Push (away from the countryside)

Pull (to the city)

Social • Lack of access to clean water • Poor education opportunities • Lack of healthcare • Lack of good quality housing • Poor access to infrastructure

like power grid/electricity

• Good access to clean water

• Access to electricity • More schools and

education opportunities • More healthcare facilities

Economic • Unemployment • Poorly paid jobs

• Formal and informal job opportunities

Environmental 1. Infertile soils (difficult to farm and make a living)

Urban issues and challenges Revision booklet

Urbanisation is an increase in the proportion of the population living in urban areas. As the % of people living in the urban areas increases the % of people living in rural areas decreases. There are two main factors than affect the rate of urbanisation 1. Natural change Birth rate is often higher than death rate in the cities as there is more advanced healthcare. More babies being born than people dying = population increase 2. Migration (push/pull factors)

Why are urban populations growing more steadily in HIC’s?

Why are urban populations growing more rapidly in LIC’s?

1. HIC’s industrialised much earlier than LIC’s and so job opportunities became available in the cities much earlier on

2. Improvements in infrastructure in HIC’s means that people can commute to work in the city and live in the suburbs and countryside

3. Poor environmental quality and crowding mean than people in HIC’s are choosing not to live in cities

1. Industrialisation happened more recently and so people are moving to the city to take advantage of job opportunities

2. Industrialisation led to the mechanisation of farming which causes unemployment in the countryside resulting in more people wanting to move to urban areas

Urban trends vary in rich and poor parts of the world Cities are growing faster in LIC’s than HIC’s

Why?

The urban population in HIC’s is still increasing but at a steady rate. 6% increase predicted between 2000 and 2025

The urban population in LIC’s is growing more rapidly. 9% increase predicted between 2000 and 2025

Megacities Increased urbanisation has resulted in the emergence of megacities. These are cities with 10 million or more inhabitants. There are currently 35 megacities and the UN predicts that by 2030 there will be 41. Most of these new megacities are predicted to appear in poorer/developing regions of the world

Make sure you know where some of the new megacities will be. You could be asked about this and not given a map.

A case study of a city in an NEE (newly emerging economy) Lagos

Lagos is a very important city • Regionally Lagos is the main

financial centre in West Africa (where the biggest banks are). Lagos has an international airport, 80% of flights for West Africa arrive here first.

• Nationally – about 80% of Nigeria’s industry is based in and around Lagos. It is estimated that Lagos generated 30% of Nigeria’s GDP. The port of Lagos is Nigeria’s biggest port.

• Globally – oil is exported

around the world from Lagos Port.

Lagos is Africa’s biggest city with a population of between 14 and 21 million (it is growing so fast no one can decide on what the population is!). It is the fastest growing city in the world.

Migration – 250,000 – 300,000 migrants move to Lagos each year

Natural change

Pull Factors (what Lagos has to offer) Push factors (why people are leaving rural Nigeria to move to Lagos)

Expansion took off during the oil boom of the 1970s. This created lots of job opportunities.

Climate change has made farming difficult in rural Nigeria

Better education opportunities Political unrest (Boko Haram terrorist group) in northern rural Nigeria is pushing people towards the city

Better access to healthcare Land in the Niger Delta has been polluted by the oil industry making it impossible to make a living out of farming here

Why is Lagos population growing so rapidly? Remember there are two causes of population growth. Migration and natural increase.

Lagos has a young population because often migrants to the city are below the age of 30. As a result, the birth rate is higher than the death rate. More babies are being born than people are dying.

Urban growth in Lagos has provided social and economic opportunities Social • Education – 68% of Lagos population have access to a secondary school

education. This is much more than in rural areas • Healthcare – life expectancy increased from 46 years of age in 1990 to 53 by

2015. Healthcare is not always free but it more readily available than in the rural areas. Wealthier people pay for health insurance which helps contribute to the cost of healthcare for the poor.

