Joseph Stalin 1

Joseph Stalin

Joseph StalinИосиф Виссарионович Сталин (Russian)

იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე სტალინი (Georgian)

Stalin at the Tehran Conference in 1943.

General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

In office3 April 1922 – 16 October 1952

Preceded by Vyacheslav Molotov(as Responsible Secretary)

Succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev(office reestablished)

Chairman of the Council of Ministers

In office6 May 1941 – 5 March 1953

First Deputies Nikolai VoznesenskyVyacheslav Molotov

Preceded by Vyacheslav Molotov

Succeeded by Georgy Malenkov

People's Commissar for Defense of the Soviet Union

In office19 July 1941 – 25 February 1946

Premier Himself

Preceded by Semyon Timoshenko

Succeeded by Nikolai Bulganinafter vacancy

Member of the Secretariat

Joseph Stalin 2

In office3 April 1922 – 5 March 1953

Full member of the Presidium

In office25 March 1919 – 5 March 1953

Member of the Orgburo

In office16 January 1919 – 5 March 1953

Personal details

Born 18 December 1878Gori, Tiflis Governorate, Russian Empire

Died 5 March 1953 (aged 74)Kuntsevo Dacha near Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union

Resting place Lenin's Mausoleum, Moscow, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (9 March 1953 - 31 October 1961)Kremlin Wall Necropolis, Moscow, Russian Federation (from 31 October 1961)

Nationality Georgian

Political party Communist Party of the Soviet Union

Spouse(s) Ekaterina Svanidze (1906–1907)Nadezhda Alliluyeva (1919–1932)

Children Yakov Dzhugashvili, Vasily Dzhugashvili, Svetlana Alliluyeva

Religion None (atheist), formerly Georgian Orthodox

Signature

Military service

Allegiance  Soviet Union

Service/branch Soviet Armed Forces

Years of service 1943–1953

Rank Marshal of the Soviet Union (1943–1945)Generalissimus of the Soviet Union (1945–1953)

Commands All (supreme commander)

Battles/wars World War II

Awards

Joseph Stalin or Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин; born Ioseb Besarionis jeJ̌uḡašvili, Georgian: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი, pronounced [iɔsɛb bɛsariɔnis dze dʒuɣaʃvili]; 18 December1878[1] – 5 March 1953) was the de facto leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953.Among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who took part in the Russian Revolution of 1917, Stalin was appointedGeneral Secretary of the party's Central Committee in 1922. He subsequently managed to consolidate powerfollowing the 1924 death of Vladimir Lenin through expanding the functions of his role, all the while eliminatingany opposition. He held this nominal post until abolishing it in 1952, concurrently serving as the Premier of theSoviet Union after establishing the position in 1941.

Joseph Stalin 3

Under Joseph Stalin's rule, the concept of "socialism in one country" became a central tenet of Soviet society. Hereplaced the New Economic Policy introduced by Lenin in the early 1920s with a highly centralised commandeconomy, launching a period of industrialization and collectivization that resulted in the rapid transformation of theUSSR from an agrarian society into an industrial power.[2] However, the economic changes coincided with theimprisonment of millions of people in Soviet correctional labour camps[] and the deportation of many others toremote areas.[] The initial upheaval in agriculture disrupted food production and contributed to the catastrophicSoviet famine of 1932–1933, known as the Holodomor in Ukraine. Later, in a period that lasted from 1936–39,Stalin instituted a campaign against alleged enemies of his regime called the Great Purge, in which hundreds ofthousands were executed. Major figures in the Communist Party, such as the old Bolsheviks, Leon Trotsky, andseveral Red Army leaders were killed after being convicted of plotting to overthrow the government and Stalin.[3]

In August 1939, Stalin entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany that divided their influence withinEastern Europe, but Germany later violated the agreement and launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union inJune 1941. Despite heavy human and territorial losses, Soviet forces managed to halt the Nazi incursion after thedecisive battles of Moscow and Stalingrad. After defeating the Axis powers on the Eastern Front, the Red Armycaptured Berlin in May 1945, effectively ending the war in Europe for the Allies.[4][5] The Soviet Unionsubsequently emerged as one of two recognized world superpowers, the other being the United States.[6] The Yaltaand Potsdam conferences established communist governments loyal to the Soviet Union in the Eastern Bloccountries as buffer states, which Stalin deemed necessary in case of another invasion. He also fostered close relationswith Mao Zedong in China and Kim Il-sung in North Korea.Stalin led the Soviet Union through its post-war reconstruction phase, which saw a significant rise in tension with theWestern world that would later be known as the Cold War. During this period, the USSR became the second countryin the world to successfully develop a nuclear weapon, as well as launching the Great Plan for the Transformation ofNature in response to another widespread famine and the Great Construction Projects of Communism. In the yearsfollowing his death, Stalin and his regime have been condemned on numerous occasions, most notably in 1956 whenhis successor Nikita Khrushchev denounced his legacy and initiated a process of de-Stalinization. He remains acontroversial figure today, with many regarding him as a tyrant;[7] however, popular opinion within the RussianFederation is mixed.[8][9][10]

Early life

Ioseb aged 16 (left) and 23 (right)

Stalin was born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili (Georgian: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი; Russian: ИосифВиссарионович Джугашвили, Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili) on 18 December 1878[1] in the town of Gori,Tiflis Governorate, Russian Empire (present-day Georgia). His mother Ketevan Geladze was a housekeeper whotook whatever job opportunities were available and found employment at a couture shop for 17 years; his fatherBesarion Jughashvili worked as a cobbler. The couple had previously given birth to three sons, but two died duringinfancy. The family surname means son of Juga, and is derived from either the Ossetian йуга Juga (meaning 'herd')or the old Georgian ჯუღა djuga (meaning 'steel'). Ioseb eventually adopted the name "Stalin" from the Russianword for "steel;" he used it as an alias and pen name in his published works.

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As a child, Ioseb was plagued with numerous health issues. He was born with two adjoined toes on his left foot.[11]

His face was left permanently scarred after he contracted smallpox at the age of 7. Later, at age 12, he injured his leftarm in an accident involving a horse-drawn carriage, rendering it shorter and stiffer than its counterpart. During thefirst several years of his life, Stalin and his mother were subjected to severe physical abuse at the hands of hisfather,[12] who was severely alcoholic. When Geladze enrolled Ioseb into an Orthodox priesthood school against herhusband's wishes, Jughashvili went on a public rampage. He was banished from Gori for assaulting its police chief.He subsequently moved to Tiflis (Tbilisi), leaving his family behind.When Stalin was sixteen, he received a scholarship to attend the Georgian Orthodox Tiflis Spiritual Seminary inTbilisi. Although his performance had been satisfactory, he was expelled in 1899 after missing his final exams. Theseminary's records also suggest that he was unable to pay his tuition fees.[13] The official Soviet version states that hewas expelled for reading illegal literature and for forming a Social Democratic study circle.[14] Around this time,Stalin discovered the writings of Vladimir Lenin and decided to become a Marxist revolutionary, eventually joiningthe Bolsheviks in 1903 and becoming one of their chief operatives in the Caucasus. His activities includedconnecting with workers and inciting strikes. The years of 1900-1903 were years of industrial depression. Notsurprisingly then, numerous strikes broke out in 1904. One strike was the strike of oil workers in Baku in Georgiawhich broke out on December 13, 1904.[15] Stalin and Prokofy Djaparidze, another Bolshevik organizer, becameinvolved in this strike. The strike was ended successfully on December 31, 1904, when the oil workers became thefirst workers in Russian history to sign a collective bargaining agreement with the oil owners.[16] Another activity ofStalin and the other Bolshevik organizers was to spread propaganda. Toward this end, Stalin wrote an article in May1905 called "Briefly About the Disagreements in the Party" which was a defense of Bolshevik goals for the RussianSocial Democratic Party against attacks from the Mensheviks.[17] In January 1906, Stalin wrote an article called"Two Clashes: Concerning January 9" which dealt with the first anniversary of the peaceful march anddemonstration of Father George Gapon and a huge crowd of workers when they marched on the Winter Palace.[18]

This march on January 9, 1905, was the most noteworthy event of the 1905 Russian Revolution and resulted in theevents of Bloody Sunday when 1000 demonstrators were shot by the guards at the Winter Palace. Other activities ofStalin and the organizers in the Georgian region of the Russian Empire included organizing paramilitaries, spreadingpropaganda, and raising money through bank robberies, ransom kidnappings, and extortion. Particularly notable washis participation in the 1907 Tiflis bank robbery, which resulted in 40 deaths and the theft of 341,000 rubles (roughlyUS $3.4 million when adjusted for inflation). The incident would have long-lasting ramifications for his politicalcareer.[19] Stalin's crimes began to draw the attention of the Okhrana (the secret police of the Russian Empire), andhe was sent to Siberia on seven different occasions. During his final exile, he was conscripted by the Russian army tofight in World War I, but he was deemed unfit for service due to his deformed left arm.[20]

Joseph Stalin 5

Revolution, Civil War, and Polish-Soviet War

Role during the Russian Revolution of 1917

Prior to the revolution of 1917, Stalin played anactive role in fighting the tsarist government.Here he is shown on a 1911 information cardfrom the files of the Russian police in Saint

Petersburg.[21]

After returning to Petrograd on March 12, 1917 from exile in thevillage of Kostino and later in the village of Kureika in the region ofTurukhansk in northern Siberia.[22] Returning with Stalin to St.Petersburg was Lev B. Kamenev.[23] By virtue of their seniority in theParty, Stalin and Kamenev replaced Vyacheslav Molotov andAlexander Shlyapnikov on the Russian Bureau of the CentralCommittee of the Party.[24] Writing in Pravda, the official newspaperof the Party, both Stalin and Kamenev reflected a shift in Party policytoward Alexander Kerensky's provisional government.[25]

Whereas, previously, the Russian Bureau under Shyapnikov had beenurging Russian soldiers at the front to engage in fraternization withenemy German and Austrian soldiers to force an end to the war and/orturning the war into a class war against the capitalist imperialistclass,[24] Stalin now wrote in Pravda that the slogans like "Down withthe War" were not enough.[26] There was now a need for soldiers and workers to "come out openly and publicly" inmass demonstrations to put real "pressure on the Kerensky provisional government" to immediately negotiate an endto the war.[27] Events were moving so fast during that revolutionary year of 1917, that party policies seemed tochange every few weeks. Indeed just a few days later on April 3 (16 new style), Lenin arrived in St. Petersburgreturning from his ten (10) year exile in Switzerland. He had brought with him an article called "The Tasks of theProletariat in the Present Revolution" which became popularly known as Lenin's "April Theses."[28] After Leninprevailed at the April 1917 Communist Party conference, Stalin and Pravda shifted to opposing the provisionalgovernment.

At this conference, Stalin was elected to the Bolshevik Central Committee. In October 1917, the Bolshevik CentralCommittee voted in favor of an insurrection. On 7 November, from the Smolny Institute, Trotsky, Lenin and the restof the Central Committee coordinated the insurrection against Kerensky in the 1917 October Revolution. On October25, 1917 (November 8, 1917 on the new style calendar) the Bolsheviks had stormed the Winter Palace and arrestedthe Kerensky's Cabinet.

Role in the Russian Civil War, 1917–1919

A group of participants in the 8th Congress of theRussian Communist Party, 1919. In the middle

are Stalin, Vladimir Lenin, and Mikhail Kalinin.

Upon seizing Petrograd, Stalin was appointed People's Commissar forNationalities' Affairs. Thereafter, civil war broke out in Russia, pittingLenin's Red Army against the White Army, a loose alliance ofanti-Bolshevik forces. Lenin formed a five-member Politburo, whichincluded Stalin and Trotsky. In May 1918, Lenin dispatched Stalin tothe city of Tsaritsyn. Through his new allies, Kliment Voroshilov andSemyon Budyonny, Stalin imposed his influence on the military.[citation

needed]

Stalin challenged many of the decisions of Trotsky, ordered the killingsof many counter-revolutionaries and former Tsarist officers in the RedArmy[citation needed] and burned villages in order to intimidate the

Joseph Stalin 6

peasantry into submission and discourage bandit raids on food shipments.[citation needed] In May 1919, in order tostem mass desertions on the Western front, Stalin had deserters and renegades publicly executed as traitors.[29]

Role in the Polish-Soviet War, 1919–1921After the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War, Poland invaded Ukraine, starting what became known as thePolish–Soviet War, but the Bolsheviks pushed them back into Poland. As commander of the southern front, Stalinwas determined to take the Polish-held city of Lviv. This conflicted with the general strategy set by Lenin andTrotsky, which focused on the capture of Warsaw further north.Trotsky's forces engaged those of Polish commander Władysław Sikorski at the Battle of Warsaw, but Stalin refusedto redirect his troops from Lviv to help. Consequently, the battles for both Lviv and Warsaw were lost, and Stalinwas blamed. In August 1920, Stalin returned to Moscow, where he defended himself and resigned his militarycommand. At the Ninth Party Conference on 22 September, Trotsky openly criticized Stalin's behavior.

Rise to powerStalin played a decisive role in engineering the 1921 Red Army invasion of Georgia, following which he adoptedparticularly hardline, centralist policies towards Soviet Georgia. This led to the Georgian Affair of 1922 and otherrepressions.[30][31] Stalin's actions in Georgia created a rift with Lenin, who believed that all the Soviet states shouldstand equal.Lenin nonetheless considered Stalin to be a loyal ally, and when he got mired in squabbles with Trotsky and otherpoliticians, he decided to give Stalin more power. With the help of Lev Kamenev, Lenin had Stalin appointedGeneral Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1922.[32] This post enabled Stalin to appoint manyof his allies to government positions.

Stalin and Vladimir Lenin in 1919.

Lenin suffered a stroke in 1922, forcing him into semi-retirement inGorki. Stalin visited him often, acting as his intermediary with theoutside world,[32] but the pair quarreled and their relationshipdeteriorated.[32] Lenin dictated increasingly disparaging notes on Stalinin what would become his testament. He criticized Stalin's politicalviews, rude manners, and excessive power and ambition, andsuggested that Stalin should be removed from the position of GeneralSecretary.[32] During Lenin's semi-retirement, Stalin forged an alliancewith Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev against Trotsky. These alliesprevented Lenin's Testament from being revealed to the Twelfth PartyCongress in April 1923.[32]

Lenin died of a heart attack on 21 January 1924. Following Lenin's death, a power struggle began, which involvedfollowing seven Politburo members:[33] Nikolai Bukharin, Lev Kamenev, Alexei Rykov, Joseph Stalin, MikhailTomsky, Leon Trotsky, Grigory Zinoviev.Again, Kamenev and Zinoviev helped to keep Lenin's Testament from going public. Thereafter, Stalin's disputeswith Kamenev and Zinoviev intensified. Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev grew increasingly isolated, and wereeventually ejected from the Central Committee and then from the Party itself.[32] Kamenev and Zinoviev were laterreadmitted, but Trotsky was exiled from the Soviet Union.The Northern Expedition in China became a point of contention over foreign policy by Stalin and Trotsky. Stalin wanted the Communist Party of China to ally itself with the Nationalist Kuomintang, rather than attempt to implement a communist revolution. Trotsky urged the party to oppose the Kuomintang and launch a full-scale revolution. Stalin funded the KMT during the expedition.[34] Stalin countered Trotsky's criticisms by making a secret speech in which he said that the Kuomintang were the only ones capable of defeating the imperialists, that Chiang

Joseph Stalin 7

Kai-shek had funding from the rich merchants, and that his forces were to be utilized until squeezed for allusefulness like a lemon before being discarded.[35] However, Chiang quickly reversed the tables in the Shanghaimassacre of 1927 by massacring the membership of the Communist party in Shanghai midway through the NorthernExpedition.[36][37]

Stalin pushed for more rapid industrialization and central control of the economy, contravening Lenin's NewEconomic Policy (NEP). At the end of 1927, a critical shortfall in grain supplies prompted Stalin to push for thecollectivisation of agriculture and order the seizure of grain hoards from kulak farmers.[32][] Nikolai Bukharin andPremier Alexey Rykov opposed these policies and advocated a return to the NEP, but the rest of the Politburo sidedwith Stalin and removed Bukharin from the Politburo in November 1929. Rykov was fired the following year andwas replaced by Vyacheslav Molotov on Stalin's recommendation.In December 1934, the popular Communist Party boss in Leningrad, Sergei Kirov, was murdered. Stalin blamedKirov's murder on a vast conspiracy of saboteurs and Trotskyites. He launched a massive purge against these internalenemies, putting them on rigged show trials and then having them executed or imprisoned in Siberian Gulags.Among these victims were old enemies, including Bukharin, Rykov, Kamenev and Zinoviev. Stalin made the loyalNikolai Yezhov head of the secret police, the NKVD, and had him purge the NKVD of veteran Bolsheviks. With noserious opponents left in power, Stalin ended the purges in 1938. Yezhov was held to blame for the excesses of theGreat Terror. He was dismissed from office and later executed.

