МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

ФГАО ВПО «КАЗАНСКИЙ ФЕДЕРАЛЬНЫЙ (Приволжский) УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»

Кафедра иностранных языков в сфере экономики, бизнеса и финансов ИУЭиФ КФУ

Учебно-практическое изданиеACADEMIC WRITING: A STUDY GUIDE

для подготовки студентов-магистрантов по дисциплине “Академическое письмо” (иностранный язык)

на основе профессионального дискурса

Направления 05.04.02 География, 20.04.02 Природообустройство и водопользование,

38.04.01 Экономика, 38.04.02 Менеджмент,

38.04.03 Управление персоналом, 38.04.04 Государственное и муниципальное управление

Казань 2015

Обсуждено на заседании кафедры иностранных языков в сфере экономики, бизнеса и финансов 4 марта 2015 года протокол № 7.

Составители: доц. кафедры иностранных языков в сфере экономики, бизнеса и финансов, к.пед.н. Валеева Л.А.,

доц. кафедры иностранных языков в сфере экономики, бизнеса и финансов, к.пед.н. Сиразеева А.Ф.

Рецензенты: Зав. кафедрой иностранных языков в профессиональной коммуникации федерального государственного бюджетного образовательного

учреждения высшего профессионального образования «Казанский национальный исследовательский технологический университет», к. пед. н, доцент

Зиятдинова Ю.Н.

Доцент кафедры иностранных языковв сфере экономики, бизнеса и финансов

ИУЭиФ КФУ., к. социол. н.Полякова О.В.

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СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

ВВЕДЕНИЕ………………………………………………………..5 3

MODULE 1 WRITING PROCESS Academic writing. Preview………………………………………..7 Understanding texts……………………………………………….7

Exercise 1 Exercise 2

MODULE 2 TAKING NOTES…………………………………15

Exercise 1 Exercise 2 Exercise 3

MODULE 3 AVOIDING PLAGIARISM: PARAPHRASING/SUMMARY….29 Exercise 1 Exercise 2 Exercise 3 Exercise 4 Exercise 5 Exercise 6

Exercise 7

MODULE 4 ORGANIZATION OF AN ACADEMIC PAPER……………….42 Abstracts………………………………………………………… 42

Exercise 1 Exercise 2

Introductions……………………………………………………………52Exercise 1 Exercise 2

Main Body ………………………………………………………………...57Exercise 1

Conclusions……………………………………………………………….61Exercise 1 References and quotations………………………………………….…..64

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Exercise 1 MODULE 5

REVISIONS: REWRITING, PROOFREADING, AND EDITING……66

Exercise 1 Exercise 2 Exercise 3 Exercise 4 Exercise 5 Exercise 6

Exercise 7 Exercise 8 Exercise 9

MODULE 6 GETTING YOUR RESEARCH PUBLISHED…..75

ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ …………………………………………………76

СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ……………………………………...77

ВВЕДЕНИЕ

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Сегодня перед студентами-магистрантами неязыкового вуза поставлена задача стать активными членами мирового научного сообщества, печататься в международных научных изданиях, что требует наличия определенных компетенций, от уровня развития которых зависит их конкурентоспособность в профессиональной среде и сфере международных научных коммуникаций. Публикации в ведущих научных журналах, входящих в глобальную базу данных цитирования Web of Science и Scopus, позволяют заявить о себе в международном академическом сообществе, повысить показатели цитируемости, установить научные связи с зарубежными коллегами, работающими по сходной тематике. Однако зачастую недостаточное знание формальных требований зарубежных изданий, ошибки в оформлении заявки и т.п. приводят к тому, что даже качественные научные работы отечественных исследователей не проходят даже первичный отбор.