• Clean water is available to buy from water vendors in the street. These sellers have to have a licence which helps to guarantee the water is clean. Around 81% of the population have access to clean water. This is in comparison to 54% in rural areas.

• Energy – 11% of people in Lagos have access to electricity, this may seem low but it is much higher than in the countryside. 5 new power plants are being planned to help improve electricity supply.

Economic How have industrial areas in Lagos helped to stimulate economic development? 20% of people in Lagos are employed in industry/manufacturing. Manufacturing industries in Lagos include the food industry, textiles, chemicals and cars. Nissan and Hyundai have assembly factories in Lagos. • Industrial areas provide job opportunities. People earn an income, will pay more

tax and have more money to spend in the city. This will attract more companies as there is now a market for goods, people have money to buy things. This is called the multiplier effect.

• Industrial areas require the support industries. For example, a car assembly plant will need to buy its parts from somewhere. Supporting industries are set up providing further employment.

• Companies based in Lagos will pay taxes. • Money may be invested into the city to improve infrastructure which further

encourages economic development.

Challenge

Providing access to services

Healthcare – Private healthcare can cost in the region of £1200 per year. Far too expensive for Lagos squatter settlement residents. In hospitals equipment is very old. Doctors and nurses are not well trained. Most people have to deposit cash before they can be admitted to a hospital, this is often impossible for the poor. The challenge is made even greater by the growing population, and the diseases being spread by the drinking of dirty and contaminated water. Education – 32% of the population don’t have access to secondary school. Many children who live in the squatter settlements are sent out to work rather than go to school. Classrooms are overcrowded, and teachers are poorly trained. Lack of toilets and sanitation means that many girls do not want to attend school.

Providing access to clean water

Only 10% of the population in Lagos have a piped water supply from the water treatment plant. Open drains and open sewerage mean that the rivers water is polluted. Many poorer residents dig deep boreholes to access water deep underground, unfortunately much of this is also polluted.

Providing access to sanitation systems

The lack of infrastructure (pipes, sewerage) means that in Lagos squatter settlements nearly 90% of people have to go to the toilet on a pit latrine, where the waste either soaks in to the ground or nearby rivers.

Providing access to energy

Frequent blackouts in the city. Some suburbs such as Ibeju Lekki, home to 120,000 have never been connected to the grid. Only the wealthier households can afford generators. In some areas there is a policy of light, where lights cannot be switched on between 7am and 7pm. More power stations are needed as well as the infrastructure to carry any electricity generated to households. This is a mammoth and very expensive task.

Reducing unemployment and crime

9.9% of people are unemployed. Unemployed people can be given access to small loans to help them set up a business to become self-employed. But reducing unemployment is difficult due to the ever-growing population. Many rural migrants are not skilled workers. 90% of jobs created in Lagos are in the informal sector (waste recycling, shoe shining, car washing). Crime is difficult to reduce because of the poverty and unemployment. There are only 33,000 policy officers for a population of over 20 million people. The growing divide between rich and poor will mean crime could continue to increase as those in poverty will target the wealthier.

Despite the opportunities mentioned above, the unplanned rapid growth of the city of Lagos has created many challenges that are difficult to manage (sort out). Many of these challenges are especially difficult to manage as an estimated 70% of people live in slums. These settlements have developed without planning and so the infrastructure to provide water, electricity and sewerage is not available.

Managing environmental challenges

Waste disposal The government collected only 40% of waste. This 40% is taken to landfill sites, here it contaminates the soil and releases greenhouse gasses such as methane. Many people have set up homes near to these sites as they provide informal economic opportunities (sorting through rubbish and selling anything useful). Waste collection is difficult because of traffic congestion, and the fact that most of the waste produced comes from the squatter settlements that are not serviced by the government. The city does not have the infrastructure to ensure waste is properly recycled and disposed of. Air and water pollution Air pollution is cause by the growing population using cars to commute to work. Many of the city’s residents are having to use diesel powered electricity generators during blackouts. Mini generators have now been banned but this plan has been criticised for affecting the poorest people. Until electricity supply and public transport improves air pollution will continue to be a problem. Water pollution is caused by rubbish and waste being dumped into river networks. Many latrines flow into the water ways. The lack of infrastructure makes this problem very difficult to manage. Traffic congestion The average commuter in Lagos sits in congestion for three hours per day. This is difficult to manage because of the growing population and growing wealth, giving more people access to cars. There is a lack of public transport. The city was not planned to this many people. Road networks cannot cope. It is estimate that there are 2 million cars on the road in Lagos.