Changes to Soviet society, 1927–1939

Bolstering Soviet secret service and intelligence

Part of the Politics series on

Stalinism

Communism PortalPolitics portal

Stalin vastly increased the scope and power of the state's secret police and intelligence agencies. Under his guidinghand, Soviet intelligence forces began to set up intelligence networks in most of the major nations of the world,including Germany (the famous Rote Kappelle spy ring), Great Britain, France, Japan, and the United States. Stalinmade considerable use of the Communist International movement in order to infiltrate agents and to ensure thatforeign Communist parties remained pro-Soviet and pro-Stalin.One of the best examples of Stalin's ability to integrate secret police and foreign espionage came in 1940, when hegave approval to the secret police to have Leon Trotsky assassinated in Mexico.[38]

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Cult of personalityStalin created a cult of personality in the Soviet Union around both himself and Lenin. Many personality cults inhistory have been frequently measured and compared to his. Numerous towns, villages and cities were renamed afterthe Soviet leader (see List of places named after Stalin) and the Stalin Prize and Stalin Peace Prize were named in hishonor. He accepted grandiloquent titles (e.g., "Coryphaeus of Science," "Father of Nations," "Brilliant Genius ofHumanity," "Great Architect of Communism," "Gardener of Human Happiness," and others), and helped rewriteSoviet history to provide himself a more significant role in the revolution of 1917. At the same time, according toNikita Khrushchev, he insisted that he be remembered for "the extraordinary modesty characteristic of truly greatpeople."[citation needed] Statues of Stalin depict him at a height and build approximating the very tall Tsar AlexanderIII, while photographic evidence suggests he was between 5 ft 5 in and 5 ft 6 in (165–168 cm).[citation needed]

Trotsky criticized the cult of personality built around Stalin. It reached new levels during World War II, with Stalin'sname included in the new Soviet national anthem. Stalin became the focus of literature, poetry, music, paintings andfilm that exhibited fawning devotion. He was sometimes credited with almost god-like qualities, including thesuggestion that he single-handedly won the Second World War. The degree to which Stalin himself relished the cultsurrounding him is debatable. The Finnish communist Arvo Tuominen records a sarcastic toast proposed by Stalin ata New Year Party in 1935 in which he said "Comrades! I want to propose a toast to our Patriarch, life and sun,liberator of nations, architect of socialism [he rattled off all the appellations applied to him in those days] – JosefVissarionovich Stalin, and I hope this is the first and last speech made to that genius this evening."[39]

In a 1956 speech, Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin's cult of personality with these words: "It is impermissibleand foreign to the spirit of Marxism-Leninism to elevate one person, to transform him into a superman possessingsupernatural characteristics akin to those of a god."[citation needed]

Purges and deportations

Purges and executions

Joseph Stalin 9

Left: Beria's January 1940 letter to Stalin asking permission to execute 346 "enemies of the CPSU and of the Sovietauthorities" who conducted "counter-revolutionary, right-Trotskyite plotting and spying activities"Middle: Stalin's handwriting: "за" (support).Right: The Politburo's decision is signed by StalinStalin, as head of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, consolidatednear-absolute power in the 1930s with a Great Purge of the party that was justified as an attempt to expel"opportunists" and "counter-revolutionary infiltrators".[40][41] Those targeted by the purge were often expelled fromthe party, however more severe measures ranged from banishment to the Gulag labor camps to execution after trialsheld by NKVD troikas.[40][42][43]

In the 1930s, Stalin apparently became increasingly worried about the growing popularity of the Leningrad partyboss Sergei Kirov. At the 1934 Party Congress where the vote for the new Central Committee was held, Kirovreceived only three negative votes, the fewest of any candidate, while Stalin received at least over a hundred negativevotes.[44][45] After the assassination of Kirov, which may have been orchestrated by Stalin, Stalin invented a detailedscheme to implicate opposition leaders in the murder, including Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev.[46] Theinvestigations and trials expanded.[47] Stalin passed a new law on "terrorist organizations and terrorist acts" that wereto be investigated for no more than ten days, with no prosecution, defense attorneys or appeals, followed by asentence to be executed "quickly."[48]

Thereafter, several trials known as the Moscow Trials were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout thecountry. Article 58 of the legal code, which listed prohibited anti-Soviet activities as counterrevolutionary crime,was applied in the broadest manner.[49] The flimsiest pretexts were often enough to brand someone an "enemy of thepeople", starting the cycle of public persecution and abuse, often proceeding to interrogation, torture and deportation,if not death. The Russian word troika gained a new meaning: a quick, simplified trial by a committee of threesubordinated to NKVD -NKVD troika- with sentencing carried out within 24 hours.[48] Stalin's hand-pickedexecutioner, Vasili Blokhin, was entrusted with carrying out some of the high profile executions in this period.[50]

Nikolai Yezhov, walking with Stalin in the top photo from the 1930s, was killed in 1940. Following his execution,Yezhov was edited out of the photo by Soviet censors.[51] Such retouching was a common occurrence during Stalin'srule.Many military leaders were convicted of treason and a large-scale purge of Red Army officers followed.[52] The repression of so many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Leon Trotsky to claim that a

Joseph Stalin 10

"river of blood" separated Stalin's regime from that of Lenin.[53] In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated inMexico, where he had lived in exile since January 1937; this eliminated the last of Stalin's opponents among theformer Party leadership.[54]

With the exception of Vladimir Milyutin (who died in prison in 1937) and Joseph Stalin himself, all of the membersof Lenin's original cabinet who had not succumbed to death from natural causes before the purge were executed.Mass operations of the NKVD also targeted "national contingents" (foreign ethnicities) such as Poles, ethnicGermans, Koreans, etc. A total of 350,000 (144,000 of them Poles) were arrested and 247,157 (110,000 Poles) wereexecuted.[] Many Americans who had emigrated to the Soviet Union during the worst of the Great Depression wereexecuted; others were sent to prison camps or gulags.[55][56] Concurrent with the purges, efforts were made to rewritethe history in Soviet textbooks and other propaganda materials. Notable people executed by NKVD were removedfrom the texts and photographs as though they never existed. Gradually, the history of revolution was transformed toa story about just two key characters: Lenin and Stalin.In light of revelations from Soviet archives, historians now estimate that nearly 700,000 people (353,074 in 1937 and328,612 in 1938) were executed in the course of the terror,[57] with the great mass of victims merely "ordinary"Soviet citizens: workers, peasants, homemakers, teachers, priests, musicians, soldiers, pensioners, ballerinas,beggars.[58][59] Many of the executed were interred in mass graves, with some of the major killing and burial sitesbeing Bykivnia, Kurapaty and Butovo.[60]

Some Western experts believe the evidence released from the Soviet archives is understated, incomplete orunreliable.[61][62][63][64][65]

Stalin personally signed 357 proscription lists in 1937 and 1938 that condemned to execution some 40,000 people,and about 90% of these are confirmed to have been shot.[] At the time, while reviewing one such list, Stalinreportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years time?No one. Who remembers the names now of the boyars Ivan the Terrible got rid of? No one."[66] In addition, Stalindispatched a contingent of NKVD operatives to Mongolia, established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika, andunleashed a bloody purge in which tens of thousands were executed as "Japanese Spies." Mongolian rulerKhorloogiin Choibalsan closely followed Stalin's lead.[67]

During the 1930s and 1940s, the Soviet leadership sent NKVD squads into other countries to murder defectors andother opponents of the Soviet regime. Victims of such plots included Yevhen Konovalets, Ignace Poretsky, RudolfKlement, Alexander Kutepov, Evgeny Miller, Leon Trotsky and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM)leadership in Catalonia (e.g., Andreu Nin).[68]

Population transfer

Shortly before, during and immediately after World War II, Stalin conducted a series of deportations on a huge scalethat profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union. It is estimated that between 1941 and 1949 nearly3.3 million[69][70] were deported to Siberia and the Central Asian republics. By some estimates up to 43% of theresettled population died of diseases and malnutrition.[71]

Separatism, resistance to Soviet rule and collaboration with the invading Germans were cited as the official reasonsfor the deportations, rightly or wrongly. Individual circumstances of those spending time in German-occupiedterritories were not examined. After the brief Nazi occupation of the Caucasus, the entire population of five of thesmall highland peoples and the Crimean Tatars – more than a million people in total – were deported without noticeor any opportunity to take their possessions.[72]

As a result of Stalin's lack of trust in the loyalty of particular ethnicities, ethnic groups such as the Soviet Koreans,the Volga Germans, the Crimean Tatars, the Chechens, and many Poles were forcibly moved out of strategic areasand relocated to places in the central Soviet Union, especially Kazakhstan in Soviet Central Asia. By some estimates,hundreds of thousands of deportees may have died en route.[69]

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According to official Soviet estimates, more than 14 million people passed through the Gulag from 1929 to 1953,with a further 7 to 8 million being deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union (including the entirenationalities in several cases).[73]

In February 1956, Nikita Khrushchev condemned the deportations as a violation of Leninism, and reversed most ofthem, although it was not until 1991 that the Tatars, Meskhetians and Volga Germans were allowed to return enmasse to their homelands. The deportations had a profound effect on the peoples of the Soviet Union. The memoryof the deportations has played a major part in the separatist movements in the Baltic States, Tatarstan and Chechnya,even today.

Collectivization

Children are digging up frozen potatoes in thefield of a collective farm, 1933

Stalin's regime moved to force collectivization of agriculture. This wasintended to increase agricultural output from large-scale mechanizedfarms, to bring the peasantry under more direct political control, and tomake tax collection more efficient. Collectivization brought socialchange on a scale not seen since the abolition of serfdom in 1861 andalienation from control of the land and its produce. Collectivizationalso meant a drastic drop in living standards for many peasants, and itfaced violent reaction among the peasantry.

In the first years of collectivization it was estimated that industrialproduction would rise by 200% and agricultural production by 50%,[74]

but these expectations were not realized. Stalin blamed thisunanticipated failure on kulaks (rich peasants), who resisted collectivization. However, kulaks proper made up only4% of the peasant population; the "kulaks" that Stalin targeted included the slightly better-off peasants who took thebrunt of violence from the OGPU and the Komsomol. These peasants were about 60% of the population. Thoseofficially defined as "kulaks," "kulak helpers," and later "ex-kulaks" were to be shot, placed into Gulag labor camps,or deported to remote areas of the country, depending on the charge. Archival data indicates that 20,201 people wereexecuted during 1930, the year of Dekulakization.[67]

The two-stage progress of collectivization—interrupted for a year by Stalin's famous editorials, "Dizzy withsuccess"[75] and "Reply to Collective Farm Comrades"[76]—is a prime example of his capacity for tactical politicalwithdrawal followed by intensification of initial strategies.

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Famines

Famine in USSR, 1933. Areas of most disastrousfamine marked with black.

Passers-by no longer pay attention to the corpsesof starved peasants on a street in Kharkiv, 1933.

Famine affected other parts of the USSR. The death toll from famine inthe Soviet Union at this time is estimated at between 5 and 10 millionpeople.[77] The worst crop failure of late tsarist Russia, in 1892, hadcaused 375,000 to 400,000 deaths.[78] Most modern scholars agree thatthe famine was caused by the policies of the government of the SovietUnion under Stalin, rather than by natural reasons.[79] According toAlan Bullock, "the total Soviet grain crop was no worse than that of1931 ... it was not a crop failure but the excessive demands of the state,ruthlessly enforced, that cost the lives of as many as five millionUkrainian peasants." Stalin refused to release large grain reserves thatcould have alleviated the famine, while continuing to export grain; hewas convinced that the Ukrainian peasants had hidden grain away andstrictly enforced draconian new collective-farm theft laws inresponse.[80][] Other historians hold it was largely the insufficientharvests of 1931 and 1932 caused by a variety of natural disasters thatresulted in famine, with the successful harvest of 1933 ending thefamine.[81] Soviet and other historians have argued that the rapidcollectivization of agriculture was necessary in order to achieve anequally rapid industrialization of the Soviet Union and ultimately winWorld War II. Alec Nove claims that the Soviet Union industrialized inspite of, rather than because of, its collectivized agriculture.[citation

needed]

The USSR also experienced a major famine in 1947 as a result of wardamage and severe droughts, but economist Michael Ellman arguesthat it could have been prevented if the government had notmismanaged its grain reserves. The famine cost an estimated 1 to1.5 million lives as well as secondary population losses due to reducedfertility.[82]

Ukrainian famine

The Holodomor famine is sometimes referred to as the Ukrainian Genocide, implying it was engineered by theSoviet government, specifically targeting the Ukrainian people to destroy the Ukrainian nation as a political factorand social entity.[83][84][85][86] While historians continue to disagree whether the policies that led to Holodomor fallunder the legal definition of genocide, twenty-six countries have officially recognized the Holodomor as such. On 28November 2006, the Ukrainian Parliament approved a bill declaring the Soviet-era forced famine an act of genocideagainst the Ukrainian people.[87] Professor Michael Ellman concludes that Ukrainians were victims of genocide in1932–33 according to a more relaxed definition that is favored by some specialists in the field of genocide studies.He asserts that Soviet policies greatly exacerbated the famine's death toll. Although 1.8 million tonnes of grain wereexported during the height of the starvation—enough to feed 5 million people for one year-the use of torture andexecution to extract grain under the Law of Spikelets, the use of force to prevent starving peasants from fleeing theworst-affected areas, and the refusal to import grain or secure international humanitarian aid to alleviate conditionsled to incalculable human suffering in the Ukraine. It would appear that Stalin intended to use the starvation as acheap and efficient means (as opposed to deportations and shootings) to kill off those deemed to be

Joseph Stalin 13

"counterrevolutionaries," "idlers," and "thieves," but not to annihilate the Ukrainian peasantry as a whole. Ellmanalso claims that, while this was not the only Soviet genocide (e.g., the Polish operation of the NKVD), it was theworst in terms of mass casualties.[]

Current estimates on the total number of casualties within Soviet Ukraine range mostly from 2.2 million[88][89] to 4to 5 million.[90][91][]

A Ukrainian court found Josef Stalin and other leaders of the former Soviet Union guilty of genocide by "organizingmass famine in Ukraine in 1932–1933" in January 2010. However, the court "dropped criminal proceedings over thesuspects' deaths".[92][93]

IndustrializationThe Russian Civil War and wartime communism had a devastating effect on the country's economy. Industrial outputin 1922 was 13% of that in 1914. A recovery followed under the New Economic Policy, which allowed a degree ofmarket flexibility within the context of socialism. Under Stalin's direction, this was replaced by a system of centrallyordained "Five-Year Plans" in the late 1920s. These called for a highly ambitious program of state-guided crashindustrialization and the collectivization of agriculture.

Stalin on building of Moscow-Volga canal. It wasconstructed from 1932 to 1937 by Gulag

prisoners.

With seed capital unavailable because of international reaction toCommunist policies, little international trade, and virtually no moderninfrastructure, Stalin's government financed industrialization both byrestraining consumption on the part of ordinary Soviet citizens toensure that capital went for re-investment into industry, and by ruthlessextraction of wealth from the kulaks.

In 1933 workers' real earnings sank to about one-tenth of the 1926level.[citation needed] Common and political prisoners in labor campswere forced to perform unpaid labor, and communists and Komsomolmembers were frequently "mobilized" for various constructionprojects. The Soviet Union used numerous foreign experts to designnew factories, supervise construction, instruct workers and improve manufacturing processes. The most notableforeign contractor was Albert Kahn's firm that designed and built 521 factories between 1930 and 1932. As a rule,factories were supplied with imported equipment.

In spite of early breakdowns and failures, the first two Five-Year Plans achieved rapid industrialization from a verylow economic base. While it is generally agreed that the Soviet Union achieved significant levels of economicgrowth under Stalin, the precise rate of growth is disputed. It is not disputed, however, that these gains wereaccomplished at the cost of millions of lives. Official Soviet estimates stated the annual rate of growth at 13.9%;Russian and Western estimates gave lower figures of 5.8% and even 2.9%. Indeed, one estimate is that Sovietgrowth became temporarily much higher after Stalin's death.[94][95]

According to Robert Lewis, the Five-Year Plan substantially helped to modernize the previously backward Sovieteconomy. New products were developed, and the scale and efficiency of existing production greatly increased. Someinnovations were based on indigenous technical developments, others on imported foreign technology.[96] Despite itscosts, the industrialization effort allowed the Soviet Union to fight, and ultimately win, World War II.