В связи с этим в современных условиях студенты-магистранты сталкиваются с проблемой освоения большого объема информации на английском языке. Наблюдается отсутствие необходимых навыков работы с письменным текстом на английском языке, как таковым (и, прежде всего, с научным). Академическое письмо обладает рядом характеристик, универсальных для любого языка и характеризуется формальным стилем изложения, что подразумевает использование академической лексики. Вопрос стиля особенно труден для изучающих английский, поскольку в ряде случаев грань между регистрами очень тонка. Как правило, письменные умения и навыки значительно отстают от уровня развития других видов речевой деятельности: чтения, говорения и аудирования. В связи с этим студенты испытывают серьезные трудности при написании научных статей в международных сборниках.

Учебно-практическое издание ACADEMIC WRITING: A STUDY GUIDE направлено на развитие как когнитивных (выдвинуть гипотезу, предложить собственную мысль, проанализировать информацию, переработать и сжать композиционно-смысловую структуру текста, организовать и структурировать собственные идеи), так и языковых (реферирование, перефразирование, формулирование мысли и выражение ее с помощью языковых средств на уровне предложения, абзаца, текста) умений. Кроме того, предоставляет базовую информацию о шаблонах, форматах, нормах академического письма, типичных для оформления научного текста той или иной области знаний (общие рекомендации, написание аннотации, проблема плагиата и др.)

Учебно-практическое издание (УПИ) “Academic writing: a study guide” ориентировано на проведение практических занятий по английскому языку со студентами-магистрантами, обучающимися по направлениям 05.04.02 География, 20.04.02 Природообустройство и водопользование, 38.04.01 Экономика, 38.04.02 Менеджмент, 38.04.03 Управление персоналом, 38.04.04 Государственное и муниципальное управление. Данное издание соответствует Федеральным государственным образовательным стандартам ВПО третьего поколения плюс.

УПИ состоит из 6 разделов (modules): writing process, taking notes, avoiding plagiarism: paraphrasing/summary, organization of an academic paper, revisions: rewriting, proofreading, and editing and getting your research published. Раздел 4 в свою очередь

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включает детализацию этапов написания научного текста: аннотации, введения, основной части, заключения, оформления ссылок (introduction, main body, conclusion, references and quotations).

MODULE 1 WRITING PROCESS

Academic writing. Preview

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Writing is necessary for all students in higher education. It is a process. It starts from understanding your task. It then goes on to doing the research and reading. The next stage is planning and writing various drafts. This is followed by proof-reading and editing. All this should lead to the final text. Writing is purposeful. The way you write something always depends on your purpose.

You will be able to increase both your speed of reading and your comprehension if you can recognise some of the rhetorical functions that the writer is using. Writers use language, for example, to analyse, to describe, to report, to define, to instruct, to classify, to compare, to give examples, to explain, to give reasons, to argue and discuss and to draw conclusions. To understand the text it is necessary to understand what the writer's purpose is.

It is important to remember who you are writing for. Being conscious of academic tone suggests that you are aware of your audience and respect the formality normally associated with academic writing.

When writing academically, you must target a more general audience than just your lecturer and/or marker. You should assume that your readers will be intelligent thinking people, but they may not be specifically informed of your topic. Do not presume that your reader knows all the terms and concepts associated with your work.

Understanding texts. Rhetorical functions in academic writing

Academic writing uses different rhetorical functions. Typical rhetorical functions, based on: Werlich (1976) and Lackstrom, Selinker & Trimble (1973), are:

Descriptive

1.Describing objects, location, structure and direction2.Reporting and narrating3.Defining4.Writing instructions5.Describing function6.Describing processes, developments and operations7.Classifying / categorising8.Giving examples9.Including tables and charts

Critical

10. Writing critically11. Arguing and discussing12. Evaluating other points of view13. Comparing and contrasting: similarities and differences14. Generalising

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15. Expressing degrees of certainty16. Expressing reasons and explanations / cause and effect17. Analysing18. Providing support19. Application20. Working with different voices and finding your own21. Taking a stance22. Introducing23. Drawing conclusions24. Recommendations

Reflective

25. Writing reflectively

Study the examples below and differentiate between various purposes the author of the piece of writing has.

