextcouldbeconsideredaspositive in

another.

For

example,

a

permanent

contract

is

sometimes

considered

as

the

main

attraction

ofjobs

in

highereducationandthusoneofitsmaincompetitiveadvantagesinattractingstaff.Inothercontexts,this

isconsiderednegative,sincestaffmaynotbemotivatedtoimproveanddevelopfurther,whenthereisno

riskoflosingtheirjobs.

There arealsoanumber ofpositive examplesof how institutionsorcountrieshave tackledsomeof the

problematicissueslistedabove.Thereis,forexample,ageneraltrendandsomespecificexamplesofhow

selectionproceduresarebecomingmoretransparentandfair.Intermsofcareermanagement,institutions

across the regions are starting to understand the importance of staff training. Training, together with

financial incentivesandrewardschemes,areused tomotivatestafftodeveloptheirskillsandcapacities

further. Concerning contractual conditions, salaries limit the attractiveness of jobs in public higher

education.

While

some

countries

have

been

able

to

implement

improved

contractual

conditions,inadequatesalariesarestill inmanycountriesasignificant issue.Longerthanaverageholidaysandgood

benefits packages are important ways to partially compensate for the uncompetitive salaries offered by

publicinstitutions.

5.2 Recruitmentofacademicstafftohighereducationinstitutions

Recruitmentofstaffisoneofthemostcrucialaspectsinensuringthataninstitutionhasgoodqualitystaff

withappropriateskills,knowledgeandattitudesfortheneedsoftheinstitutions.Appropriaterecruitment

procedures,thataretransparent, fairandopen,are likely toenable institutions tobetterselect thebest

candidatesfromtheavailablepoolandtheabilityofinstitutionstosettheirownrecruitmentrequirements,

accordingto

their

specific

needs,

supports

the

institutional

level

management

of

human

resources.

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Asthelevelofawarenessoftheirimportancerises,manyinnovativesolutionshavealsobeenfound.Some

ofthesearedescribedtowardstheendofthissection.Atthesametime,severalproblemsrelatedtostaff

recruitment persist in many of the countries investigated. For example, the high frequency of internal

recruitments; lack of transparency of recruitment procedures and criteria; persisting corruption and

political or personal appointments; as well as in some cases, the rigidity of the legal frameworks, may

prevent

institutions

from

recruiting

the

best

candidates

available.

Itisneverthelessinterestingtonotethatthesemattersarenotnecessarilyperceivedasanissuebyallthe

individualsconcerned.Forinstance,61%oftheonlinesurveyrespondentsindicatethatthehighfrequency

ofinternalrecruitmentofacademicstaffisnotconsideredasaproblemintheircountry.

In general terms, institutions across the Tempus countries are becoming more autonomous in the

recruitmentofstaff.Inmostcases,however,aformalapprovalandmonitoringoftheproceduresorsetting

the(minimum)recruitmentcriteriaremaintasksforthenationalauthorities.Incountrieswerestaffiscivil

servants, the procedures and criteria are determined by the national authorities to a greater degree, or

entirely.Inallcases,nationalguidelinesorlegalframeworksneedtoberespected.Regardlessofpersisting

challenges,

the

tendency

is

towards

a

more

professionalised

selection

of

staff,

with

more

open

and

transparent selection mechanisms. These procedures support efforts to combat recruitment based on

personalconnectionsapracticewhichstillseemstobeaprobleminsomeofthecountriesinvestigated.

5.2.1Studentnumbersandneedforstaff

The developments in student numbers have had an impact on the need and quantity of staff for higher

educationinstitutions.Map3showsthetrendsinstudentnumbersinthecountriesinvestigated.

According to the national questionnaires, most countries in the Western Balkans, Middle East and the

Maghrebhavewitnessedimportantincreasesinstudentnumbersandhavereportedaneedtoincreasethe

total

number

of

staff

in

higher

education,

in

the

next

five

years.

Some

of

these

countries

already

started

to

increasestaffinglevelssomeyearsago.Insomecountries,ratherthannumbers,theproblemconcernsthe

quality of candidates, the constant development of already recruited staff and the development of

proceduresthatenablethebestsuitedcandidatestobeselected.