Joseph Stalin 14

ScienceScience in the Soviet Union was under strict ideological control by Stalin and his government, along with art andliterature. There was significant progress in "ideologically safe" domains, owing to the free Soviet education systemand state-financed research. However, the most notable legacy during Stalin's time was his public endorsement of theagronomist Trofim Lysenko, who rejected Mendelian genetics as "bourgeois pseudoscience" and instead supportedhybridization theories that caused widespread agricultural destruction and major setbacks in Soviet knowledge inbiology. Although many scientists opposed his views, those who publicly came out were imprisoned and denounced.Some areas of physics were criticized.[97][98]

Social servicesUnder the Soviet government people benefited from some social liberalization. Girls were given an adequate, equaleducation and women had equal rights in employment,[] improving lives for women and families. Stalinistdevelopment also contributed to advances in health care, which significantly increased the lifespan and quality of lifeof the typical Soviet citizen.[] Stalin's policies granted the Soviet people universal access to healthcare and education,effectively creating the first generation free from the fear of typhus, cholera, and malaria.[] The occurrences of thesediseases dropped to record low numbers, increasing life spans by decades.[]

Soviet women under Stalin were the first generation of women able to give birth in the safety of a hospital withaccess to prenatal care.[] Education was also an example of an increase in the standard of living after economicdevelopment. The generation born during Stalin's rule was the first near-universally literate generation. Millionsbenefited from mass literacy campaigns in the 1930s, and from workers training schemes.[99] Engineers were sentabroad to learn industrial technology, and hundreds of foreign engineers were brought to Russia on contract.[]

Transport links were improved and many new railways built. Workers who exceeded their quotas, Stakhanovites,received many incentives for their work;[99] they could afford to buy the goods that were mass-produced by therapidly expanding Soviet economy.The increase in demand due to industrialization and the decrease in the workforce due to World War II andrepressions generated a major expansion in job opportunities for the survivors, especially for women.[99]

Culture

Propaganda portrait of "Marshal Stalin", WorldWar II

Although he was Georgian by birth, some western historians claim thatStalin became a Russian nationalist[] and significantly promotedRussian history, language, and Russian national heroes, particularlyduring the 1930s and 1940s[citation needed]. There are also claims that heheld the Russian people up as the elder brothers of the non-Russianminorities.[100]

During Stalin's reign the official and long-lived style of SocialistRealism was established for painting, sculpture, music, drama andliterature. Previously fashionable "revolutionary" expressionism,abstract art, and avant-garde experimentation were discouraged ordenounced as "formalism".

The degree of Stalin's personal involvement in general, and in specificinstances, has been the subject of discussion.[citation needed] Stalin's favorite novel Pharaoh, shared similarities[citation

needed] with Sergei Eisenstein's film, Ivan the Terrible, produced under Stalin's tutelage.

In architecture, a Stalinist Empire Style (basically, updated neoclassicism on a very large scale, exemplified by the Seven Sisters of Moscow) replaced the constructivism of the 1920s. Stalin's rule had a largely disruptive effect on indigenous cultures within the Soviet Union, though the politics of Korenizatsiya and forced development were

Joseph Stalin 15

possibly beneficial to the integration of later generations of indigenous cultures.

ReligionRaised in the Georgian Orthodox faith, Stalin became an atheist. He followed the position that religion was an opiatethat needed to be removed in order to construct the ideal communist society. His government promoted atheismthrough special atheistic education in schools, anti-religious propaganda, the antireligious work of public institutions(Society of the Godless), discriminatory laws, and a terror campaign against religious believers. By the late 1930s ithad become dangerous to be publicly associated with religion.[101]

Stalin's role in the fortunes of the Russian Orthodox Church is complex. Continuous persecution in the 1930sresulted in its near-extinction as a public institution: by 1939, active parishes numbered in the low hundreds (downfrom 54,000 in 1917), many churches had been leveled, and tens of thousands of priests, monks and nuns werepersecuted and killed. Over 100,000 were shot during the purges of 1937–1938.[102][103] During World War II, theChurch was allowed a revival as a patriotic organization, and thousands of parishes were reactivated until a furtherround of suppression during Khrushchev's rule. The Russian Orthodox Church Synod's recognition of the Sovietgovernment and of Stalin personally led to a schism with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia.Just days before Stalin's death, certain religious sects were outlawed and persecuted. Many religions popular inethnic regions of the Soviet Union, including the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Catholic Churches, Baptists,Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism underwent ordeals similar to that which the Orthodox churches in other parts of thecountry suffered: thousands of monks were persecuted, and hundreds of churches, synagogues, mosques, temples,sacred monuments, monasteries and other religious buildings were razed. Stalin had a different policy outside theSoviet Union; he supported the Communist Uyghur Muslim separatists under Ehmetjan Qasim in the Ili Rebellionagainst the Anti Communist Republic of China regime. He supplied weapons to the Uyghur Ili army and Red Armysupport against Chinese forces, and helped them establish the Second East Turkestan Republic of which Islam wasthe official state religion.

TheoristStalin and his supporters have highlighted the notion that socialism can be built and consolidated by a country("Socialism in One Country") as underdeveloped as Russia during the 1920s. Indeed this might be the only means inwhich it could be built in a hostile environment.[104] In 1933, Stalin put forward the theory of aggravation of theclass struggle along with the development of socialism, arguing that the further the country would move forward, themore acute forms of struggle will be used by the doomed remnants of exploiter classes in their last desperate efforts– and that, therefore, political repression was necessary.In 1936, Stalin announced that the society of the Soviet Union consisted of two non-antagonistic classes: workersand kolkhoz peasantry. These corresponded to the two different forms of property over the means of production thatexisted in the Soviet Union: state property (for the workers) and collective property (for the peasantry). In addition tothese, Stalin distinguished the stratum of intelligentsia. The concept of "non-antagonistic classes" was entirely newto Leninist theory. Among Stalin's contributions to Communist theoretical literature were "Dialectical and HistoricalMaterialism," "Marxism and the National Question", "Trotskyism or Leninism", and "The Principles of Leninism."

Calculating the number of victimsBefore the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, researchers who attempted to count the number of people killedunder Stalin's regime produced estimates ranging from 3 to 60 million.[105] After the Soviet Union dissolved,evidence from the Soviet archives also became available, containing official records of 799,455 executions1921-53,[106] around 1.7 million deaths in the Gulags and some 390,000 deaths during kulak forced resettlement –with a total of about 3 million officially recorded victims in these categories.[107]

Joseph Stalin 16

Photo from 1943 exhumation of mass grave ofPolish officers killed by NKVD in Katyń Forest

in 1940.

The official Soviet archival records do not contain comprehensivefigures for some categories of victims, such as those of ethnicdeportations or of German population transfers in the aftermath ofWorld War II.[108] Eric D. Weitz wrote, "By 1948, according toNicolas Werth, the mortality rate of the 600,000 people deported fromthe Caucasus between 1943 and 1944 had reached 25%."[109][110]

Other notable exclusions from NKVD data on repression deathsinclude the Katyn massacre, other killings in the newly occupied areas,and the mass shootings of Red Army personnel (deserters and so-calleddeserters) in 1941. The Soviets executed 158,000 soldiers for desertionduring the war,[111] and the "blocking detachments" of the NKVD shotthousands more.[112] Also, the official statistics on Gulag mortalityexclude deaths of prisoners taking place shortly after their release butwhich resulted from the harsh treatment in the camps.[113] Some historians also believe that the official archivalfigures of the categories that were recorded by Soviet authorities are unreliable and incomplete.[114][115] In additionto failures regarding comprehensive recordings, as one additional example, Robert Gellately and Simon SebagMontefiore argue that the many suspects beaten and tortured to death while in "investigative custody" were likely notto have been counted amongst the executed.[][116]

Historians working after the Soviet Union's dissolution have estimated victim totals ranging from approximately 4million to nearly 10 million, not including those who died in famines.[117][118][119] Russian writer Vadim Erlikman,for example, makes the following estimates: executions, 1.5 million; gulags, 5 million; deportations, 1.7 million outof 7.5 million deported; and POWs and German civilians, 1 million – a total of about 9 million victims ofrepression.[120]

Some have also included the deaths of 6 to 8 million people in the 1932–1933 famine among the victims of Stalin'srepression. This categorization is controversial however, as historians differ as to whether the famine was adeliberate part of the campaign of repression against kulaks and others,[][][121][122][123] or simply an unintendedconsequence of the struggle over forced collectivization.[][124][125]

Accordingly, if famine victims are included, a minimum of around 10 million deaths—6 million from famine and4 million from other causes—are attributable to the regime,[126] with a number of recent historians suggesting alikely total of around 20 million, citing much higher victim totals from executions, gulags, deportations and othercauses.[127][128][129][130][131][132][133] Adding 6–8 million famine victims to Erlikman's estimates above, forexample, would yield a total of between 15 and 17 million victims. Researcher Robert Conquest, meanwhile, hasrevised his original estimate of up to 30 million victims down to 20 million.[134] In his most recent edition of TheGreat Terror (2007), Conquest states that while exact numbers may never be known with complete certainty, thevarious terror campaigns launched by the Soviet government claimed no fewer than 15 million lives.[135] Othersmaintain that their earlier higher victim total estimates are correct.[136][137]

Joseph Stalin 17

World War II, 1939–1945

Ribbentrop and Stalin at the signing of the Pact

Pact with Hitler

After a failed attempt to sign an anti-German military alliance withFrance and Britain[138][139][140] and talks with Germany regarding apotential political deal,[141][142][143][144] on 23 August 1939, the SovietUnion entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany,negotiated by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov andGerman foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.[145] Officially anon-aggression treaty only, an appended secret protocol, also reachedon 23 August 1939, divided the whole of eastern Europe into Germanand Soviet spheres of influence.[146][147]

The eastern part of Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and part ofRomania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere ofinfluence,[147] with Lithuania added in a second secret protocol inSeptember 1939.[148] Stalin and Ribbentrop traded toasts on the nightof the signing discussing past hostilities between the countries.[149]

Implementing the division of Eastern Europe and otherinvasions

On 1 September 1939, the German invasion of its agreed upon portion of Poland started World War II.[145] On 17September the Red Army invaded eastern Poland and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it by theMolotov-Ribbentrop Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland.[150][] Eleven days later, thesecret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was modified, allotting Germany a larger part of Poland, whileceding most of Lithuania to the Soviet Union.[151]

Planned and actual territorial changes in Easternand Central Europe 1939–1940 (click to enlarge)

After Stalin declared that he was going to "solve the Baltic problem",by June 1940, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were merged into theSoviet Union, after repressions and actions therein brought about thedeaths of over 160,000 citizens of these states.[152][153][154] Afterfacing stiff resistance in an invasion of Finland,[155] an interim peacewas entered, granting the Soviet Union the eastern region of Karelia(10% of Finnish territory).[155]

After this campaign, Stalin took actions to bolster the Soviet military,modify training and improve propaganda efforts in the Sovietmilitary.[156] In June 1940, Stalin directed the Soviet annexation ofBessarabia and northern Bukovina, proclaiming this formerly

Romanian territory part of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. But in annexing northern Bukovina, Stalin hadgone beyond the agreed limits of the secret protocol.[157]

Joseph Stalin 18

Stalin and Molotov on the signing of theSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with the Empire

of Japan, 1941

After the Tripartite Pact was signed by Axis Powers Germany, Japanand Italy, in October 1940, Stalin traded letters with Ribbentrop, withStalin writing about entering an agreement regarding a "permanentbasis" for their "mutual interests."[158] After a conference in Berlinbetween Hitler, Molotov and Ribbentrop, Germany presented Molotovwith a proposed written agreement for Axis entry.[159] On 25November, Stalin responded with a proposed written agreement forAxis entry which was never answered by Germany. Shortly thereafter,Hitler issued a secret directive on the eventual attempts to invade theSoviet Union.[160] In an effort to demonstrate peaceful intentionstoward Germany, on 13 April 1941, Stalin oversaw the signing of aneutrality pact with Axis power Japan.[161]

Hitler breaks the pact

During the early morning of 22 June 1941, Adolf Hitler broke the pact by implementing Operation Barbarossa, theGerman invasion of Soviet held territories and the Soviet Union that began the war on the Eastern Front.[162] Alreadyin autumn 1940 Stalin received a warning of the Dutch communist party, via the network of the Red Orchestra, thatHitler was preparing for a winter war by letting construct thousands of snow landing gears for the Junkers Ju 52transport planes.[163] Although Stalin had received warnings from spies and his generals,[164][165][166][167][] he feltthat Germany would not attack the Soviet Union until Germany had defeated Britain.[164] In the initial hours after theGerman attack commenced, Stalin hesitated, wanting to ensure that the German attack was sanctioned by Hitler,rather than the unauthorized action of a rogue general.[]

Accounts by Nikita Khrushchev and Anastas Mikoyan claim that, after the invasion, Stalin retreated to his dacha indespair for several days and did not participate in leadership decisions.[168] However, some documentary evidence oforders given by Stalin contradicts these accounts, leading some historians to speculate that Khrushchev's account isinaccurate.[169] By the end of 1941, the Soviet military had suffered 4.3 million casualties[170] and German forceshad advanced 1,050 miles (1,690 kilometers).[171]

Soviets stop the Germans

With all the men at the Front, Moscow womendig anti-tank trenches around Moscow in 1941.

While the Germans pressed forward, Stalin was confident of aneventual Allied victory over Germany. In September 1941, Stalin toldBritish diplomats that he wanted two agreements: (1) a mutualassistance/aid pact and (2) a recognition that, after the war, the SovietUnion would gain the territories in countries that it had taken pursuantto its division of Eastern Europe with Hitler in theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The British agreed to assistance but refusedto agree upon the territorial gains, which Stalin accepted months lateras the military situation deteriorated somewhat in mid-1942.[172] ByDecember 1941, Hitler's troops had advanced to within 20 miles of theKremlin in Moscow. On 5 December, the Soviets launched acounteroffensive, pushing German troops back 40–50 miles from Moscow, the Wehrmacht's first significant defeatof the war.[173]

In 1942, Hitler shifted his primary goal from an immediate victory in the East, to the more long-term goal ofsecuring the southern Soviet Union to conquer oil fields vital to a long-term German war effort.[174] In July 1942,Hitler praised the efficiency of the Soviet military industry and Stalin:

Joseph Stalin 19

Stalin, too, must command our unconditional respect. In his own way he is a hell of a fellow! (German: eingenialer Kerl) He knows his models, Genghiz Khan and the others, very well, and the scope of his industrialplanning is exceeded only by our own Four Year Plan.[175]

While Red Army generals saw evidence that Hitler would shift efforts south, Stalin considered this to be a flankingcampaign in efforts to take Moscow.[176] During the war, Time magazine named Stalin Time Person of the Yeartwice[177] and he was also one of the nominees for Time Person of the Century title.[citation needed]

Soviet push to Germany

The center of Stalingrad after liberation, February2, 1943.

The Soviets repulsed the important German strategic southerncampaign and, although 2.5 million Soviet casualties were suffered inthat effort, it permitted the Soviets to take the offensive for most of therest of the war on the Eastern Front.[178]

The Big Three: Stalin, U.S. President Franklin D.Roosevelt, and British Prime Minister WinstonChurchill at the Tehran Conference, November

1943.

Germany attempted an encirclement attack at Kursk, which wassuccessfully repulsed by the Soviets.[179] Kursk marked the beginningof a period where Stalin became more willing to listen to the advice ofhis generals. By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of theterritory taken by the Germans from 1941–1942.[180] Soviet militaryindustrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 toearly 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the East of thefront, safe from German invasion and air attack.[181]

In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt inTehran.[182] The parties later agreed that Britain and America wouldlaunch a cross-channel invasion of France in May 1944, along with aseparate invasion of southern France.[183] Stalin insisted that, after thewar, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it

occupied pursuant to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, which Churchill opposed.[184]

In 1944, the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany,[185] includingOperation Bagration, a massive offensive in Belorussia against the German Army Group Centre.[186]

Joseph Stalin 20

Final victory

Victorious Soviet soldiers in Berlin, 1945.