Descriptive rhetorical function:

1) Describing

The following paragraph describes a building:The largest building, in the very centre of the town, is boarded up completely and leans

so far to the right that it seems bound to collapse at any minute. The house is very old. There is about it a curious, cracked look that is very puzzling until you suddenly realize that at one time, and long ago, the right side of the front porch had been painted, and part of the wall - but the painting was left unfinished and one portion of the house is darker and dingier than the other. The building looks completely deserted. Nevertheless, on the second floor there is one window which is not boarded; sometimes in the late afternoon when the heat is at its worst a hand will slowly open the shutter and a face will look down on the town.

2) Reporting and narrating

Drama in language teachingPlays have been employed to teach skill in language only since the Middle Ages. In

Greece and Rome performing on stage was beneath the dignity of the class whose children could afford to go to school and a social ban remained on this activity until the tenth century, when a German abbess, Hroswitha, composed Latin plays for her novices. The expressed aim was to replace the plays of Plautus and Terence, then considered too saucy for use in the cloister. Owing to the now usual way of acting out the Bible stories in mystery plays, stage work was not an unusual recreation among clerics. Latin plays, written in the classical manner, were often played in the monasteries by the troupes of monks who staged the mystery plays in the churchyard.

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Taking their cue from these mystery plays, the Jesuits developed another approach. Many of their plays were in a classical style, but the characters were abstractions drawn from grammar and literary criticism. The plays were meant both to drill pupils in speaking Latin and Greek and to teach formal grammar. it is not unlikely that the characters were modelled on the personifications of the De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii of Martianus Capella, which was still known during the Renaissance. This type of allegory had been a favourite device among medieval poets, and Martianus Capelia had had many medieval imitators in vernacular languages.

One of the last sets of this type of play was the dramatized version of the Ianua linguarum, published in 1664. The adaptation was made by D. Sebastianus Macer for the use of the school of Patakina, at which he had taught, and which was regarded, even by the master himself, as a model school. Though the book followed all the allegorical conventions of the Jesuit play, there were several important differences. First, the Cornenius plays were in prose, while the others had been in verse. Second. the exact classical format was not followed, the plays being of varying length and shape. But as the taste for allegory waned, so too did interest in this sort of play.

Classical drama formed an integral part of the Renaissance classics curriculum. In England several who founded grammar schools specified that a classical play should be performed every year; and on the continent, where Catholics were teaching in Protestant schools and vice versa, the religious climate excluded contemporary religious plays, so the classical repertoire was used exclusively. But medieval scruple hung on grimly, even into the eighteenth century.

In England especially, the custom of an annual performance of a classical play was still vigorously flourishing at the end of the nineteenth century, school editions being prepared with staging in mind. Owing to the activities of the great German classicists, the basic texts were now solidly established, but for school use they were carefully expurgated, a difficult task considering the exigencies of meter. Many editors normalized the preclassical spelling and even added stage directions. The place of such presentations was strengthened by the advent of the Direct Method, and they spread to the teaching of modern languages. Though it was considered most desirable to use plays written for native audiences, this means of instilling confidence was made available to younger pupils by providing them with plays in simplified language and style. As far as modern plays were concerned, teachers were inclined to choose those which reflected the culture of the country.

In modern schools and universities the modern-language play came to be a special show put on for the delectation of students’ parents and staff wives, but it also had the serious purpose of having pupils exercise their oral skills under some difficulty. In Russia, some schools encouraged the pupils to run puppet theatres in the foreign language, a natural outcome of the general interest in this art form.

Useful Language

Past tense is common.

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Chronological order is also common, but when we are writing about past events, it is necessary to be explicit about the order in which things happened. To make the order clear, we mention dates and time, and we also use various links and connectives.