The challenge of managing urban growth in Lagos – squatter settlements Makoko is a squatter settlement built on stilts along the coast. It has an estimated population of 85,000.

The lack of property available in Lagos has forced many rural migrants to build their own houses on land or even water. This is a problem because… • The settlements are poorly planned, they are often on marsh land near to the coast. Sea

level rise could be a problem in the future • Because they developed illegally they have no access to services and infrastructure • Rubbish waste and toilet waste often enters the water ways from the squatter

settlements • Crime is high because of low levels of poverty • Access to clean water and energy is very poor. People are not living in good conditions. The growth of squatter settlements is very difficult to manage because… 1. The people that live here have nowhere else to go. 2. They are so poorly planned and densely populated that providing the infrastructure to

help improve them is very difficult and very expensive 3. Many people that live in these areas work informally. They do not pay tax and so

governments are hesitant to spend money on improving these areas

Urban planning can improve people’s quality of life in poorer parts of the world In 2014 the Makoko floating school was built. It has classrooms that could fit 60 students and when it wasn’t being used as a school it became a community centre. It helped improve the quality of life of the urban poor as…

• Primary school children had a reliable school to attend (their original school kept getting flooded)

• This helped to improve literacy rates

• The school has a playground area with some vegetation to provide a nice outdoor space

• Solar panels meant pupils had access to electricity

• Makoko was set to be demolished, the floating school gave the slum a global profile so residents were left alone. People could keep their homes.

However, there were some problems • The school was too small to meet the

needs of the community. It could only improve the lives of a few

• The school was not maintained/looked after properly. It became unsafe

• In 2016 the school collapsed because of heavy rainfall. What started out as a sustainable design failed.

A city in the UK (HIC) London

Why is London an important city? For the rest of the UK Globally (the rest of the world)

London generates 17% of the UKs GDP (gross domestic product/total income generated) Heathrow airport handles 20% of the UKs trade. Over £100 Billion worth of goods travel through Heathrow each year London is a leading education centre; there are 40 universities in London. Parliament meet in London, it is home to the prime minister. Important decisions that affect the rest of the country are made in London

London has the largest overseas student population in the world. Many people come to London for a world-class education. Around 17 million foreign tourists visit London each year There are 245 foreign banks in London and 3 out of 4 of the top law firms in the world. Other countries make money from being based in London.

This map shows the location of the UKs main cities. London is the capital city of the UK and England, Cardiff is the capital city of Wales and Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland. 8 million people live in London.

How has migration changed the size and character of the City?

Migration is the movement of people from one country to another. London is the most diverse city in the UK, less than half of London’s population are of White British origin. London’s population comes from all over the world. The largest numbers are from countries India, Nigeria and Jamaica that were once part of the British Empire. Since 2007 more migrants have come from countries in Eastern Europe like Poland and Bulgaria. Immigration to London has led to an increase in the population.

Make sure you can describe the character of London’s population (say where people are from that live there and the number/% that

are of that origin)

Opportunities in a UK city (London)

Social – cultural mix London residents are able to take part in festivals such as the Chinese New year where they will be entertained by music and dancing. This starts in Trafalgar Square at the end of January. China town provides opportunities for dining out and sampling Chinese cuisine as does Little India in Brick Lane. The Notting Hill Carnival is an opportunity to sample Jamaican food, dancing and music

Social – entertainment and recreation The West End attracts 15 million people per year to see shows like the Lion King and Wicked in the famous Apollo Theatre. There is the comedy store in Soho and Odeon Cinema in Leicester square. Soho is famous for its pubs and nightclubs (China White) Weekly football games take place in the Emirates Stadium and Stamford Bridge. Hyde Park contains 4000 trees, a lake and a meadow. People can use this space to picnic, cycle, walk or jog.