By April 1945, Nazi Germany faced its last days with 1.9 millionGerman soldiers in the East fighting 6.4 million Red Army soldierswhile 1 million German soldiers in the West battled 4 million WesternAllied soldiers.[187] While initial talk existed of a race to Berlin by theAllies, after Stalin successfully lobbied for Eastern Germany to fallwithin the Soviet "sphere of influence" at Yalta, no plans were madeby the Western Allies to seize the city by a ground operation.[188][189]

On 30 April, Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide, after whichSoviet forces found their remains, which had been burned at Hitler'sdirective.[190] German forces surrendered a few days later. Despite the Soviets' possession of Hitler's remains, Stalindid not believe that his old nemesis was actually dead, a belief that remained for years after the war.[191][192]

Fending off the German invasion and pressing to victory in the East required a tremendous sacrifice by the SovietUnion.[193] Soviet military casualties totaled approximately 35 million (official figures 28.2 million) withapproximately 14.7 million killed, missing or captured (official figures 11.285 million).[194] Although figures vary,the Soviet civilian death toll probably reached 20 million.[194] One in four Soviets was killed or wounded.[195] Some1,710 towns and 70,000 villages were destroyed.[196][197] Thereafter, Stalin was at times referred to as one of themost influential men in human history.[198][199]

Nobel Peace Prize nominationsIn 1945, he was mentioned by Halvdan Koht among seven candidates that were qualified for the Nobel Peace Prize.However, he did not explicitly nominate any of them. The person actually nominated was Cordell Hull.[200]

In 1948, he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize by Wladislav Rieger.[201]

Human rights abuses

Part of 5 March 1940 memo from Lavrentiy Beriato Stalin proposing execution of Polish officers

After taking around 300,000 Polish prisoners in 1939 and early1940,[202][203][203][204][205] 25,700 Polish POWs were executed on 5March 1940, pursuant to a note to Stalin from Lavrenty Beria,[206][207]

in what became known as the Katyn massacre.[208][206][209] WhileStalin personally told a Polish general they'd "lost track" of the officersin Manchuria,[210][211][212] Polish railroad workers found the massgrave after the 1941 Nazi invasion.[213] The massacre became a sourceof political controversy,[214][215] with the Soviets eventually claimingthat Germany committed the executions when the Soviet Union retookPoland in 1944.[206][216] The Soviets did not admit responsibility until1990.[217]

Stalin introduced controversial military orders, such as Order No. 270,requiring superiors to shoot deserters on the spot[218] while their familymembers were subject to arrest. Thereafter, Stalin also conducted apurge of several military commanders that were shot for "cowardice"without a trial.[112] Stalin issued Order No. 227, directing thatcommanders permitting retreat without permission to be subject to amilitary tribunal, and soldiers guilty of disciplinary procedures to be

Joseph Stalin 21

forced into "penal battalions", which were sent to the most dangerous sections of the front lines.[219] From 1942 to1945, 427,910 soldiers were assigned to penal battalions.[220] The order also directed "blocking detachments" toshoot fleeing panicked troops at the rear.[219]

In June 1941, weeks after the German invasion began, Stalin also directed employing a scorched earth policy ofdestroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them, and that partisans wereto be set up in evacuated areas.[169] He also ordered the NKVD to murder around one hundred thousand politicalprisoners in areas where the Wermacht approached,[221] while others were deported east.[114][222][223]

After the capture of Berlin, Soviet troops reportedly raped from tens of thousands to two million women,[224] and50,000 during and after the occupation of Budapest.[225][226] Many of these women died or committed suicide as aresult of rape. In former Axis countries, such as Germany, Romania and Hungary, Red Army officers generallyviewed cities, villages and farms as being open to pillaging and looting.[227]

In the Soviet Occupation Zone of post-war Germany, the Soviets set up ten NKVD-run "special camps" subordinateto the gulag.[228] These "special camps" were former Stalags, prisons, or Nazi concentration camps such asSachsenhausen (special camp number 7) and Buchenwald (special camp number 2).[229] According to Germangovernment estimates, "65,000 people died in those Soviet-run camps or in transportation to them."[230]

According to recent figures, of an estimated four million POWs taken by the Soviets, including Germans, Japanese,Hungarians, Romanians and others, some 580,000 never returned, presumably victims of privation or theGulags.[231] German estimates put the actual death toll of German POW in the USSR at about 1.0 million, theymaintain that among those reported as missing were men who actually died as POW.[232] Soviet POWs and forcedlaborers who survived German captivity were sent to special "transit" or "filtration" camps to determine which werepotential traitors.[233]

Of the approximately 4 million to be repatriated 2,660,013 were civilians and 1,539,475 were former POWs. Of thetotal, 2,427,906 were sent home and 801,152 were reconscripted into the armed forces. 608,095 were enrolled in thework battalions of the defense ministry. 272,867 were transferred to the authority of the NKVD for punishment,which meant a transfer to the Gulag system.[233][234][235] 89,468 remained in the transit camps as reception personneluntil the repatriation process was finally wound up in the early 1950s.[233]

Allied conferences on post-war Europe

The Big Three: British Prime Minister WinstonChurchill, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt

and Stalin at the Yalta Conference, February1945.

Stalin met in several conferences with British Prime Minister WinstonChurchill (and later Clement Attlee) and/or U.S. President Franklin D.Roosevelt (and later Harry Truman) to plan military strategy and, later,to discuss Europe's postwar reorganization. Very early conferences,such as that with British diplomats in Moscow in 1941 and withChurchill and American diplomats in Moscow in 1942, focused mostlyupon war planning and supply, though some preliminary postwarreorganization discussion also occurred. In 1943, Stalin met withChurchill and Roosevelt in the Tehran Conference. In 1944, Stalin metwith Churchill in the Moscow Conference. Beginning in late 1944, theRed Army occupied much of Eastern Europe during these conferencesand the discussions shifted to a more intense focus on thereorganization of postwar Europe.

In February 1945, at the conference at Yalta, Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of political influence in EasternEurope. Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany. Stalin also stated

that the Polish government-in-exile demands for self-rule were not negotiable, such that the Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern Poland they had already taken by invasion with German consent in 1939, and wanted the

Joseph Stalin 22

pro-Soviet Polish government installed. After resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin promised are-organization of the current Communist puppet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland.[236] He statedthe new government's primary task would be to prepare elections.[237]

The parties at Yalta further agreed that the countries of liberated Europe and former Axis satellites would be allowedto "create democratic institutions of their own choice", pursuant to "the right of all peoples to choose the form ofgovernment under which they will live."[238] The parties also agreed to help those countries form interimgovernments "pledged to the earliest possible establishment through free elections" and "facilitate where necessarythe holding of such elections."[238] After the re-organization of the Provisional Government of the Republic ofPoland, the parties agreed that the new party shall "be pledged to the holding of free and unfettered elections as soonas possible on the basis of universal suffrage and secret ballot."[238] One month after Yalta, the Soviet NKVDarrested 16 Polish leaders wishing to participate in provisional government negotiations, for alleged "crimes" and"diversions", which drew protest from the West.[237] The fraudulent Polish elections, held in January 1947 resultedin Poland's official transformation to undemocratic communist state by 1949.

British Prime Minister Clement Attlee, U.S.President Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin at

the Potsdam Conference, July 1945.

At the Potsdam Conference from July to August 1945, thoughGermany had surrendered months earlier, instead of withdrawingSoviet forces from Eastern European countries, Stalin had not movedthose forces. At the beginning of the conference, Stalin repeatedprevious promises to Churchill that he would refrain from a"Sovietization" of Eastern Europe.[239] Stalin pushed for reparationsfrom Germany without regard to the base minimum supply for Germancitizens' survival, which worried Truman and Churchill who thoughtthat Germany would become a financial burden for Westernpowers.[240]

In addition to reparations, Stalin pushed for "war booty", which wouldpermit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered

nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, and a clause was added permitting this to occur with somelimitations.[240] By July 1945, Stalin's troops effectively controlled the Baltic States, Poland, Czechoslovakia,Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania, and refugees were fleeing out of these countries fearing a Communist take-over.The western allies, and especially Churchill, were suspicious of the motives of Stalin, who had already installedcommunist governments in the central European countries under his influence.

In these conferences, his first appearances on the world stage, Stalin proved to be a formidable negotiator. AnthonyEden, the British Foreign Secretary noted: "Marshal Stalin as a negotiator was the toughest proposition of all.Indeed, after something like thirty years' experience of international conferences of one kind and another, if I had topick a team for going into a conference room, Stalin would be my first choice. Of course the man was ruthless and ofcourse he knew his purpose. He never wasted a word. He never stormed, he was seldom even irritated."[241]

Joseph Stalin 23

Post-war era, 1945–1953

The Iron Curtain and the Eastern BlocAfter Soviet forces remained in Eastern and Central European countries, with the beginnings of communist puppetregimes in those countries, Churchill referred to the region as being behind an "Iron Curtain" of control fromMoscow.[242][243] The countries under Soviet control in Eastern and Central Europe were sometimes called the"Eastern bloc" or "Soviet Bloc".

The Eastern Bloc until 1989

In Soviet-controlled East Germany, the major task of the rulingcommunist party in Germany was to channel Soviet orders down toboth the administrative apparatus and the other bloc parties pretendingthat these were initiatives of its own, with deviations potentiallyleading to reprimands, imprisonment, torture and even death. Propertyand industry were nationalized.[244]

The German Democratic Republic was declared on 7 October 1949,with a new constitution which enshrined socialism and gave theSoviet-controlled Socialist Unity Party (SED) control. In Berlin, aftercitizens strongly rejected communist candidates in an election, in June1948, the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, the portion of Berlinnot under Soviet control, cutting off all supply of food and other items.The blockade failed due to the unexpected massive aerial resupplycampaign carried out by the Western powers known as the BerlinAirlift. In 1949, Stalin conceded defeat and ended the blockade.

While Stalin had promised at the Yalta Conference that free electionswould be held in Poland,[238] after an election failure in "3 times YES"elections,[245] vote rigging was employed to win a majority in thecarefully controlled poll.[246][247][248] Following the forged referendum, the Polish economy started to becomenationalized.[249]

In Hungary, when the Soviets installed a communist government, Mátyás Rákosi, who described himself as "Stalin'sbest Hungarian disciple"[250] and "Stalin's best pupil",[251] took power. Rákosi employed "salami tactics", slicing upthese enemies like pieces of salami,[252] to battle the initial postwar political majority ready to establish ademocracy.[253] Rákosi, employed Stalinist political and economic programs, and was dubbed the "bald murderer"for establishing one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe.[253][254] Approximately 350,000 Hungarian officials andintellectuals were purged from 1948 to 1956.[253]

During World War II, in Bulgaria, the Red Army crossed the border and created the conditions for a communist coupd'état on the following night. The Soviet military commander in Sofia assumed supreme authority, and thecommunists whom he instructed, including Kimon Georgiev, took full control of domestic politics.[255]

In 1949, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania founded the Comecon inaccordance with Stalin's desire to enforce Soviet domination of the lesser states of Central Europe and to mollifysome states that had expressed interest in the Marshall Plan,[256] and which were now, increasingly, cut off fromtheir traditional markets and suppliers in Western Europe.[257] Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland had remainedinterested in Marshall aid despite the requirements for a convertible currency and market economies. In July 1947,Stalin ordered these communist-dominated governments to pull out of the Paris Conference on the EuropeanRecovery Programme. This has been described as "the moment of truth" in the post–World War II division ofEurope.[257]

Joseph Stalin 24

In Greece, Britain and the United States supported the anti-communists in the Greek Civil War and suspected theSoviets of supporting the Greek communists, although Stalin refrained from getting involved in Greece, dismissingthe movement as premature. Albania remained an ally of the Soviet Union, but Yugoslavia broke with the USSR in1948.In Stalin's last year of life, one of his last major foreign policy initiatives was the 1952 Stalin Note for Germanreunification and Superpower disengagement from Central Europe, but Britain, France, and the United States viewedthis with suspicion and rejected the offer.

Sino-Soviet relations

Stalin and Mao Zedong on Chinese postagestamp

In Asia, the Red Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of thewar and then also occupied Korea above the 38th parallel north. MaoZedong's Communist Party of China, though receptive to minimalSoviet support, defeated the pro-Western and heavilyAmerican-assisted Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, KMT) inthe Chinese Civil War.

There was friction between Stalin and Mao from the beginning. DuringWorld War II Stalin had supported the dictator of China, ChiangKai-Shek, as a bulwark against Japan and had turned a blind eye toChiang's mass killings of communists. He generally put his alliance with Chiang against Japan ahead of helping hisideological allies in China in his priorities. Even after the war Stalin concluded a non-aggression pact between theUSSR and Chiang's KMT regime in China and instructed Mao and the Chinese communists to cooperate withChiang and the KMT after the war. Mao did not follow Stalin's instructions though and started a communistrevolution against Chiang. Stalin did not believe Mao would be successful so he was less than enthusiastic in helpingMao. The USSR continued to maintain diplomatic relations with Chiang's KMT regime until 1949 when it becameclear Mao would win.

Stalin supported the Turkic Muslims known today as Uyghur in seeking their own state, Second East TurkestanRepublic during the Ili Rebellion against the Republic of China. He backed the Uyghur Communist Muslim leaderEhmetjan Qasim against the anti Communist Chinese Kuomintang forces.Stalin did conclude a new friendship and alliance treaty with Mao after he defeated Chiang. But there was still a lotof tension between the two leaders and resentment by Mao for Stalin's less than enthusiastic help during the civil warin China.The Communists controlled mainland China while the Nationalists held a rump state on the island of Taiwan. TheSoviet Union soon after recognized Mao's People's Republic of China, which it regarded as a new ally. The People'sRepublic claimed Taiwan, though it had never held authority there.

Mao at Stalin's 70th birthday celebration inMoscow, December 1949

Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and China reached ahigh point with the signing of the 1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty ofFriendship and Alliance. Both countries provided military support to anew friendly state in North Korea. After various Korean borderconflicts, war broke out with U.S.-allied South Korea in 1950, startingthe Korean War.

However, not surprisingly, the relations with the Kuomintangdeteriorated. In 1951, in Taiwan, the Chinese Muslim KuomintangGeneral Bai Chongxi made a speech broadcast on radio to the entire

Joseph Stalin 25

Muslim world calling for a war against Russia, claiming that the "imperialist ogre" leader Stalin was engineeringWorld War III, and Bai also called upon Muslims to avoid the Indian leader Jawaharlal Nehru, accusing him of beingblind to Soviet imperialism.[258][259]

North KoreaContrary to America's policy which restrained armament (limited equipment was provided for infantry and policeforces) to South Korea, Stalin extensively armed Kim Il Sung's North Korean army and air forces with militaryequipment and "advisors" far in excess of those required for defensive purposes in order to facilitate Kim's (a formerSoviet Officer) aim of conquering the rest of the Korean peninsula.The North Korean Army struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, 25 June 1950, crossing the 38th parallel behind afirestorm of artillery, beginning their invasion of South Korea.[] During the Korean War, Soviet pilots flew Sovietaircraft from Chinese bases against United Nations aircraft defending South Korea. Post–Cold War research inSoviet Archives has revealed that the Korean War was begun by Kim Il-sung with the express permission ofStalin.[260][261][262][263]

IsraelStalin originally supported the creation of Israel in 1948. The USSR was one of the first nations to recognize the newcountry.[264] Golda Meir came to Moscow as the first Israeli Ambassador to the USSR that year. However, afterproviding war materiel for Israel through Czechoslovakia (Arms shipments from Czechoslovakia to Israel1947–1949), Stalin later changed his mind and came out against Israel.

Falsifiers of History

In 1948, Stalin personally edited and rewrote by hand sections of the cold war book Falsifiers of History.[265]

Falsifiers was published in response to the documents made public in Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941: Documentsfrom the Archives of The German Foreign Office,[266][267] which included the secret protocols of theMolotov-Ribbentrop Pact and other secret German-Soviet relations documents.[266][268] Falsifiers originallyappeared as a series of articles in Pravda in February 1948,[267] and was subsequently published in numerouslanguages and distributed worldwide.[269]

The book did not attempt to directly counter or deal with the documents published in Nazi-Soviet Relations[270] andrather, focused upon Western culpability for the outbreak of war in 1939.[269] It argues that "Western powers" aidedNazi rearmament and aggression, including that American bankers and industrialists provided capital for the growthof German war industries, while deliberately encouraging Hitler to expand eastward.[266] It depicted the SovietUnion as striving to negotiate a collective security against Hitler, while being thwarted by double-dealingAnglo-French appeasers who, despite appearances, had no intention of a Soviet alliance and were secretlynegotiating with Berlin.[269] It casts the Munich agreement, not just as Anglo-French short-sightedness or cowardice,but as a "secret" agreement that was a "a highly important phase in their policy aimed at goading the Hitleriteaggressors against the Soviet Union."[271] The book also included the claim that, during the Pact's operation, Stalinrejected Hitler's offer to share in a division of the world, without mentioning the Soviet offers to join the Axis.Historical studies, official accounts, memoirs and textbooks published in the Soviet Union used that depiction ofevents until the Soviet Union's dissolution.[272]

Joseph Stalin 26

Domestic supportDomestically, Stalin was seen as a great wartime leader who had led the Soviets to victory against the Nazis.An increasingly nationalistic emphasis on Russian history and achievements became a salient feature of Sovietculture in the 1940s. At the end of May 1945, Stalin proposed a victory toast to the Soviet people, and to the virtuesof the Russian majority in particular:

I should like to propose a toast to the health of our Soviet people, and in the first place, the Russian people.(Loud and prolonged applause and shouts of 'Hurrah.')I drink in the first place to the health of the Russian people because it is the most outstanding nation of all thenations forming the Soviet Union.I propose a toast to the health of the Russian people because it has won in this war universal recognition as theleading force of the Soviet Union among all the peoples of our country.I propose a toast to the health of the Russian people not only because it is the leading people, but also becauseit possesses a clear mind, a staunch character, and patience.[273]

Stalin’s military-territorial actions during World War II were supported by Russian nationalists inside and outside theSoviet Union (Russian exile Pavel Milyukov during Winter War: “I feel pity for the Finns, but I am for the Vyborgguberniya”) for the recovering of the lands lost during the Russo-Japanese War of 1905 and most of the lands lost bythe former Russian Empire in World War I trough the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed by Trotsky and the CentralPowers in 1918. Also, by 1945–1948 for the first time since the Middle Ages the Eastern Slavic lands and peopleswere reunited in a single country, and all Slavic nations were outside German (with the definitive termination of theDrang nach Osten), Turkish or other Western European influence and under the orbit of Moscow — an old dreamcherished by Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists alike.[citation needed]

Various foreign scientific discoveries and inventions (such as the Wright Brothers' airplane) were attributed toRussians in post-war Soviet propaganda. Examples include the boiler, reclaimed by father and son Cherepanovs; theelectric light, by Yablochkov and Lodygin; the radio, by Popov; and the airplane, by Mozhaysky. Stalin's internalrepressive policies continued (including in newly acquired territories), but never reached the extremes of the1930s.[citation needed]