TimeIn 1942, ...During the 20th century, ...Yesterday, ...Twenty five years ago, ...

Sequence

Before this, …For the previous X years, …Prior to this, …Previously, …X years previously, …Before…… before which …… prior to which …afterFor the following X years, …X years later, …After …Following this, …When …Subsequently, …Soon/Shortly/Immediately afterwards, …… following which …… after which …whileDuring this period, …Throughout this period, …… during which…… throughout which…

3) Defining

In the following example, the term "lava" is being defined.

Lava is the name applied to the liquid rock material, or magma, when it reaches the surface, as well as to the solid rock formed by consolidation due to cooling. The temperature of lava as it comes to the surface may exceed 2000°F, for copper wire with a melting point of 2200°F was melted in the lava from Vesuvius, and at Kilauea a temperature of 2300°F. has been observed.This earth of ours by Victor T Allen, p. 3

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Useful LanguageX is ...

X is called ...X is known as ...X may be defined as ...X is a type of Y that/which ... A type of Y which ... is X

4) Classifying

The following example classifies, and also describes.

The Classification of Species

The group species is the starting point for classification. Sometimes smaller groups, subspecies, are recognized, but these will not concern us until we discuss evolution. There are many larger groups: genus, family, order, class, phylum, and kingdom. Let us begin with the first seven species. We belong to the genus Homo and to these more inclusive groups: (1) the family Hominidae, which includes, in addition to Homo, extinct men not of the genus Homo, and (2) the order Primates, which includes also the lemurs, monkeys and apes. The three cats - lion, house cat, and tiger - belong to the genus Fells. In general we can think of a genus as a group of closely related species. The three cats also belong to the family Felidae. Generally a family includes related genera. The first seven species, different enough to be put in three orders, are yet alike in many ways. All are covered with hair, they nurse their young with milk, and their red blood cells are without nuclei. Because of these and other resemblances they are combined in a still more inclusive group, Class Mammalia. A class, therefore, is composed of related orders.

Critical rhetorical function:

1) Comparing and contrasting: similarities and differences The following paragraph pattern is one in which several things

are compared or contrasted.A one-million-fold increase in speed characterizes the development of machine

computation over the past thirty years. The increase results from improvements in computer hardware. In the 1940s ENIAC, an early electronic computer, filled a room with its banks of vacuum tubes and miles of wiring. Today one can hold in the hand a computing device costing about $200 that is twenty times faster than ENIAC, has more components and a larger memory, is thousands of times more reliable, costs 1/10,000 the price, and consumes the power of a light bulb rather than that of a locomotive.

2) Expressing reasons and explanations / cause and effect

In this type of pattern, the purpose is to explain cause and effect.

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One of the most important properties of a liquid is that its surface behaves like an elastic covering that is continually trying to decrease its area. A result of this tendency for the surface to contract is the formation of liquids into droplets as spherical as possible considering the constraint of the ever-present gravity force. Surface tension arises because the elastic attractive forces between molecules inside a liquid are symmetrical; molecules situated near the surface are attracted from the inside but not the outside. The surface molecules experience a net inward force; and consequently, moving a surface molecule out of the surface requires energy.

3) Working with different voices and finding your own

The following paragraphs give arguments for and against.One of the first men to make a commercial success of food conservation was Henry

John Heinz. He started by bottling horseradish, and he was so successful that in 1869 he founded a company in Pittsburgh, USA. Like other Americans of his generation, Heinz made his name a household word throughout the western world. At last, man seems to have discovered how to preserve food without considerably altering its taste. The tins of food (Heinz tins!) which Captain Scott abandoned in the Antarctic were opened 47 years after his death, and the contents were not only edible, but pleasant.