Many Central Asian and Eastern European countries need to maintain current levels or reduce staffing

levels,duetonegativedemographicdevelopments.Indeed,UzbekistanandGeorgiahavealreadyreduced

staffingsignificantlyandArmenia,Moldova,UkraineandKyrgyzstanneedtodosointhecomingfiveyears.

AnexceptionintheregionisTurkmenistan,whichisfacinganincreaseinthedemandforstudyplacesand

thusneedsto increase thenumbersofstaff inpublic institutions.AlsoRussian institutions reporton the

need to reduce staff. This is however not so much due to changes in student numbers, as reforms in

teachingstyle.

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Map3 Evolutionofstudentnumbersbetween2000and2010


Increaseof

over

100%

Increaseofbetween30and100%:

Increaseofupto30%between2000and2010

Nocomparabledataprovided

5.2.2Recruitmentprocedures

Thenumberofpostsavailableathighereducation institutions isoftenrelatedtofinancialpossibilitieson

theone

hand

and

national

level

or

accreditation

requirements

concerning

the

staff

student

ratio

on

the

other.Inmostcasestheavailablestatebudgethasasignificant impactonthe institutionsstaffplanning.

The minimum number of staff at an institution, when determined by the national authorities, is usually

basedonthenumberofstudentsandhastocorrespondtoanationallyapprovedratio.Thisisthecasefor

mostofCentralAsianandEasternEuropeancountries.IntheMiddleEasterncountries,institutionsexpress

theirstaffneedstotheMinistry,whichapprovesthefiguresinconsiderationoftheavailablebudget.Inthe

WesternBalkans,institutionsmaydecidethemselvesonthenumbersofstaff,butinpractice,theavailable

state budget determines, to a high degree, the number of staff that the institutions are actually able to

employ. Inmanycountries, institutionsmaydecidetoemployotherstaffattheirownexpense,e.g.with

funds deriving from tuition fees or services. However, this is not always an option in practice, due to

insufficientadditionalresources.

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Threemainmodelsofrecruitmentproceduresforacademicstaff inpublichighereducationemergefrom

thenationalquestionnaires:

1) openselectionorcompetitionorganisedbytheinstitutions

2) internalselectionwithintheinstitutions

3) open

selection

of

competition

organised

by

the

national

authorities

The first is the most common selection method. This model aims at guaranteeing transparency and fair

treatment of all candidates, leaving institutions the autonomy to decide on (additional) recruitment

criteria,processestobeusedandtheindividualsandentitiestobeinvolvedintheselectionprocesses.This

is indeedthemostwidespreadmodel,thoughofficiallyopenproceduresarenotalwaysactuallyopen in

practice. The second option is widespread, especially for some of the positions available at higher

education institutions. Internalrecruitmentmaycreateproblemsof fairnessandtransparency,aswellas

quality,asan internalrecruitmentordirectappointmentmaynotalwaysbethebestwayto identifythe

most qualified candidates for the available position. However, for several positions, recruitment is

organised internally in order to offer staff at lower positions, a privileged possibility to advance in their

careers.

Such

internal

recruitment

may

also

be

used

as

retention

measures

for

well

qualified

staff.

The

third

model an open competition organised at the national level is applied only in a limited number of

countries.

Interestingly, only in very few countries (for example in Albania) have there been changes in the

recruitmentprocedures inthepasttenyears.Thesituationcanmainlybeconsideredstable.However,as

willbedescribedinsection5.2.2,importantchangeshaveoftentakenplaceinrespecttotherequirements

forrecruitmentintodifferentpositions,ratherthanintheproceduresapplied.

1) openprocedureswithininstitutions

In

all

Eastern

European

countries

and

in

Russia

the

recruitment

of

academic

staff

into

public

higher

educationinstitutionsfollowsanopencompetitionafterapublicannouncementofavailablepositions.