Economic opportunities – employment There are numerous jobs available in the city. • ICT and communication jobs in

Google Headquarters or Apple headquarters

• Finance and banking – bank of England

• Services – in accountancy and law firms such a PWC (Price Waterhouse Cooper)

• Tourism – working in Hotels, restaurants, black cab driver, London Dungeons

• Construction – Battersea Power Station has been regenerated and 20 new housing zones have been identifies along the new Cross rail project

Economic opportunities – Integrated transport system You don’t have to live in central London to work there. The ITS consists of the tube, DLR, River Boats, buses and Cycle hire/routes. The new Crossrail project will bring 1.5 million people within 45 minutes of London. All of these will be accessible using an Oyster card or Apple pay. Getting to work is faster, less time consuming and easier. Businesses have a larger pool of potential employees to choose from.

Environmental opportunity – Urban greening Urban greening is the planning of green spaces across the city. These can be at various scales from large parks to roof gardens. Urban greening helps to improve air quality as vegetation absorbs carbon dioxide and emits oxygen, this helps to reduce air pollution as well as global warming. Green spaces also help to prevent flooding after periods of heavy rainfall as they absorb excess water and slow down the run off to drains and streams.

Challenges in a UK city (London)

Socio- economic challenges Urban deprivation in London is a problem with 2 million people living in poverty. Not all of those people that live in London have access to a well-paid job, good quality housing, good healthcare and good schools. This creates inequalities within the city (unequal, some people are very poor, some people are very rich and some in-between). The below table gives an overview of the inequalities. Learn some of these figures off by heart so that you can give examples. Remember Income. Benefits, unemployment = economic challenges Healthcare, education, housing, life expectancy = social challenges/quality of life

This type of map is called a chloropleth map. The colours represent different values. Make sure you know what a chloropleth map is and how to describe what they show. The key is the most important feature. Without the key you wont know what the map is showing.

Challenges in a UK city (London)

Environmental challenges

1. Dereliction – There are many derelict buildings across London. Many of these have been abandoned following the collapse of industry. These buildings are wasting valuable space within the city centre, they are unattractive to look at and can sometimes pose a threat to the environment if they contain old chemicals.

2. Building on brownfield sites can have a negative environmental impact • The ground can be contaminated, dangerous chemicals could be released if

demolition and building work is not carried out carefully • If demolition is needed this can negatively harm the wildlife in the local area

that may have started to use derelict building as a habitat, particularly birds • New housing developments on brownfield sites could cause traffic congestion

which in turn would increase air pollution

3. Building on greenfield sites can have a negative environmental impact • Vegetation will be destroyed and habitats, affecting local ecosystems and

breeding patterns • New infrastructure will be needed to connect the site to the power grid,

energy and transport networks causing further environmental disruption • Clearing of vegetation could lead to an increase risk of flooding and air

pollution • Greenfield sites may be further out of the city on the green belt. Here public

transport is not well developed and so people will have to drive to work in central London. This will increase traffic congestion and air pollution.

4. Waste disposal is becoming a challenge with a growing population • Only 52% of London’s 7 million tonnes of rubbish is recycled • 37% is sent to landfill or incineration (released greenhouse gasses) • 50% of Londoners live in flats which makes storage space for recycling difficult

The growth of commuter settlements on the rural urban fringe can affect people and the environment. Increasing house prices in the city and a desire for a larger house with a garden along with improvements in transport mean that many city workers now live on the fringe and commute to work each day.