The main argument against conserved foods is not that the canning of food makes it taste different; rather, people complain that the recipes which the canning chefs dream up are tedious or tasteless when it is eaten in great quantities. And a company like Heinz can only produce something if it is going to be eaten in great quantities. The tomato is very pleasant to eat when it is freshly picked. A regular diet of tomatoes alone could well prove tedious. The canning companies try to cook the tomato in as many ways as possible. The Heinz factories in Britain use millions and millions of tomatoes every year. They claim that if all the tomatoes were loaded on to 15-ton lorries, the line of lorries would stretch for 60 miles.

But there are many people who do not like to eat food out of season. They like their food to be fresh, and they like to cook it themselves in "the old-fashioned way". But it is very difficult for modern man to realise what it is like to live without the advantages of pre-packageded and canned food. European society in its present form could not cope without modern methods of food processing. Imagine your local supermarket without all the cans of pre-packaged foods. There wouldn't be much variety left, and what was left would have to be increased enormously in order to give the same amount of food. The supermarket would turn into a chaos of rotting vegetables, stale bread and unhealthy meat. The health problems would be insurmountable, unless we all went into the country to support ourselves.

So next time you reject canned food as being tasteless or unimaginative, remember that you can only afford to eat fresh food because canned food exists.

Exercise 1 “Classifying / categorizing”

Read the following texts and complete the tree diagram with the words given below:Anthropology

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We shall outline the four major subfields of anthropology that have emerged in the twentieth century: physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistics and cultural anthropology.

Physical anthropology deals with human biology across space and time. It is divided into two areas: paleontology, the study of the fossil evidence of the primate (including human) evolution, and neontology, the comparative biology of living primates, including population and molecular genetics, body shapes (morphology), and the extent to which behavior is biologically programmed.

Archeology is the systematic retrieval and analysis of the physical remains left behind by human beings, including both their skeletal and cultural remains. Both the classical civilizations and prehistoric groups, including our prehuman ancestors, are investigated.

Linguistics is the study of language across space and time. Historical linguistics attempts to trace the tree of linguistic evolution and to reconstruct ancestral language forms. Comparative (or structural) linguistics attempts to describe formally the basic elements of languages and the rules by which they are ordered into intelligible speech.

Cultural anthropology includes many different perspectives and specialized subdisciplines but is concerned primarily with describing the forms of social organization and the cultural systems of human groups. In technical usage, ethnography is the description of the social and cultural systems of one particular group, whereas ethnology is the comparison of such descriptions for the purpose of generalizing about the nature of all human groups.

(From D.E. Hunt and P. Whitten: The Study of Anthropology (Harper and Row, 1976) ethnology linguistics archeology cultural anthropology structural linguistics linguistics physical anthropology paleontology neontology ethnography anthropology

Exercise 2 “Taking a stance”

Read the following text and identify words that show the author's position:Communication is probably one of the most important of all human behaviours. Our use of language

may be private - we can think to ourselves in words or write diaries that are meant to be seen by no one but

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ourselves - but language certainly evolved through social contacts among our early ancestors. Speaking and writing are clearly social behaviours: we learn these skills from other people and use them to communicate with them. An effective language system also tends to abide by certain rules. Although an exact definition is difficult to pin down, language can be characterised as a system of visual and/or vocal symbols which have meaning to the user and to the recipient. There are thought to be around 6000 distinct languages in the world. The world's largest language is said to be Chinese - it has more native speakers than any other - followed closely by English, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish and Arabic. The most popular foreign language is usually claimed (Smith, 2003) to be English.

MODULE 2 TAKING NOTES

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Taking notes is an important part of the life of every student. There are two main reasons why note-taking is important:

1. When you are reading or listening, taking notes helps you concentrate. In order to take notes - to write something sensible - you must understand the text. As listening and reading are interactive tasks, taking notes help you make sense of the text. Taking notes does not mean writing down every word you hear; you need to actively decide what is important and how is related to what you have already written.

2. Notes help you to maintain a permanent record of what you have read or listened to. Good notes should be accurate, clear and concise. They should show the organisation of the text, and this should show the relationship between the ideas.