"Doctors' plot"The "Doctors' plot" was a plot outlined by Stalin and Soviet officials in 1952 and 1953 whereby several doctors(over half of whom were Jewish) allegedly attempted to kill Soviet officials.[274] The prevailing opinion of manyscholars outside the Soviet Union is that Stalin intended to use the resulting doctors' trial to launch a massive partypurge.[275] The plot is also viewed by many historians as an antisemitic provocation.[274] It followed on the heels ofthe 1952 show trials of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee[276] and the secret execution of thirteen members onStalin's orders in the Night of the Murdered Poets.[277]

Thereafter, in a December Politburo session, Stalin announced that "Every Jewish nationalist is the agent of theAmerican intelligence service. Jewish nationalists think that their nation was saved by the United States (there youcan become rich, bourgeois, etc.). They think they're indebted to the Americans. Among doctors, there are manyJewish nationalists."[278] To mobilize the Soviet people for his campaign, Stalin ordered TASS and Pravda to issuestories along with Stalin's alleged uncovering of a "Doctors Plot" to assassinate top Soviet leaders,[279][280] includingStalin, in order to set the stage for show trials.[281]

The next month, Pravda published stories with text regarding the purported "Jewish bourgeois-nationalist" plotters.[]

Nikita Khrushchev wrote that Stalin hinted him to incite anti-Semitism in the Ukraine, telling him that "the good workers at the factory should be given clubs so they can beat the hell out of those Jews."[282][283] Stalin also ordered falsely accused physicians to be tortured "to death".[284] Regarding the origins of the plot, people who knew Stalin, such as Khrushchev, suggest that Stalin had long harbored negative sentiments toward Jews,[274][285][286] and

Joseph Stalin 27

anti-Semitic trends in the Kremlin's policies were further fueled by the exile of Leon Trotsky.[274][287] In 1946,Stalin allegedly said privately that "every Jew is a potential spy."[274][288] At the end of January 1953, Stalin'spersonal physician Miron Vovsi (cousin of Solomon Mikhoels, who was assassinated in 1948 at the orders ofStalin)[277] was arrested within the frame of the plot. Vovsi was released by Beria after Stalin's death in 1953, as washis son-in-law, the composer Mieczyslaw Weinberg.Some historians have argued that Stalin was also planning to send millions of Jews to four large newly built laborcamps in Western Russia[281][289] using a "Deportation Commission"[290][291][292] that would purportedly act to saveSoviet Jews from an enraged Soviet population after the Doctors Plot trials.[290][293][294] Others argue that anycharge of an alleged mass deportation lacks specific documentary evidence.[280] Regardless of whether a plot todeport Jews was planned, in his "Secret Speech" in 1956, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev stated that the DoctorsPlot was "fabricated ... set up by Stalin", that Stalin told the judge to beat confessions from the defendants[295] andhad told Politburo members "You are blind like young kittens. What will happen without me? The country willperish because you do not know how to recognize enemies."[295]

Death and aftermathStalin's health deteriorated towards the end of World War II. He suffered from atherosclerosis from his heavysmoking. He suffered a mild stroke around the time of the Victory Parade, and a severe heart attack in October1945.[296]

On the early morning hours of 1 March 1953, after an all-night dinner and a movie[297] Stalin arrived at his Kuntsevoresidence some 15 km west of Moscow centre with interior minister Lavrentiy Beria and future premiers GeorgyMalenkov, Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev where he retired to his bedroom to sleep. At dawn, Stalin didnot emerge from his room.

Stalin's Grave in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis

Although his guards thought that it was odd for him not to rise at hisusual time, they were under strict orders not to disturb him and left himalone the entire day. At around 10 p.m. he was discovered by PeterLozgachev, the Deputy Commandant of Kuntsevo, who entered hisbedroom to check up on him and recalled the scene of Stalin lying onhis back on the floor of his room beside his bed wearing pyjamabottoms and an undershirt with his clothes soaked in stale urine. Afrightened Lozgachev asked Stalin what happened to him, but all hecould get out of the Generalissimo was unintelligible responses thatsounded like "Dzhhhhh." Lozgachev used the bedroom telephonewhere he frantically called a few party officials telling them that Stalin

may have had a stroke and asked them to send good doctors to the Kuntsevo residence immediately.[298][299]

Lavrentiy Beria was informed and arrived a few hours afterwards, and the doctors only arrived in the early morningof 2 March in which they changed Stalin's bedclothes and tended to him. The bedridden Stalin died four days later,on 5 March 1953,[1] at the age of 74, and was embalmed on 9 March.

Joseph Stalin 28

AnnouncementYuri Levitan, the announcer who during the war brought the Soviet the news of victories - but never of defeatsannounced Stalin's death. Slowly, solemnly, with a voice brimming over with emotion, he read:[300]

"The Central Committee of the Communist party, the Council of Ministers and the Presidium of the SupremeSoviet of the USSR. announce with deep grief to the party and all workers that on March 5 at 9.50 p.m., JosefVisserionovich Stalin, Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist party and Chairman of theCouncil of Ministers, died after a serious illness. The heart of the collaborator and follower of the genius ofLenin's work, the wise leader and teacher of the Communist party and of the Soviet people, stopped beating."

His body was preserved in Lenin's Mausoleum until 31 October 1961, when his body was removed from themausoleum and buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis next to the Kremlin walls as part of the process ofde-Stalinization.Officially, Stalin died naturally due to a cerebral hemorrhage (massive stroke). However, in 2003, a joint group ofRussian and American historians announced their view that Stalin had ingested flavorless warfarin, a powerful ratpoison that inhibits coagulation of the blood and which predisposes the victim to hemorrhagic stroke (cerebralhemorrhage).[301]

A more recently released autopsy stated that Stalin died naturally from a stroke induced by hypertensive hemorrhage.However, the report also noted cardiac, gastrointestinal and renal hemorrhaging which is inconsistent with a naturaldeath; this is consistent with poisoning by warfarin. Beria and Khrushchev were in a position to add the tastelesswarfarin to Stalin's wine the evening before.[302]

His demise certainly arrived at a convenient time for Lavrentiy Beria and others, who feared being swept away in yetanother purge. It is believed that Stalin felt Beria's power was too great and threatened his own.[303]

The political memoirs of Vyacheslav Molotov, published in 1993, claimed that Beria had boasted to Molotov that hepoisoned Stalin: "I took him out." Khrushchev wrote in his (unreliable) memoirs that Beria had, immediately afterthe stroke, gone about "spewing hatred against [Stalin] and mocking him", and then, when Stalin showed signs ofconsciousness, dropped to his knees and kissed his hand. When Stalin fell unconscious again, Beria immediatelystood and spat.[304]

It has also been suggested by Jože Pirjevec that Stalin was assassinated by the order of Josip Broz Tito in retaliationfor assassination attempts on Tito. A letter was found in Stalin's office from Tito that read: "Stop sending people tokill me. We've already captured five of them, one of them with a bomb and another with a rifle... If you don't stopsending killers, I'll send one to Moscow, and I won't have to send a second."[305]

After Stalin's death a power struggle for his vacant position took place between the following eight senior membersof the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union listed according to the orderof precedence presented formally on 5 March:[306] Georgy Malenkov, Lavrentiy Beria, Vyacheslav Molotov, KlimVoroshilov, Nikita Khrushchev, Nikolai Bulganin, Lazar Kaganovich, Anastas Mikoyan.This struggle lasted until 1958 and eventually Khrushchev won through, having defeated all his potential rivals in thePresidium.

Joseph Stalin 29

Reaction by successors

Grutas Park is home to a monument of Stalin,originally set up in Vilnius.

Monument to Stalin stood in Gori, Georgia until2010 when it was demolished.[307]

The harshness with which Soviet affairs were conducted during Stalin'srule was subsequently repudiated by his successors in the CommunistParty leadership, most notably by Nikita Khrushchev's repudiation ofStalinism in February 1956. In his "Secret Speech", On the PersonalityCult and its Consequences, delivered to a closed session of the 20thCongress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchevdenounced Stalin for his cult of personality, and his regime for"violation of Leninist norms of legality".

A 1974 Soviet work describes Stalin's leadership in the followingmanner:

J. V. Stalin had held, since 1922, the post of General Secretaryof the Communist Party Central Committee. He had madeimportant contributions to the implementation of the Party’spolicy of socialist construction in the USSR, and he had wongreat popularity by his relentless fight against the anti-Leninistgroups of the Trotskyites and Bukharinites. Since the early1930s, however, all the successes achieved by the Soviet peoplein the building of socialism began to be arbitrarily attributed toStalin. Already in a letter written back in 1922 Lenin warned theParty Central Committee: "Comrade Stalin," he wrote, "havingbecome General Secretary, has concentrated boundless authorityin his hands, and I am not sure whether he will always be able toexercise that authority with sufficient discretion." During thefirst few years after Lenin’s death Stalin reckoned with his critical remarks. As time passed, however, heabused his position of General Secretary of the Party Central Committee more and more frequently, violatingthe principle of collective leadership and making independent decisions on important Party and state issues.Those personal shortcomings of which Lenin had warned manifested themselves with greater and greaterinsistence: his rudeness, capriciousness, intolerance of criticism, arbitrariness, excessive suspiciousness, etc.This led to unjustified restrictions of democracy, gross violations of socialist legality and repressions againstprominent Party, government and military leaders and other people.

—A Short History of the World In Two Volumes Vol. II.[308]

Views on Stalin in the Russian FederationResults of a controversial poll taken in 2006 stated that over 35% of Russians would vote for Stalin if he were stillalive.[309][310] Fewer than a third of all Russians regarded Stalin as a "murderous tyrant";[7] however, a Russian courtin 2009, ruling on a suit by Stalin's grandson, Yevgeny Dzhugashvili, against the newspaper, Novaya Gazeta, ruledthat referring to Stalin as a "bloodthirsty cannibal" was not libel.[311] In a July 2007 poll 54% of the Russian youthagreed that Stalin did more good than bad while 46% (of them) disagreed that Stalin was a "cruel tyrant". Half of therespondents, aged from 16 to 19, agreed Stalin was a wise leader.[8]

In December 2008 Stalin was voted third in the nationwide television project Name of Russia (narrowly behind 13thcentury prince Alexander Nevsky and Pyotr Stolypin, one of Nicholas II's prime ministers). The Communist Partyaccused the Kremlin in rigging the poll in order to prevent him or Lenin being given first place.[312]

On 3 July 2009, Russia's delegates walked out of an Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe session to demonstrate their objections to a resolution for a remembrance day for the "victims of both Nazism and Stalinism".[]

Joseph Stalin 30

Only eight out of 385 assembly members voted against the resolution.[]

In a Kremlin video blog posted on 29 October 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev denounced the efforts ofpeople seeking to rehabilitate Stalin's image. He said the mass extermination during the Stalin era cannot bejustified.[313]

Views on Stalin in other former Soviet statesUkraineIn a poll taken by Kyiv International Institute of Sociology in February 2013 37% of all Ukrainians had "a negativeattitude to the figure of Stalin" and 22% "a positive".[314] Positive attitudes prevailed in East Ukraine (36%) andSouth Ukraine (27%), and negative attitudes in West Ukraine (64%) and Central Ukraine (39%).[314] In the agegroup 18–29 years 16% had positive feelings towards Stalin.[314]

Early 2010 a Ukrainian court convicted Stalin of genocide against the Ukrainian nation during the Soviet famine of1932–1933.[315][316]

In the spring of 2010 a new monument in honor of Stalin was erected in Zaporizhia.[316] In late December 2010 thestatue had his head cut off by unidentified vandals and the following New Year's Eve it was completely destroyed inan explosion.[317] On 25 February 2011 Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych stated "Ukraine will definitely notrevise its negative view" on Stalin.[317] Ukraine and Poland unveiled a memorial (outside Kiev) to the thousands ofUkrainians, Poles and others killed by Stalin's secret police ahead of World War II in September 2012.[318]

ArmeniaAccording to a 2012 study, 72% of Armenians do not want to live in a country led by someone like Stalin.[319]

Personal life

Origin of name, nicknames and pseudonymsStalin's original Georgian name is transliterated as "Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili" (Georgian: იოსებ ბესარიონისძე ჯუღაშვილი). The Russian transliteration of his name Ио́сиф Виссарио́нович Джугашви́ли is in turntransliterated to English as "Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili". Like other Bolsheviks, he became commonlyknown by one of his revolutionary noms de guerre, of which "Stalin" was only the last. Prior nicknames included"Koba", "Soselo", "Ivanov" and many others.[320]

Stalin is believed to have started using the name "K. Stalin" sometime in 1912 as a pen name.During Stalin's reign his nicknames included:• "Uncle Joe", by western media, during and after World War II.[321][]

• "Kremlin Highlander" (Russian: кремлевский горец), in reference his Caucasus Mountains origin, notably byOsip Mandelstam in his Stalin Epigram.

• "Vozhd"' (Russian: Вождь, "the Chieftain"), a term equivalent to the English word "Leader", or German "Fuhrer".

AppearanceWhile photographs and portraits portray Stalin as physically massive and majestic (he had several painters shot whodid not depict him "right"),[] he was only five feet four inches tall (160 cm).[] (President Harry S. Truman, who stoodonly five feet nine inches himself, described Stalin as "a little squirt".[322]) His mustached face was pock-markedfrom small-pox during childhood. After a carriage accident in his youth, his left arm was shortened and stiffened atthe elbow, while his right hand was thinner than his left and frequently hidden.[] Bronze casts made in 1990 fromplaster death mask and plaster cards of his hands clearly show a normal right hand and a withered left hand.[323] Hecould be charming and polite, mainly towards visiting statesmen.[] In movies, Stalin was often played by MikheilGelovani and, less frequently, by Aleksei Dikiy.

Joseph Stalin 31

Marriages and family

Ekaterina "Kato" Svanidze, Stalin'sfirst wife

Stalin and Nadezhda Alliluyeva,Stalin's second wife

Stalin with Beria, Lakoba (obscured) and Stalin'sdaughter Svetlana

Stalin's son Yakov, whom he had with his first wife EkaterinaSvanidze, shot himself because of Stalin's harshness toward him, butsurvived. After this, Stalin said "He can't even shoot straight."[324]

Yakov served in the Red Army during World War II and was capturedby the Germans. They offered to exchange him for Field MarshalFriedrich Paulus, who had surrendered after Stalingrad, but Stalinturned the offer down, stating "You have in your hands not only myson Yakov but millions of my sons. Either you free them all or my sonwill share their fate."[325] Afterwards, Yakov is said to have committedsuicide, running into an electric fence in Sachsenhausen concentrationcamp, where he was being held.[326] Yakov had a son Yevgeny, who isrecently noted for defending his grandfather's legacy in Russian courts.Yevgeny is married to a Georgian woman, has two sons, andgrandchildren.[327]

Stalin had a son, Vasiliy, and a daughter, Svetlana, with his secondwife Nadezhda Alliluyeva. She died in 1932, officially of illness. Shemay have committed suicide by shooting herself after a quarrel withStalin, leaving a suicide note which according to their daughter was"partly personal, partly political".[328] According to A&E Biography,there is also a belief among some Russians that Stalin himselfmurdered his wife after the quarrel, which apparently took place at adinner in which Stalin tauntingly flicked cigarettes across the table ather.

Vasiliy rose through the ranks of the Soviet air force, officially dyingof alcoholism in 1962; however, this is still in question. Hedistinguished himself in World War II as a capable airman. Svetlanaemigrated to the United States in 1967. In March 2001 RussianIndependent Television NTV interviewed a previously unknowngrandson living in Novokuznetsk, Yuri Davydov, who stated that hisfather had told him of his lineage, but, was told to keep quiet becauseof the campaign against Stalin's cult of personality.[329]

Beside his suite in the Kremlin, Stalin had numerous domiciles. In1919 he started with a country house near Usovo, he added dachas atZuvalova and Kuntsevo (Blizhny dacha built by Miron Merzhanov).Before World War II he added the Lipki estate and Semyonovskaya,and had at least four dachas in the south by 1937, including one near Sochi. A luxury villa near Gagri was given tohim by Beria. In Abkhazia he maintained a mountain retreat. After the war he added dachas at Novy Afon, nearSukhumi, in the Valdai Hills, and at Lake Mitsa. Another estate was near Zelyony Myss on the Black Sea. All thesedachas, estates, and palaces were staffed, well furnished and equipped, kept safe by security forces, and were mainlyused privately, rarely for diplomatic purposes.[330] Between places Stalin would travel by car or train, never by air;he flew only once when attending the 1943 Tehran conference.

In 1967 Svetlana defected to the USA and later married William Wesley Peters and by him had a daughter Olga(surname now Evans).