Impact on environment Impact on people Commuter towns are often built on greenfield sites. Farmland, vegetation and habitats are destroyed. Infrastructure will need to be developed like road networks having further impact on the environment Commuters may drive leading to an increase in traffic congestion and air pollution

Loss of community spirit as small villages are turned into larger commuter towns Traffic congestion can anger people and may make the area more dangerous for young children Increase in noise pollution Pressure put on doctor surgeries and schools as they have to cope with increasing population The development of large out of town retail parks can lead to the decline of high streets and village shops

The features of sustainable urban living There are 3 main features of sustainable urban living (remember, it’s all about the future generations, living in a way today that does not harm their future)

1. Energy and water conservation 2. Creating green space 3. Managing waste (recycling)

Energy conservation Water conservation

Creating green space

Managing waste

A well planed ITS = less people will burn fossil fuels driving cars so non renewable energy is conserved and less damage is done to the environment Using renewable power such as solar and wind on housing developments means that coal, oil and gas are conserved, renewable energy does release fossil fuels Buying energy efficient appliances means that less fossil fuels have to be burnt to power these, less electricity is used Insulating houses well means that less heat escapes so people can use their heating less or on a lower setting which means less fossil fuels will be burnt.

Turn off taps whilst brushing teeth Rainwater harvesting – capture rainwater and use it to flush toilets or water gardens. Rain water is often collected off roofs. This means piped water is conserved.

Vegetation absorbs C02 from the atmosphere which is a fossil fuel. This can help to reduce global warming. Absorbing C02 also helps to reduce air pollution and to improve air quality for future generations

Recycling means that materials like plastics that are not biodegrable can be reused instead of going to landfill. This is more sustainable as less valuable land in the countryside will need to be destroyed to bury people’s waste.

Urban transport strategies to reduce congestion Traffic congestion is a problem in the world’s cities. Not only does it keep cars on the road for longer resulting in the burning of more fossil fuels, but it can also have economic consequences, as people may be late to work or important deliveries late to shops.

Cycle superhighway Congestion Charge Successes Safer cycle routes mean commuters encouraged to cycle

Successes Volume of cars has reduced by 30%. Initially journey times were significantly reduced. People have to pay to drive into central London so may be more willing to take cheaper public transport

Weaknesses Out of the 12 planned only 7 have been built. Many argue that they still cause congestion as cycle paths make roads smaller and traffic still has to slow down.

Weaknesses Many are willing to pay the charge. Traffic congestion is still a problem. Journey times haven’t reduced since 2007 (it was launched in 2003)

London’s cycle superhighways run from outer London, into and across central London. As of May 2016 there were 7 superhighways. Not as many as planned. Superhighways make cycling across London much safer as cyclists are separate from car users on the roads. This makes cycling more appealing and so more people will be encourage to ride their bike to work than to get a taxi or to use a car.

The congestion charge is a £11.50 daily charge for driving a vehicle into the congestion zone in central London between 07.00 and 18.00 on a week day. It was hoped that people would be discouraged from driving into central London, and would make more use of the integrated transport system. Since it was introduced the volume of cars on the road has reduced by 30%.

An example of an urban regeneration project Stratford

Why was regeneration

needed?

Stratford was a deprived part of London. 7% of the people were unemployed and 21% of people had never had a job

There was economic deprivation. The average wage was £28,000 compared to a London average of £37,000

There was social deprivation. 51% of children left school with 5 GCSE’s compared to a 57% London average

Crime was high in the area Tower block

housing was old and run down

Much of Stratford was derelict or brownfield sites after the decline of industry in the UK. The environment was of poor quality. Waterways were polluted

What were the main features of

the regeneration?

The athlete’s village became east village. 1379 homes here are affordable housing for local residents (cheaper rent)

A new school has been built for 1800 pupils in the east village, with state of the art facilities. It is hoped more teachers will be attracted to the area

The canals were cleared for local people to enjoy. New green spaces were created north of the Olympic park

Westfield city shopping centre was built providing 10,000 jobs. 2000 of these jobs went to people who were unemployed.

New doctors surgeries have been built

Derelict buildings have either been knocked down or converted into new homes.

The Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park provides sporting facilities for local residents including an Olympic sized swimming pool