How to take notes

When you're reading, first survey the text to find the main points and how they are related. Then read for the subsidiary points; see how they are related to the main points and to each other. Then, reduce the points to notes. Make sure links and relationships between the ideas are shown.

Good notes need to be organised appropriately. There are two main methods for this:

1. List2.The topic is summarised one point after another, using numbers and letters and

indentation to organise information in order of importance. The numbers and letters can be used by themselves or in combination.

I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X,A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9, 10,(i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x),a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i,Or using decimals:1.1, 1.2, 1.2.1, 1.2.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3

Read the following text and study the example below:

OilsThere are three main groups of oils: animal, vegetable and mineral. Great quantities of

animal oil come from whales, those enormous creatures of the sea which are the largest remaining animals in the world. To protect the whale from the cold of the Arctic seas, nature has provided it with a thick covering of fat called blubber. When the whale is killed, the blubber is stripped off and boiled down, either on board ship or on shore. It produces a great quantity of oil which can be made into food for human consumption. A few other creatures yield oil, but none so much as the whale. The livers of the cod and the halibut, two

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kinds of fish, yield nourishing oil. Both cod liver oil and halibut liver oil are given to sick children and other invalids who need certain vitamins. These oils may be bought at any chemist's.

Vegetable oil has been known from antiquity. No household can get on without it, for it is used in cooking. Perfumes may be made from the oils of certain flowers. Soaps are made from vegetable and animal oils.

To the ordinary man, one kind of oil may be as important as another. But when the politician or the engineer refers to oil, he almost always means mineral oil, the oil that drives tanks, aeroplanes and warships, motor-cars and diesel locomotives; the oil that is used to lubricate all kinds of machinery. This is the oil that has changed the life of the common man. When it is refined into petrol it is used to drive the internal combustion engine. To it we owe the existence of the motorcar, which has replaced the private carriage drawn by the horse. To it we owe the possibility of flying. It has changed the methods of warfare on land and sea. This kind of oil comes out of the earth. Because it burns well, it is used as fuel and in some ways it is superior to coal in this respect. Many big ships now burn oil instead of coal. Because it burns brightly, it is used for illumination; countless homes are still illuminated with oil-burning lamps. Because it is very slippery, it is used for lubrication. Two metal surfaces rubbing together cause friction and heat; but if they are separated by a thin film of oil, the friction and heat are reduced. No machine would work for long if it were not properly lubricated. The oil used for this purpose must be of the correct thickness; if it is too thin it will not give sufficient lubrication, and if it is too thick it will not reach all parts that must be lubricated.

(From Power and Progress by G. C. Thornley (Longman))Notes

Oils

I. animal A. from 1. mainly whales - fat called blubber   protect from cold2. also livers of cod and halibut

B. use 1. given to e.g. sick children etc. who need vitamins.2. soap

II. vegetable

A. known from antiquity

B. use 1. in cooking2. oils of certain flowers   perfumes3. for soap

III. mineral

A. most common - mineral oil

B. from earth

C. use 1. for tanks, aeroplanes and warships, motor-cars and diesel locomotives2. to lubricate all kinds of machinery3. owe the existence of the motorcar, possibility of flying

D. 1. burns well   fuel

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properties 2. burns brightly   illumination3. slippery   lubrication

2. Diagram

A diagram of the information shows how the main ideas are related and reflects the organisation of the information. You can use flow charts, tables, tree diagrams, diagrams, mind maps (Buzan, 1974) etc. You can also include circles, arrows, lines, boxes, etc.

1) Read the following text and study the example below:Grammar

The way we are using the word grammar differs in another way from its most common meaning. In our sense, the grammar includes everything speakers know about their language - the sound system, called phonology, the system of meanings, called semantics, the rules of word formation, called morphology, and the rules of sentence formation, called syntax. It also of course includes the vocabulary of words - the dictionary or lexicon. Many people think of the grammar of a language as referring solely to the syntactic rules. This latter sense is what students usually mean when they talk about their class in "English grammar.".