Joseph Stalin 32

HabitsStalin enjoyed drinking, but could keep it under control.[] He would also often force those around him to join in.[]

Stalin preferred Georgian wine over Russian vodka, but usually ate traditional Russian food.[]

Khrushchev reports in his memoirs that Stalin was fond of American cowboy movies.[] He would often sleep untilevening in his dacha, and after waking up summon high-ranking Soviet politicians to watch foreign movies with himin the Kremlin movie theater.[] The movies, being in foreign languages, were given a running translation by IvanBolshakov, people's commissar of cinema.[] The translations were hilarious for the audience as Ivan spoke very basicEnglish.[331] His favourite films were westerns and Charlie Chaplin episodes. He banned any hint of nudity. WhenIvan showed a film with a naked woman Stalin shouted: "Are you making a brothel here Bolshakov?" After a moviehad ended, Stalin often invited the audience for dinner, even though the clock was usually past midnight.[] In theaftermath of the war, he took control over all of Joseph Goebbels' films.He could play billiards so well he did not seem to aim at the ball.[332] He could read 500 pages a day and had alibrary of 20,000 volumes.[333] He loved hunting and fishing all his life.

ReligionAlthough raised in the Georgian Orthodox faith, Stalin was an atheist. Stalin had a complex relationship withreligious institutions in the Soviet Union.[334] Historians Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov have suggestedthat "[Stalin's] atheism remained rooted in some vague idea of a God of nature."[335]

During the Second World War, Stalin reopened the churches. One reason could have been to motivate the majorityof the population who had Christian beliefs. The reasoning behind this is that by changing the official policy of theparty and the state towards religion, the Church and its clergymen could be to his disposal in mobilizing the wareffort. On 4 September 1943, Stalin invited Metropolitan Sergius, Metropolitan Alexius and Metropolitan Nicholasto the Kremlin and proposed to reestablish the Moscow Patriarchate, which had been suspended since 1925, andelect the Patriarch. On 8 September 1943, Metropolitan Sergius was elected patriarch.The CPSU Central Committee continued to promote atheism and the elimination of religion during the remainder ofStalin's lifetime after the 1943 concordat.[336] Stalin's greater tolerance for religion after 1943 was limited by partymachinations. Whether persecutions after World War II were more aimed at certain sections of society over andabove detractors is a disputed point.

Communist Party of Great Britain(Marxist–Leninist) contingent at London May

Day march in 2008, carrying a banner of Stalin.

Hypotheses, rumors and misconceptions aboutStalin

There are conflicting accounts of Stalin's birth, who listed his birthyear in various documents as being in 1878 before coming to power in1922.[1] The phrase "death of one man is a tragedy, death of a millionis a statistic" is sometimes attributed to Stalin,[337] but was actuallymade by the German writer and pacifist Erich Maria Remarque. Inaddition, hypotheses and popular rumors exist about Stalin's realfather.[338] Some Bolsheviks and others have accused Stalin of beingan agent for the Okhrana.[339]

Works

•• "Anarchism or Socialism?," 1907•• "Marxism and the National Question," 1913•• "The Principles of Leninism," 1924

Joseph Stalin 33

•• "Trotskyism or Leninism?," 1924• "Dialectical and Historical Materialism," 1938• "The History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)," 1938•• "The Questions of Leninism," 1946•• "Marxism and Problems of Linguistics," 1950•• "Economic Problems of Socialism in the U.S.S.R.," 1952• Works. Volume 1–13: Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow, 1950s/"Volume 14": Red Star Press,

London 1978Stalin was also a well-regarded poet in his youth. Some of his poems were published in Ilia Chavchavadze's journalIveria and later anthologized.[340][341]

Decorations and awardsThis article incorporates information from the equivalent article on the Russian Wikipedia.

•• Hero of the Soviet Union•• Hero of Socialist Labour• Order of Victory, twice• Order of the Red Banner, three times•• Jubilee Medal "XX Years of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army"• Order of Lenin, three times (1939, 1945 and 1949)• Order of Suvorov, 1st class•• Medal "For the Defence of Moscow"• Medal "For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945"•• Medal "For the Victory over Japan"•• Medal "In Commemoration of the 800th Anniversary of Moscow"• Order of Sukhbaatar, twice (Mongolia)• Order of the Red Star, three times• Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945, three times• Order of the White Lion, 5th class and 1st class (Czechoslovakia)

References

Notes[1] Although there is an inconsistency among published sources about Stalin's year and date of birth, Iosif Dzhugashvili is found in the records of

the Uspensky Church in Gori, Georgia as born on 18 December (Old Style: 6 December) 1878. This birth date is maintained in his SchoolLeaving Certificate, his extensive tsarist Russia police file, a police arrest record from 18 April 1902 which gave his age as 23 years, and allother surviving pre-Revolution documents. As late as 1921, Stalin himself listed his birthday as 18 December 1878 in a curriculum vitae in hisown handwriting. However, after his coming to power in 1922, Stalin changed the date to 21 December 1879 (Old Style date 9 December1879). That became the day his birthday was celebrated in the Soviet Union.

[3] Gleason, Abbott (2009). A Companion to Russian History (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC& pg=PA373).Wiley-Blackwell. p. 373. ISBN 1-4051-3560-3

[5] Rozhnov, Konstantin (5 May 2005) Who won World War II? (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 4508901. stm). BBC.[7] How Russia faced its dark past (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 2821281. stm), BBC News (5 March 2003)[8] "Russian youth: Stalin good, migrants must go: poll" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ worldNews/

idUSL2559010520070725?feedType=RSS& rpc=22& sp=true), Reuters (25 July 2007)[9] "The Big Question: Why is Stalin still popular in Russia, despite the brutality of his regime? " (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/

world/ europe/ the-big-question-why-is-stalin-still-popular-in-russia-despite-the-brutality-of-his-regime-827654. html), The Independent (14May 2008)

[10] "Josef Stalin: revered and reviled in modern Russia" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ sponsored/ russianow/ features/ 9335008/josef-stalin-revered-reviled. html), The Telegraph (15 June 2012)

[12] Simon Sebag Montefiore, Young Stalin, page 23

Joseph Stalin 34

[13][13] Montefiore 2007, p. 61.[14] Medvedev, Let History Judge, p. 29[15] marx-Engels-Lenin Institute, Josef Stalin: A Political Biography (International Publishers: New York, 1949) p. 14.[16] Marx-Engels-Lenin Institute, Josef Stalin: A Political Biography, p. 14.[17] Josef Stalin, "Briefly about the Disagreements in the Party" contained in J. V. Stalin Works 1901-1907: Volume 1 (Foreign Languages

Publishing House: Moscow, 1953) pp. 90-132[18] Josef Stalin, "Two Clashes: Concerning January 9" contained in J. V. Stalin Works: Volume 1 1901-1907, pp.198-207.[19] Montefiore 2007, pp. 1–16.[20][20] Montefiore 2007, p. 261.[21][21] Montefiore 2007.[22] Marx-Engels-Lenin Institute, Joseph Stalin: A Political Biography (International Publishers: New York, 1949) pp. 30-31.[23] Leonard Shapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Vintage Books: New York, 1971) p. 163.[24] Leonard Shapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, p. 163.[25] Leonard Shapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, pp. 163-164.[26] Josef Stalin, "The War" contained in J.V. Stalin Works Volume 3 (Foreign Languages Publishing House: Moscow, 1953) p. 7.[27] Josef Stalin, "The War" contained in J. V. Stalin Works: Volume 3, p. 8.[28] V. I. Lenin, "The Tasks of the Proletariat in the Present Revolution" contained in Lenin Collected Works: Volume 24 April–June 1917

(Progress Publishers: Moscow, 1974) pp. 19-26.[29] Service, Robert (2005) Stalin: A Biography. p. 172 ISBN 978-0-330-41913-0[32] Service, Robert (2005) Stalin: A Biography, ISBN 978-0-330-41913-0[33] Fainsod & Hough 1979, p.  111 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=38gMzMRXCpQC& pg=PA111).[38] Soviet Readers Finally Told Moscow Had Trotsky Slain (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.

html?res=950DE3DF133EF936A35752C0A96F948260). Published in the New York Times on 5 January 1989. Retrieved 4 October 2007[40] Figes, Orlando The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia, 2007, ISBN 0-8050-7461-9[41][41] Gellately 2007.[42] Kershaw, Ian and Lewin, Moshe (1997) Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison, Cambridge University Press ISBN

0-521-56521-9, p. 300[43] Kuper, Leo (1982) Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-03120-3[44][44] Brackman 2001, p. 204.[45] The exact number of negative votes is unknown. In his memoirs Anastas Mikoian writes that out of 1225 delegates, around 270 voted

against Stalin and that the official number of negative votes was given as three, with the rest of ballots destroyed. Following Khrushchev'ssecret speech in 1956, a commission of the central comitee investigated the votes and found that 267 ballots were missing.

[46] Brackman 2001, pp. 205–6.[47][47] Brackman 2001, p. 207.[48][48] Overy 2004, p. 182.[49][49] Tucker 1992, p. 456.[50] Snyder, Timothy. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books, 2010. ISBN 0-465-00239-0 p. 137[52] The scale of Stalin's purge of Red Army officers was exceptional—90% of all generals and 80% of all colonels were killed. This included

three out of five Marshals, 13 out of 15 Army commanders, 57 of 85 Corps commanders, 110 of 195 divisional commanders and 220 of 406brigade commanders as well as all commanders of military districts: p. 195, Carell, P. (1964) Hitler's War on Russia: The Story of the GermanDefeat in the East. translated from German by Ewald Osers, B.I. Publications New Delhi, 1974 (first Indian edition)

[53] Tucker, Robert C. (1999) Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation, , American Council of Learned Societies Planning Group onComparative Communist Studies, Transaction Publishers, ISBN 0-7658-0483-2, p. 5

[54][54] Overy 2004, p. 338.[55] Tzouliadis, Tim (2 August 2008) Nightmare in the workers paradise (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ today/ hi/ today/ newsid_7537000/ 7537585.

stm), BBC[56] Tzouliadis, Tim (2008) The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia. The Penguin Press, ISBN 1594201684[58] Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2007) The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-12389-2 p. 4[60] Snyder, Timothy (2010) Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-00239-0 p. 101[62] Comment on Wheatcroft (http:/ / sovietinfo. tripod. com/ CNQ-Comments_WCR. pdf) by Robert Conquest, 1999[63] Pipes, Richard (2003) Communism: A History (Modern Library Chronicles), p. 67 ISBN 0812968646[64][64] Applebaum 2003, p. 584.[66] Quoted in Volkogonov, Dmitri (1991) Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, New York, p. 210 ISBN 0761507183[67] Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2007) The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-12389-2 p. 2[69][69] Boobbyer 2000, p. 130.[70] Pohl, Otto, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949, ISBN 0-313-30921-3[72] Bullock 1962, pp. 904–906.[75] Stalin, Joseph, Dizzy with success (http:/ / www. marx2mao. com/ Stalin/ DS30. html), Pravda, 2 March 1930[76] Stalin, Joseph, Reply to Collective Farm Comrades (http:/ / www. marx2mao. com/ Stalin/ RCFC30. html), Pravda, 3 April 1930

Joseph Stalin 35

[77] " Ukraine Irks Russia With Push to Mark Stalin Famine as Genocide (http:/ / www. bloomberg. com/ apps/ news?pid=20601085&sid=akRdu1cuBPKg& refer=europe)". Bloomberg.com. 3 January 2008

[80][80] Bullock 1962, p. 269.[82][82] According to Ellman, although the 1946 drought was severe, government mismanagement of its grain reserves largely accounted for the

population losses.[88] France Meslé, Gilles Pison, Jacques Vallin France-Ukraine: Demographic Twins Separated by History (http:/ / www. ined. fr/ en/

resources_documentation/ publications/ pop_soc/ bdd/ publication/ 47/ ), Population and societies, N°413, juin 2005[89] ce Meslé, Jacques Vallin Mortalité et causes de décès en Ukraine au XXè siècle + CDRom ISBN 2-7332-0152-2 CD online data (partially –

Ined.fr (http:/ / www. ined. fr/ fichier/ t_publication/ cdrom_mortukraine/ cdrom. htm)[90] Kulchytsky, Stanislav and Yefimenko, Hennadiy (2003) Демографічні наслідки голодомору 1933 р. в Україні. Всесоюзний перепис 1937

р. в Україні: документи та матеріали (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070708024619/ http:/ / www. history. org. ua/ kul/ contents. htm)(Demographic consequence of Holodomor of 1933 in Ukraine. The all-Union census of 1937 in Ukraine), Kiev, Institute of History

[91] Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (2001) "О демографических свидетельствах трагедии советской деревни в 1931—1933 гг." (http:/ / web.archive. org/ web/ 20080320010655/ http:/ / lj. streamclub. ru/ history/ tragedy. html) (On demographic evidence of the tragedy of the Sovietvillage in 1931–1833), "Трагедия советской деревни: Коллективизация и раскулачивание 1927–1939 гг.: Документы и материалы. Том3. Конец 1930–1933 гг.", Российская политическая энциклопедия, ISBN 5-8243-0225-1, p. 885, apendix 2

[92] Kyiv court accuses Stalin leadership of organizing famine (http:/ / www. kyivpost. com/ news/ city/ detail/ 56954/ ), Kyiv Post (13 January2010)

[93] Ukraine court finds Bolsheviks guilty of Holodomor genocide (http:/ / en. rian. ru/ exsoviet/ 20100113/ 157536602. html), (13 January2010)

[97] Olival Freire, Jr.: Marxism and the Quantum Controversy: Responding to Max Jammer's Question (http:/ / anikov. myweb. uga. edu/ intel/freire. pdf)

[98] Péter Szegedi Cold War and Interpretations in Quantum Mechanics (http:/ / hps. elte. hu/ ~szegedi/ cikkek/ coldw. doc)[99] Acton, Edward (1995) Russia, The Tsarist and Soviet Legacy, Longmann Group Ltd, ISBN 0-582-08922-0[101] Pospielovsky, Dimitry V. (1988) A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory and Practice, and the Believer, vol 2: Soviet Anti-Religious

Campaigns and Persecutions, St Martin's Press, New York p. 89[103][103] <[104] Joseph V.Stalin. "Voprosy leninizma", 2nd ed., Moscow, p. 589; (1951) "Istoricheskij materializm", ed. by F. B. Konstantinov, Moscow, p.

402; P. Calvert (1982). "The Concept of Class", New York, pp. 144–145[105] See also: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: The Gulag Archipelago 1918–1956, 1973–1976 ISBN 0-8133-3289-3[106] http:/ / m. guardian. co. uk/ education/ 2002/ sep/ 12/ highereducation. historyandhistoryofart[108][108] Montefiore 2004, p. 649.[109] A century of genocide: utopias of race and nation (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=W50Gg4o_2q4C& pg=PA82). Eric D. Weitz

(2003). Princeton University Press. p.82. ISBN 0-691-00913-9[110] Nicholas Werth, "A state against its people: violence, repression and terror in the Soviet Union" in Stéphane Courtois, Mark Kramer. The

Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC& pg=PA223). HarvardUniversity Press, 1999. pp. 33–268 (223). ISBN 0-674-07608-7

[111] " Recording a Hidden History (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2006/ 04/ 04/ AR2006040401908. html)". TheWashington Post. 5 April 2006

[112][112] Roberts 2006, p. 98.[114][114] Applebaum 2003.[115] See also: Gellately (2007) p. 584: "Anne Applebaum is right to insist that the statistics 'can never fully describe what happened.' They do

suggest, however, the massive scope of the repression and killing."[116][116] Gellately 2007, p. 256.[121] Naimark, Norman M. Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity). Princeton University Press, 2010. pp. 134–135.

ISBN 0-691-14784-1[122] Rosefielde, Steven. Red Holocaust. Routledge, 2009. ISBN 0-415-77757-7 pg. 259[123] Snyder, Timothy. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books, 2010. ISBN 0-465-00239-0 pp. vii, 413[124] Davies, R. W. and Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (2004) The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931–1933, ISBN 0-333-31107-8[125] Andreev, EM, et al. (1993) Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922–1991. Moscow, Nauka, ISBN 5-02-013479-1[127][127] Montefiore (2004) p. 649: "Perhaps 20 million had been killed; 28 million deported, of whom 18 million had slaved in the Gulags"[130] Gellately (2007) p. 584: "More recent estimations of the Soviet-on-Soviet killing have been more 'modest' and range between ten and

twenty million." and Stéphane Courtois. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror Repression. Harvard University Press, 1999. p. 4:"U.S.S.R.: 20 million deaths."

[131] Brent, Jonathan (2008) Inside the Stalin Archives: Discovering the New Russia. Atlas & Co., 2008, ISBN 0977743330 Introduction online(http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090224230330/ http:/ / atlasandco. com/ images/ uploads/ samples/ pdf/ InsideStalinArchives-web. pdf)(PDF file): Estimations on the number of Stalin's victims over his twenty-five year reign, from 1928 to 1953, vary widely, but 20 million is nowconsidered the minimum.

Joseph Stalin 36

[132] Rosefielde, Steven (2009) Red Holocaust. Routledge, ISBN 0-415-77757-7 p.17: "We now know as well beyond a reasonable doubt thatthere were more than 13 million Red Holocaust victims 1929–53, and this figure could rise above 20 million."