TheselectionprocessesarealsoopeninmostWesternBalkancountries,suchasSerbia,AlbaniaandBosnia

and Herzegovina. In spite of the recent efforts to introduce more transparent and open selection

procedures,somestaffinterviewedorsurveyedreportedthatwhiletheproceduresmayseemperfecton

paper, they are not always implemented perfectly in practice. Indeed, personal connections sometimes

continue toplayan importantrole inappointments.Forexample inMontenegro, theselectionofsenior

academics isofficiallyexternalandopen,but inpracticetheappointmentstakeplacethroughan internal

facultyled selection. The consequent high frequency of internal recruitments is considered a significant

problemforthedevelopmentofhighereducation.

In Jordan and the occupied Palestinian territory, recruitment takes place through an open public

competition.InLebanon,wheresenioracademicsaremosttypicallyrecruitedinternallyonthedecisionof

the institution,junior academicsare also usually recruited throughan opencompetition.However, as in

someotherregions,criteriaforselectionmaybeclearandobjective,buttheassignmentofpostsdoesnot

alwaysfollowanobjectiveclassificationofcandidates.

In Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, selection procedures of academic staff involve other teachers of the

institutionandthefavouritecandidate isselectedthroughavote.InTurkmenistanandKyrgyzstan,awide

rangeofactorsattheinstitutionallevelarealsoinvolvedinselectionprocedures.

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2) Internalselectionorappointmentwithoutpublicannouncementofpositions

Internal recruitment is less frequent for academic positions than for administrative positions, but may

persist even in countries with officially open and transparent selection procedures. In some Middle

Easterncountries, institutions recruitat leastpartoftheirstaff through internalmeansand inEgypt, for

example,

the

recruitment

to

senior

academic

posts

is

rather

a

question

of

promotion

or

a

change

of

title,

than ofappointment.Consequently,posts areonly rarelyadvertisedpublicly. In asimilarmanner,junior

academicpostsareoftenfilledbynominatingsomeofthebeststudentsoftheinstitution.InSyria,internal

promotions or appointments are also the main method of recruitment, though positions may also be

publiclyannounced,whenneeded.

3) openselectionbynationalauthorities

Therecruitmentofstafftohighereducation institutions inAlgeria,Egypt,MoroccoandTunisia iscarried

outentirelybythenationalauthoritiesthroughanopencompetition.The institutionsplaynorole inthe

recruitmentprocesses.

5.2.3 Recruitmentrequirements

Recruitment of academic staff usually follows nationally set minimum qualification requirements, while

additional criteria may be set by the institutions in countries where recruitment is organised, at the

institutionallevel.Criteriausedbyinstitutionsareoftensetintheinstitutionsstatutesorregulations,inan

attemptto increasetransparencyofrecruitmentprocedures.InAlgeria,Azerbaijan,MoldovaandBelarus,

the national authorities set the recruitment requirements entirely. At the other end of the spectrum, in

JordanandIsrael,institutionsdecideonrecruitmentcriteriaindependently.

Intermsofqualificationslevels,inmostcasesaMasterdegreeisrequiredforjuniorteachingpositionsand

increasingly,

a

PhD

for

senior

academic

posts.

Additional

recruitment

requirements

may

includeinternationalpublications,other internationalactivities,teachingexperienceand insomecasesvoluntary

servicetotheuniversitycommunity10

.Therequirementsareparticularlydetailedanddeveloped insome

MiddleEasterncountries,namelyinIsrael,Jordanandtoacertainextent,Egypt.

Whileoverallrecruitmentrequirementsseemtohavebecomemorestringent inthepasttenyears,great

variationscanbeobserveddependingontheoverallattractivenessofthesector,theneedtorecruitmore

staff and the available financial resources. Also at the regional level, larger and richer countries tend to

havethehighestrecruitmentrequirements.

However,whilethereisanattempttoupgradethequalificationslevelofstaffthroughhigherrecruitment

requirements,

it

is

not

always

possible

to

fill

posts

with

candidates

meeting

the

formal

requirements.

In

Kyrgyzstan,forexample,aMaster leveldegree isneededtobecomea lecturerandaPhDforprofessors.

However, inpractice,staffwith lowerqualifications isoftenrecruitedandasaresult, lessthan40%ofall

teaching staff have a degree at the required level. In the occupied Palestinian territory and some

institutions in the Western Balkans, positions may remain unfilled if appropriate candidates cannot be

found. The teaching load is covered by staff in post or staff beyond retireme

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