(From An introduction to language by Victoria Fromkin and Robert Rodman (Holt-Saunders))

Notes

2) Read the following text and study the notes below:

High-Speed Language Learning

Accelerated language-teaching involves a considerable concentration of lesson time, with at least four hours of lessons every day. The purpose of this is to prevent students from forgetting - the chief danger when learning a foreign language.

Experiments have been made with teaching during natural sleep, "hypnopaedia", or in conditions of rhythm sleep induced by the use of a special apparatus, "rhythmopaedia", and with the imparting of information to persons in a state of relaxation, "relaxopaedia".

The method used most widely during the last few years has been "suggestopaedia" which exploits the functional reserves of the brain by the use of suggestion, i.e. by the use of composite suggestive action on the student's personality.

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Research on these methods is based on observation of the fact that memorization is quicker and easier when active control is relaxed and when the role of the unconscious processes in higher nervous activity is enhanced.

This research has shown that teaching by hypnopaedic methods is two to two-and-a-half times more effective than ordinary methods. The process of memorization comprises ordinary classroom lessons with a teacher (forty-five minutes); listening to a reading of the study programme and repeating it out loud in bed, before going to sleep (fifteen minutes); hearing the programme, played more and more softly, for fifty-five minutes after falling asleep; hearing it again, starting softly and growing increasingly louder, for twenty to thirty minutes before waking up. The whole hypnopaedic teaching programme was composed of thirty-nine teaching units. As a result of this course, 2,500 words, combinations of words and basic models were assimilated.

A variant of hypnopaedia is rhythmopaedia. A state of sleep is induced in the student with the aid of an electro-hypnosis apparatus which produces a monotonous, rhythmic effect on the nervous system. The student is then fed with information. It is possible, by varying the frequency of the light and sound impulses, to maintain in the student the depth and intensity of hypnotic inhibition most suitable for the imparting of new information.

Teaching during sleep has numerous advocates, but even more numerous opponents. Doubts are expressed about the effects that teaching in these conditions may have. But since hypnopaedia is used in conjunction with other teaching methods, and the students always have a very strong motivation for learning, it is impossible to isolate the effect of the influence on the student while asleep. Application of hypnopaedic methods presupposes special conditions, especially equipped premises, and a special regime for those being taught.

But the most important objections come from doctors, who maintain that tampering with the sleep mechanism may disturb it and provoke nervous disorders. On this account, hypnopaedia has not been widely practised, although research in this field has given results that are certainly interesting from the point of view of the possible intensification of teaching.

Of greater popularity in the USSR is the notion of teaching in a state of relaxation - mental and physical relaxation induced by suggestion. Observations and experiments have established that memorization is easier in this state than in ordinary conditions.

Through muscular relaxation and autogenous training, students attain a state of physical and mental calm in which they are conscious of the weight and warmth of the right arm. In this state, sensory perception of factors extraneous to the information presented is reduced, the brain is freed of external inhibiting processes, attention becomes more selective and concentrates wholly on the information presented.

Relaxopaedia is not regarded as a separate method of teaching but rather as a useful part of the normal teaching process which speeds the assimilation of language material and leaves more time free for creative language-learning activities.

The average number of words students are able to assimilate in the course of one lesson is fifty to sixty. Data available show that the best ratio of relaxopaedic to ordinary teaching sessions is one to five.

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The term "accelerated teaching methods' most frequently refers to the intensification of teaching through the use of different kinds and forms of suggestopaedia. Whatever differences there are in the approaches adopted, they are all based on the idea of influencing students by suggestion, evolved by a Bulgarian scientist, Georgi Lozanov, director of the Scientific Research Institute of Suggestology.