[133] Naimark, Norman (2010) Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity). Princeton University Press, p. 11: "Yet Stalin'sown responsibility for the killing of some fifteen to twenty million people carries its own horrific weight..."

[134] Conquest, Robert (1991) The Great Terror: A Reassessment, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-507132-8[135] Conquest, Robert (2007) The Great Terror: A Reassessment, 40th Anniversary Edition, Oxford University Press, in Preface, p. xvi: "Exact

numbers may never be known with complete certainty, but the total of deaths caused by the whole range of Soviet regime's terrors can hardlybe lower than some fifteen million."

[136] Regimes murdering over 10 million people (http:/ / www. hawaii. edu/ powerkills/ MEGA. HTM). hawaii.edu[137] Rummel, R.J. (1 May 2006) How Many Did Stalin Really Murder? (http:/ / www. distributedrepublic. net/ archives/ 2006/ 05/ 01/

how-many-did-stalin-really-murder/ )[138] Roberts 2006, pp. 30–32.[139] Shirer 1990, pp. 510–535.[140] Murphy 2006, pp. 24–28.[141] Kochan, Lionel (1963) The Struggle For Germany. 1914–1945. New York[142][142] Ericson 1999, p. 57.[143][143] Roberts 1992, p. 64.[144] Vehviläinen, Olli, Finland in the Second World War: Between Germany and Russia, Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0-333-80149-0, p. 30[145] Roberts 1992, pp. 57–78.[146] Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 230972/

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Joseph Stalin 37

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poloniatoday. com/ history13. htm). Polonia Today Online. Retrieved on 28 March 2007[249] Poland – The Historical Setting: Chapter 6: The Polish People's Republic. (http:/ / info-poland. buffalo. edu/ classroom/ longhist6. html)

Polish Academic Information Center, University at Buffalo. Retrieved on 14 March 2007[250] Sugar, Peter F., Peter Hanak and Tibor Frank, A History of Hungary, Indiana University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-253-20867-X, pp. 375–77[251] Matthews, John P. C., Explosion: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956, Hippocrene Books, 2007, ISBN 0-7818-1174-0, pp. 93–4[252] Baer, Helmut David, The Struggle of Hungarian Lutherans Under Communism, Texas A&M University Press, 2006 ISBN 1-58544-480-4,

p. 16[253] Granville, Johanna, The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956, Texas A&M University Press,

2004. ISBN 1-58544-298-4[254] Gati, Charles, Failed Illusions: Moscow, Washington, Budapest, and the 1956 Hungarian Revolt, Stanford University Press, 2006 ISBN

0-8047-5606-6, pp. 9–12[255][255] Wettig 2008, p. 50.[256] Germany (East), Library of Congress Country Study, Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/

frd/ cs/ germany_east/ gx_appnb. html)[257] Bideleux & Jeffries 1998.[260] Douglas J. Macdonald, “Communist Bloc Expansion in the Early Cold War,” International Security, Winter 1995-6, p180.[261] John Lewis Gaddis, We Know Now: Rethinking Cold War History (Oxford University Press, 1997), p71.[262] Sergei N. Goncharov, John W. Lewis and Xue Litai, Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao and the Korean War (Stanford University Press,

1993), p213[263] William Stueck, The Korean War: An International History (Princeton University Press, 1995), p69.[265][265] Roberts 2002, p. 98.[266][266] Henig 2005, p. 67.[267][267] Roberts 2002, p. 96.[268] Department of State 1948, pp. 80–358.[269][269] Roberts 2002, p. 97.[270][270] Roberts 2002, p. 100.[271][271] Taubert 2003, p. 318.

Joseph Stalin 39

[272] Nekrich, Ulam & Freeze 1997, pp. 202–205.[273] Stalin, J. V. (1945). "Toast to the Russian People at a Reception in Honour of Red Army Commanders Given by the Soviet Government in

the Kremlin on Thursday, May 24, 1945". (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ reference/ archive/ stalin/ works/ 1945/ 05/ 24. htm) In War Speeches,Orders of the Day and Answers to Foreign Correspondents During the Great Patriotic War. Hutchinson & Co., Ltd., London, 1946. MarxistsInternet Archive. Retrieved 22 February 2011.

[274] Ro'i, Yaacov, Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union, Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0-7146-4619-9, pp. 103–6[275] Encyclopædia Britannica, The Doctors' Plot (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 167427/ Doctors-Plot), 2008[276] Brackman 2001, pp. 384–5.[277] Stalin's Secret Pogrom: The Postwar Inquisition of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (http:/ / www. joshuarubenstein. com/ stalinsecret/

intro. html) (introduction) by Joshua Rubenstein[278] From the diary of Vice-Chair of the Sovmin V.A. Malyshev. See G. Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyj antisemitizm v SSSR, Moscow, 2005,

pp. 461, 462[279] Brent & Naumov 2004, p. 288.[280] Gorlizki, Yoram and Oleg Khlevniuk, Cold Peace: Stalin and the Soviet Ruling Circle 1945–1953, Sourcebooks, Inc., 2005 ISBN

0-19-530420-9, p. 158[281] Zuehlke, Jeffrey, Joseph Stalin, Twenty-First Century Books, 2005, ISBN 0-8225-3421-5, pp. 99–101[282] Pinkus, Benjamin (1984) The Soviet Government and the Jews 1948–1967: A Documented Study, Cambridge University Press, ISBN

0-521-24713-6, pp. 107–8[283][283] Brackman 2001, p. 390.[284] Пытки от Сталина: «Бить смертным боем» (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20101109142642/ http:/ / novayagazeta. ru/ data/ 2008/

gulag09/ 00. html) (Stalin's torture: 'Beat them to death), Novaya Gazeta, 2008. (Russian)[285][285] Montefiore 2007, p. 165.[286] Kun, Miklós (2003) Stalin: An Unknown Portrait, Central European University Press, ISBN 963-9241-19-9, p. 287[287] Rappaport, Helen, Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion, ABC-CLIO, 1999 ISBN 1-57607-084-0, page297[288] Brent & Naumov 2004, p. 184.[289] Brent & Naumov 2004, p. 295.[290][290] Brackman 2001, p. 388.[291] Brent & Naumov 2004, pp. 47–48, 295.[292] Eisenstadt, Yaakov, Stalin's Planned Genocide, 22 Adar 5762, 6 March 2002[293] Brent & Naumov 2004, pp. 298–300.[294] Solzhenitzin, Alexander (1973) The Gulag Archipelago[295] Khrushchev, Nikita, Special Report to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/

20070204122621/ http:/ / www. uwm. edu/ Course/ 448-343/ index12. html), Closed session, 24–25 February 1956[296] Medvedev, Zhores A. (2006) The unknown Stalin p. 6[299][299] Montefiore 2004, p. 634.[301] Brent & Naumov 2004.[303] Montefiore (2004) p. 548: ”Stalin was ‘afraid of Beria’, thought Khrushchev, ‘and would have been glad to get rid of him but didn’t know

how to do it.’ Stalin himself confirmed this, sensing that Beria was winning support...”. Cf. Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev remembers, 1971,pp. 250, 311

[304][304] Montefiore 2004, p. 571.[305] Did Tito poison Stalin? Historian claims Yugoslav dictator killed rival after being the target of 22 Soviet assassination attempts | Mail

Online (http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ news/ article-2175385/Did-Tito-poison-Stalin-Historian-claims-Yugoslav-dictator-killed-rival-target-22-Soviet-assassination-attempts. html?ito=feeds-newsxml).Dailymail.co.uk (18 July 2012). Retrieved on 2013-01-13.

[306] http:/ / books. google. sk/ books?id=NoIajCLpLigC& hl=sk[307] Stalin Statue Removed from Gori (http:/ / www. civil. ge/ eng/ article. php?id=22453). Civil Georgia. 25 June 2010[308] Manfred, A.Z. (ed.). (1974) A Short History of the World In Two Volumes Vol. II. Moscow: Progress Publishers. pp. 108–109.[309] Mendelson, Sarah E. and Gerber, Theodore P. (January/February 2006) Failing the Stalin Test (http:/ / www. foreignaffairs. org/

20060101facomment85101/ sarah-e-mendelson-theodore-p-gerber/ failing-the-stalin-test. html). Foregin Affairs[311] "Russia: Court Rejects Libel Claim by Stalin's Grandson" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 10/ 14/ world/ europe/ 14briefs-Russiabf.

html) Associated Press article in The New York Times 13 October 2009[314] Ставлення населення України до постаті Йосипа Сталіна Attitude population Ukraine to the figure of Joseph Stalin (http:/ / kiis. com.

ua/ ?lang=eng& cat=reports& id=140& page=1), Kyiv International Institute of Sociology (1 March 2013)[315] Ukraine court finds Bolsheviks guilty of Holodomor genocide (http:/ / en. rian. ru/ exsoviet/ 20100113/ 157536602. html), RIA Novosti (13

January 2010)Yushchenko brings Stalin to court over genocide (http:/ / rt. com/ politics/ holodomor-famine-stalin-ukraine/ ), RT (14 January 2010)Yushchenko Praises Guilty Verdict Against Soviet Leaders For Famine (http:/ / www. rferl. org/ content/Yushchenko_Praises_Guilty_Verdict_Against_Soviet_Leaders_For_Famine/ 1929566. html), Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (14 January2010)

Joseph Stalin 40

[316] Springtime for Stalin (http:/ / www. nybooks. com/ blogs/ nyrblog/ 2010/ may/ 26/ springtime-for-stalin/ ) by Timothy D. Snyder, The NewYork Review of Books (26 May 2010)

[317] Ukraine stands by its view of Stalin as villain - president (Update 1) (http:/ / en. rian. ru/ world/ 20110225/ 162757220. html), RIA Novosti(25 February 2011)

[318] Stalin's victims memorial unveiled outside Kiev (http:/ / bigstory. ap. org/ article/ stalins-victims-memorial-unveiled-outside-kiev),Associated Press (21 September 2012)

[320][320] Montefiore 2007, p. 395.[321] " The Human Monster (http:/ / dir. salon. com/ story/ books/ review/ 2005/ 05/ 05/ stalin/ )," p. 4. O'Hehir, A. Salon.com. 5 May 2005[324][324] Montefiore 2004, p. 11.[328] Koba the Dread, p. 133, ISBN 0-7868-6876-7; Stalin: The Man and His Era, p. 354, ISBN 0-8070-7001-7, in a footnote he quotes the press

announcement as speaking of her "sudden death"; he also cites pp. 103–105 of his daughter's book, Twenty Letters to a Friend, the Russianedition, New York, 1967

[331][331] Montefiore 2004, p. 457.[332][332] Montefiore 2004, p. 507.[333][333] Montefiore 2004, p. 86.[334] Avalos, Hector, Fighting Words: The Origins Of Religious Violence. by, p. 325[336][336] Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History of Marxist-Leninist

Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987) p.71[339] Smith, Edward Ellis (1967) The Young Stalin. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, p. 77

Bibliography• Applebaum, Anne (2003). Gulag: A History. Doubleday. ISBN 0-7679-0056-1.• Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. Routledge.

ISBN 978-0-203-05024-8.• Boobbyer, Phillip (2000). The Stalin Era. Routledge. ISBN 0-7679-0056-1.• Brackman, Roman (2001). The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life. Frank Cass Publishers.

ISBN 0-7146-5050-1.• Brent, Jonathan; Naumov, Vladimir (2004). Stalin's Last Crime: The Plot Against the Jewish Doctors,

1948–1953. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-093310-0.• Bullock, Alan (1962). Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-013564-2.• Fest, Joachim C. (2002). Hitler. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-15-602754-2.• Gellately, Robert (2007). Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4005-1.• Henig, Ruth Beatrice (2005). The Origins of the Second World War, 1933–41. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33262-1.• Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2004). Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. ISBN 0-7538-1766-7.• Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2007). Young Stalin. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-85068-7.• Murphy, David E. (2006). What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa. Yale University Press.

ISBN 0-300-11981-X.• Overy, R. J. (2004). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia. W. W. Norton & Company.

ISBN 0-393-02030-4.• Nekrich, Aleksandr Moiseevich; Ulam, Adam Bruno; Freeze, Gregory L. (1997). Pariahs, Partners, Predators:

German-Soviet Relations, 1922–1941. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10676-9.• Roberts, Geoffrey (1992). "The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Nazi Germany". Soviet Studies (Taylor & Francis,

Ltd.) 55 (2): 57–78. doi: 10.1080/09668139208411994 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 09668139208411994).JSTOR  152247 (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 152247).

• Roberts, Geoffrey (2002). Stalin, the Pact with Nazi Germany, and the Origins of Postwar Soviet DiplomaticHistoriography 4 (4).

• Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. Yale University Press.ISBN 0-300-11204-1.

• Soviet Information Bureau (1948). Falsifiers of History (Historical Survey). Moscow: Foreign LanguagesPublishing House. 272848.

Joseph Stalin 41

• Department of State (1948). Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941: Documents from the Archives of The GermanForeign Office (http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ pha/ nsr/ nsr-preface. html). Department of State.

• Taubert, Fritz (2003). The Myth of Munich. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag. ISBN 3-486-56673-3.• Tucker, Robert C. (1992). Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1928–1941. W. W. Norton & Company.

ISBN 0-393-30869-3.• Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-5542-9.

External links• Stalin Library (with all 13 volumes of Stalin's works and "volume 14") (http:/ / www. marx2mao. com/ Stalin/

Index. html)• Library of Congress: Revelations from the Russian Archives (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ exhibits/ archives/ intro.

html)• Electronic archive of Stalin's letters and presentations (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ reference/ archive/ stalin/ )• Sovetika.ru – A site about the Soviet era (http:/ / www. sovetika. ru/ ) (Russian)

• "The Revolution Betrayed" by Leon Trotsky (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ trotsky/ 1936/ revbet/ index.htm)

• Stalin and the 'Cult of Personality' (http:/ / www. historyguide. org/ europe/ cult. html)• Stalin Biography from Spartacus Educational (http:/ / www. spartacus. schoolnet. co. uk/ RUSstalin. htm)• A List of Key Documentary Material on Stalin (http:/ / www. worldfuturefund. org/ wffmaster/ Reading/ Total

Biblio/ Stalin Bibliography. htm)• " Stalin and the Struggle for Democratic Reform, Part One (http:/ / clogic. eserver. org/ 2005/ furr. html)" and "

Part Two (http:/ / clogic. eserver. org/ 2005/ furr2. html)" by Grover Furr.• Stalinka: The Digital Library of Staliniana (http:/ / images. library. pitt. edu/ cgi-bin/ i/ image/

image-idx?c=stalinka)• Modern History Sourcebook: Stalin's Reply to Churchill, 1946 (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ mod/

1946stalin. html)• Modern History Sourcebook: Nikita S. Khrushchev: The Secret Speech – On the Cult of Personality, 1956 (http:/

/ www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ mod/ 1956khrushchev-secret1. html)• The political economy of Stalinism: evidence from the Soviet secret archives / Paul R. Gregory (http:/ / assets.

cambridge. org/ 052182/ 6284/ sample/ 0521826284WS. pdf)• " Demographic catastrophes of the 20th century (http:/ / www. polit. ru/ research/ 2006/ 01/ 16/ demography.

html)", chapter from Demographic Modernization in Russia 1900–2000, ed. A. G. Vishnevsky, 2006 ISBN5-98379-042-0 – estimates of the human cost of Stalin's rule

• Annotated bibliography for Joseph Stalin from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues (http:/ / alsos. wlu.edu/ qsearch. aspx?browse=people/ Stalin,+ Joseph)

• "Secret documents reveal Stalin was poisoned" (http:/ / english. pravda. ru/ main/ 18/ 90/ 363/ 16693_Stalin.html) study by the Russian paper Pravda of events behind possible death by poisoning

• Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Current Intelligence. Death of Stalin (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/20120308124314/ http:/ / www. foia. cia. gov/ CPE/ CAESAR/ caesar-02. pdf), 16 July 1953.

• How Many Did Stalin Really Murder? (http:/ / www. distributedrepublic. net/ archives/ 2006/ 05/ 01/how-many-did-stalin-really-murder/ ) by Professor R.J. Rummel

• Death of the Butcher (http:/ / www. hoover. org/ publications/ digest/ 3058571. html) by Hoover fellow ArnoldBeichman

• A secret revealed: Stalin's police killed Americans (http:/ / archive. southcoasttoday. com/ daily/ 11-97/ 11-23-97/a02wn012. htm) (1997 Associated Press article)

• Stalin giving a speech (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=IkCXtMHCUTc) in Russian with English subtitles

Joseph Stalin 42

• The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (1986) (http:/ / www. ditext. com/conquest/ harvest. html)

• Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse? (http:/ / www. nybooks. com/ blogs/ nyrblog/ 2011/ jan/ 27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/ ) by Timothy Snyder

• Part One Booknotes interview with Simon Sebag Montefiore on Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, 20 June 2004.(http:/ / www. booknotes. org/ Watch/ 182346-1/ Simon+ Sebag+ Montefiore. aspx)• Part Two of Booknotes interview with Montefiore, 27 June 2004. (http:/ / www. booknotes. org/ Watch/

182346-2/ Simon+ Sebag+ Montefiore. aspx)

Political offices

Preceded byNone

People's Commissar of Nationalities of the RSFSR1917–1923

Succeeded by?

Preceded byVyacheslav Molotov

Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet UnionCouncil of People's Commissars until 1946

1941–1953

Succeeded byGeorgy Malenkov

Preceded bySemyon Timoshenko

Minister of Defence of the Soviet UnionPeople's Commissar until 1946

1941–1947

Succeeded byNikolai Bulganin

Preceded byNone

Chairman of the State Defense Committee1941–1945

Succeeded byNone

Party political offices

Preceded byNone

General Secretary of the Communist Party of the SovietUnion

1922–1953

Succeeded byNikita Khrushchev

Military offices

Preceded byNone

Generalissimo of the Soviet Union1945–1953

Succeeded byNone

Article Sources and Contributors 43

Article Sources and ContributorsJoseph Stalin  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=554762122  Contributors: "Country" Bushrod Washington, (aeropagitica), -Marcus-, 1.21 jigwatts, 12kellda, 130.94.122.xxx, 14Adrian, 1523, 172, 192.146.101.xxx, 1exec1, 200.191.188.xxx, 212.186.255.xxx, 213.67.126.xxx, 578, 63.20.179.xxx, A Sunshade Lust, A Train, A1sdf, A3RO, AAA!, ABCD, AMS351996, ATC, Aaron Lawrence, Aaron Schulz, Abebenjoe, Abovedoubt33, Absecon 59, AbuAmir, Abune, Academic Challenger, Acegikmo1, Actionarms, Adam Bishop, Adam Carr, Adam sk, Adam9389, AdamW, Adamjamesbromley, Adashiel, Adazka, Adhalanay, Adolphus79, AdultSwim, AeneasMacNeill, Afghana, Agaib, Againme, Against the current, Agathoclea, Agiantman, Ahasuerus, Ahoerstemeier, Aivazovsky, Ajaxkroon, Ajdz, Akamad, Akinini2012, Akradecki, Alaexis, Aldis90, AlefZet, Alensha, Alex Bakharev, Alex Blokha, Alex Middleton, Alex2706, Alex:D, AlexLevyOne, AlexSwanson, Alexb102072, Alexcount, Alexhangartner, Alexlange, Alfons2, All Hallow's Wraith, Allysia, Almafeta, Alpha.three, Alphachimp, Alphathon, Alrasheedan, Alt6878ggtg, Altenmann, Am088, Amberrock, American Eagle, Aminullah, Amire80, Anarchangel, Anastrophe, Anders-2000, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andreas Kaganov, Andres, Andres Horcajo, Andres68, AndresTM, Andrevan, Andrew Alexander, Andrew Gray, Andrew18504, Andrewpmk, Andreyx109, Andriabenia, Android79, Andrwsc, Andy Marchbanks, Anetode, Angela, Anger22, Angr, Ani td, Anit.pimple, Anita1988, Ankitsingh83, AnnaFrance, Anodynomine, Anon5791, AnonMoos, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous editor, Anonymous from the 21th century, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Anthony.ferragamo, Anthony190, Antispammer, Antonov86, Anubis-SG, Aquila89, Aravind V R, Arcadie, ArchStanton69, ArglebargleIV, Ariasne, ArkinAardvark, Arno, Arnon Chaffin, Aronlee90, Arrenlex, ArsA-92, Arsene, Art LaPella, Arthur Holland, Asarelah, Ascidian, Ash sul, AshLin, Ashalind, Ashenai, Ashnard, Ashockey77, Asocall, Aspects, Assassin3577, Astronautics, Astudent, Athene cunicularia, Atlant, Atoric, Atrix20, Attafei, Attilios, AuNO3, Aude, Audriusa, Aumnamahashiva, Av0id3r, Avaya1, Average Earthman, Avia, Avicennasis, AzaToth, Azerbek, B3nnic33, BL, BRUTE, Babajobu, Babemonkey, Backdash, Backnumber1662, Badger647, Balph Eubank, Bandurist, Banes, BanyanTree, Barbatus, Barista, Barkeep, Bart133, Barticus88, Baseball Bugs, Basileios II, Bastun, Battoe19, Bay of Bengal, Bcameron54, Bcorr, Bdell555, Bdesham, Beanobeeno, Bear475, Beck, Beenhj, Before My Ken, Behemoth, Belligero, Ben Bulben, Ben76266, Bennyman, Bensin, Bernd.Brincken, Berndd11222, Berumentherapist, Beyond My Ken, Bgwhite, Bhadani, Bhommy, Bilbobee, Bill37212, BillSung, Billare, Billposer, Binabik80, Binarybits, Binksternet, Binkyping, Bishop2, Bjs (usurped), Blacksheetofpaper3, BladesCrusade, Blaireaux, BlakByte, Blankfaze, Bloodbeard, BluePaladin, Blurtex33, Bmasters89, Bnlmarshie, Bob A, Bobak, Bobanni, Bobblewik, Bobbofet, Bobbyb96, Bobdobbs1723, Bobet, Bobisbob, Bobisbob2, Bobo192, Bobtheuglyhobo, Bogdangiusca, Bogey97, Boing! said Zebedee, Bonaparte, BondarenkoMB, Bongo-san, Bookmastaflex, Booksworm, Boothferry, Boothy443, Boraczek, BorgHunter, Bornhj, Bornintheguz, Bowlhover, Brad Rousse, BrainyBabe, Brandmeister, Brandmeister (old), Brandon39, Brandon97, Brian0918, BrianHansen, Bright Darkness, Bronks, Brough87, Brownacs, Bruce1ee, Brufnus, Brutannica, Bryan Derksen, Btharper1221, Bubba hotep, Bublick439, Bull Market, Burnside1980, Burpen, Burschik, Bwaltz, C.J. Griffin, C33, C628, CALR, CIS, CIreland, CJ, CJ1993, CJCurrie, CJK, CLW, CMAH, CNSW, CPMcE, Cacophony, Cactus.man, Cagoul, Calamari, Calgary, Calle Widmann, Caltas, Calton, Calyipso216, Cam, CambridgeBayWeather, Camillus McElhinney, Camptown, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanDo, CanadianCaesar, Canderson7, Canfezplay, Cantus, Captain Proton, CaptainFugu, Caracaskid, Caramesc, Cardsplayer4life, CarlOsborn6927, Carlson288, Carrite, Cassowary, Causa sui, Cautious, Cdc, Ceadeus Slayer, Cedric88, Celestra, Central Data Bank, Centrx, Cereal Killer, Cerealkiller13, Cfr63, Cgingold, Chady Chode, Challisrussia, Chanting Fox, Chaojoker, Chaplain118, Chart123, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Cheddarbek, Cheese be good, Cheetomuncher212, Chelman, Chendy, Cherkash, Cherylyoung, ChevalierJean, Chicheley, ChineseLamps, Chirpingbear, Chocolateboy, Cholmes75, Chomskoid, Chowbok, Chris Howard, Chris Q, Chris Roy, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, ChrisO, Chrisfow, Chrislk02, Christian List, 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い 猫, 忠 国 人, 3115 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:CroppedStalin1943.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CroppedStalin1943.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Signal Corps photo.File:Stalin Signature.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stalin_Signature.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Connormah, Joseph StalinFile:Flag of the Soviet Union.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: A1, Ahmadi, Alex Smotrov,Alvis Jean, Art-top, BagnoHax, Beetsyres34, Brandmeister, Counny, Cycn, Denniss, Dynamicwork, ELeschev, Endless-tripper, Ericmetro, EugeneZelenko, F l a n k e r, Fred J, Fry1989,G.dallorto, Garynysmon, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Jake Wartenberg, MaggotMaster, MrAustin390, Ms2ger, Nightstallion, Palosirkka, Patrickpedia, PeaceKeeper97, Pianist, R-41, Rainforesttropicana, Sebyugez, Skeezix1000, Solbris, Storkk, Str4nd, Tabasco, ThomasPusch, Toben, Twilight Chill, Xgeorg, Zscout370, Серп, Тоны4, 64 anonymous editsFile:Hero of the Soviet Union medal.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hero_of_the_Soviet_Union_medal.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Zscout370File:Hero of Socialist Labor medal.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hero_of_Socialist_Labor_medal.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Zscout370File:Badge Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Badge_Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: User:V. TurchaninovFile:Ordervictory rib.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ordervictory_rib.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dpkg95, EugeneZelenko, Ilich, Mariluna,Sportsfan92, Wiki Romi, Zscout370File:Order of Red Banner ribbon bar.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Order_of_Red_Banner_ribbon_bar.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Drawn byUser:Ygrek

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 45

File:20 years saf rib.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:20_years_saf_rib.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ilich, Wesha, Zscout370, 1 anonymous editsFile:Order of Lenin ribbon bar.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Order_of_Lenin_ribbon_bar.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Zscout370File:Order suvorov1 rib.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Order_suvorov1_rib.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Zscout370 aten.wikipediaFile:Ribbon bar for the medal for the Defense of Moscow.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ribbon_bar_for_the_medal_for_the_Defense_of_Moscow.png  License:Public Domain  Contributors: Ilich, Joolz, Wesha, Zscout370File:Orderglory rib.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orderglory_rib.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Zscout370File:OrdenSuheBator.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OrdenSuheBator.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:KeiFile:Victoryjapan rib.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Victoryjapan_rib.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: EugeneZelenko, Ilich, Wesha, Zscout370File:800thMoscowRibbon.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:800thMoscowRibbon.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Boothferry, Ilich, MassimopFile:Order redstar rib.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Order_redstar_rib.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Zscout370 atru.wikipediaFile:Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945 Bar.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Czechoslovak_War_Cross_1939-1945_Bar.png  License: Public Domain Contributors: Wiki RomiFile:TCH Rad Bileho Lva 5 tridy (1990) BAR.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TCH_Rad_Bileho_Lva_5_tridy_(1990)_BAR.svg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Mboro Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg by OremFile:TCH Rad Bileho Lva 1 tridy (pre1990) BAR.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TCH_Rad_Bileho_Lva_1_tridy_(pre1990)_BAR.svg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Mboro Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg by OremImage:Stalin 1894.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stalin_1894.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Csman, DIREKTOR, DaB., EugeneZelenko, Hazhk,Kl833x9, Man vyiImage:Stalin 1902.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stalin_1902.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ComtesseDeMingrelie, Csman, FSII, Infrogmation,Kl833x9, 2 anonymous editsFile:Stalin's Mug Shot.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stalin's_Mug_Shot.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Secret policeFile:Delegates VIII Congress of the RKP(b).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Delegates_VIII_Congress_of_the_RKP(b).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Не известенFile:Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin, 1919.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vladimir_Lenin_and_Joseph_Stalin,_1919.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Alex Bakharev, Butko, Coyau, Editor at Large, EugeneZelenko, Maksim, Mariluna, Martin H., Mtsmallwood, Shakko, 2 anonymous editsFile:Stalin Image.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stalin_Image.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: A.Savin, Michaelwuzthere, Tamba52File:Hammer and Sickle Red Star with Glow.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hammer_and_Sickle_Red_Star_with_Glow.png  License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Michaelwuztherefile:Execute 346 Berias letter to Politburo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Execute_346_Berias_letter_to_Politburo.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AlexBakharev, AnRo0002, Humus sapiens, Man vyi, Mariluna, Martynas Patasius, Mutter Erde, The Deceiverfile:Execute 346 Stalins resolution.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Execute_346_Stalins_resolution.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex Bakharev,Alonr, AnRo0002, Humus sapiens, Mariluna, Olivier2, The Deceiver, 1 anonymous editsfile:Execute 346 Politburo passes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Execute_346_Politburo_passes.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Politburo of the CentralCommittee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)file:Voroshilov, Molotov, Stalin, with Nikolai Yezhov.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Voroshilov,_Molotov,_Stalin,_with_Nikolai_Yezhov.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Butko, DIREKTOR, Eusebius, Ingolfson, Mtsmallwood, Mutter Erde, Rowanwindwhistler, Starscream, Svajcr, Yann, Zielniok, 2 anonymous editsfile:The Commissar Vanishes 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Commissar_Vanishes_2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Butko, CommonsDelinker,Eusebius, Jaro.p, Kauczuk, Martin H., Mtsmallwood, Mutter Erde, Starscream, Superm401, Svajcr, TCY, Vizu, Yann, Zielniok, 4 anonymous editsFile:Children are digging up frozen potatoes in the field of a collective farm. Udachne village, Donec’k oblast. 1933.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Children_are_digging_up_frozen_potatoes_in_the_field_of_a_collective_farm._Udachne_village,_Donec’k_oblast._1933.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Bulka UAFile:Famine en URSS 1933.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Famine_en_URSS_1933.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: неизв.File:GolodomorKharkiv.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GolodomorKharkiv.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Bogomolov.PL, Bulka UA, Calabash, Fg68at,Herostratus, Infrogmation, Jcb, Jo0doe, JuTa, Kulmalukko, Materialscientist, Photohound, Quibik, Russavia, Slomox, Yulia RomeroFile:Stalin kanal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stalin_kanal.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: SfrandziFile:Marshall Stalin.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marshall_Stalin.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: The National Archives UKImage:Katyn massacre 5.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Katyn_massacre_5.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dodsosk, HBR, Jarekt, TimeshifterFile:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H27337, Moskau, Stalin und Ribbentrop im Kreml.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H27337,_Moskau,_Stalin_und_Ribbentrop_im_Kreml.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0Germany  Contributors: Antonu, Kallerna, KaterBegemot, Mogelzahn, Pibwl, 3 anonymous editsFile:Ribbentrop-Molotov.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ribbentrop-Molotov.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Peter HanulaFile:Matsuoka signs the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Matsuoka_signs_the_Soviet–Japanese_Neutrality_Pact-1.jpg  License:Public Domain  Contributors: Berillium, Jonkerz, Russavia, あ ば さ ー

File:Battle of Moscow.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Moscow.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: United States Information AgencyFile:RIAN archive 602161 Center of Stalingrad after liberation.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RIAN_archive_602161_Center_of_Stalingrad_after_liberation.jpg License: unknown  Contributors: Zelma / Георгий ЗельмаFile:Teheran conference-1943.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Teheran_conference-1943.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Signal Corps photo.File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R77767, Berlin, Rotarmisten Unter den Linden.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R77767,_Berlin,_Rotarmisten_Unter_den_Linden.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: AnRo0002, Beek100, Esc.eliska, HBR, Hohum, Lewenstein, Minderbinder, Mogelzahn, Nemo5576, Petri Krohn, Rudolph Buch, Srittau, WolfmannFile:Katyn - decision of massacre p1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Katyn_-_decision_of_massacre_p1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bkmd, Electron,Homo lupus, Jarekt, LX, Mutter Erde, Petri Krohn, Sandstein, Tlusťa, Zarxos, 3 anonymous editsFile:Yalta summit 1945 with Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yalta_summit_1945_with_Churchill,_Roosevelt,_Stalin.jpg  License:Public Domain  Contributors: Adam Zábranský, Butko, EurekaLott, Favonian, Florival fr, Gaaarg, Geni, George McFinnigan, Greenshed, Herbythyme, Jean-Frédéric, Jkelly, Mariluna,MarkSweep, Morio, Movieevery, Schaengel89, Shizhao, Spider death, Starscream, Surya Prakash.S.A., Thuresson, UKPhoenix79, Yann, 22 anonymous editsFile:Potsdam conference 1945-8.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Potsdam_conference_1945-8.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Army Signal CorpsCollection in the U.S. National Archives.File:EasternBloc BasicMembersOnly.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EasternBloc_BasicMembersOnly.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Mosedschurte at en.wikipediaFile:Chinese stamp in 1950.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_stamp_in_1950.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, Berrucomons, Butko,Javierme, Jiangyu911, Leonid Dzhepko, Man vyi, Mariluna, Mbz1, Michael Romanov, Mywood, Nanae, Origamiemensch, Shizhao, Takabeg, Ww2censor, Нирваньчик, Сдобников А., 庚 寅

五 月, 4 anonymous editsFile:Mao, Bulganin, Stalin, Ulbricht Tsedenbal.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mao,_Bulganin,_Stalin,_Ulbricht_Tsedenbal.jpeg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Groupsixty, Henrig, Infrogmation, Joonundi, Trust Is All You NeedFile:Stalin Grave.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stalin_Grave.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:GrahamColmFile:Grutas Stalin.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grutas_Stalin.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: User:Wojsyl

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 46

File:Goristatue.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Goristatue.JPG  License: Copyrighted free use  Contributors: Original uploader was Smerus at en.wikipediaFile:Ekaterina Svanidze.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ekaterina_Svanidze.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unkFile:Iosif & Nadezhda.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iosif_&_Nadezhda.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mutter Erde, The DeceiverFile:Lavrenti Beria Stalins family.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lavrenti_Beria_Stalins_family.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex Bakharev, Butko,Mariluna, Mikko Paananen, Mutter Erde, Teplice, ÚsteckoFile:May Day in London.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:May_Day_in_London.jpg  License: Public domain  Contributors: Troublemaker1949 (talk)

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