Suggestology is based on the principles of joy and relaxation, and of the unity of the "conscious and the unconscious". A special atmosphere is created in the lessons - a climate of trust and joy which produces a desire to learn and confidence in one's ability. This is achieved by constant praise and encouragement from the teacher, by the choice of psychologically compatible working pairs and by informal classroom arrangement.

The effect of suggestopaedic teaching methods is that the learning situation approximates to a very great extent to a non-academic situation, and psychological barriers hindering natural behaviour are eliminated. The formerly unused memory capacity of a student is brought into play and his mind and feelings are laid wide open to the influence of the teaching with a clarity, trust and interest characteristic of childhood. The adult stops feeling embarrassed and willingly assumes the role proposed, naturally and unselfconsciously performing a large number of linguistic and other exercises, and using new speech units as freely as though he had been familiar with them all his life.

However, the methodological assumptions of suggestopaedia do not by any means all find support. There is also criticism of the results obtained with this form of teaching. It is said that it leads to ungrammatical use of language, that students do not learn how to form new sentences independently, and that they cannot read anything that they have not encountered in oral practice.

To acquire these abilities, the very considerable emphasis on language mastery, i.e. knowing the rules for using various models in the language, is not enough. Soviet educationalists note that language skills are being formed with insufficient linguistic experience and with no out-of-class work at all, which means the pupil does no independent work on the language.

The changes and additions being made by Soviet educationalists to the suggestopaedic teaching system are designed to eliminate these defects. Teachers and theoreticians are trying to find a way of combining, in accelerated courses, the living language, games and music with the rudiments of linguistics, without which mastery of any language is inconceivable.

An accelerated language course may be complete in itself or it may constitute a particular stage in the process of learning a foreign language. As complete cycles there are, for instance, ten-month courses (full-time) and two-year courses (part-time), for qualified specialists.

These courses intensify the learning process by means of improved instruction by using the best modern methods for the teaching of foreign languages. Teaching methods are selected with an eye to the special characteristics of adult students, who want to know the reason for everything and are averse to purely mechanical work.

The part played by accelerated teaching methods should not, however, be thought of as confined only to the contribution they can make to the relatively small number of people

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attending courses. The development of these methods contributes to the improvement of foreign-language teaching as a whole.

Notes

3) Read the following text and study the notes below:

One Child's Meat

When Andrew Tallis was just a toddler sitting in a supermarket trolley, he asked a friend of his mother's who was pushing him round, what all that stuff in the freezer was. Thinking his mother would want him to be given an honest answer, the friend said it was chopped-up dead pigs and dead chicken and that's what people ate. Andrew, who is now eight years old, has been a strict vegetarians ever since.

"I tried to coax him out of it at first" says his mother, Mary Tallis, 28, a student at Manchester Polytechnic. "Then I believed it was something that would pass, but when he was three I bought a packet of fish fingers, because all children liked those, and he point-blank refused to eat any. Then he started to ask me what was in any packet or tinned food I bought. When he learned to read at five he checked himself.

"Now, I'm a vegetarian, too, because it was just too much bother preparing two meals, although my husband James still eats meat that he cooks for himself."

Andrew is not so unusual. Small children often turn a tortured face from plate to parent when they make the connection between meat and animals. Mealtimes are a notorious breeding ground for conflict, for most parents try their best to accommodate children whatever their latest food fad is - and today's parent is concerned with health, not power.

What families are increasingly having to cope with now is pressure from the new generation of highly articulate teenagers who are being made to think about the advantages and disadvantages of meat eating and meat production as butchers and vegetarians lobby for their support.

A Gallup survey conducted at the end of last year on behalf of the Realeat Company which makes vege burgers and vege bangers showed that one-third of this country's 4.3 million non-meat eaters are now children under 16. And a survey to be published next week

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by the Vegetarian Society indicates that because of pressure from students, 95 per cent of British universities, colleges and polytechnics are now providing vegetarian meals. In some student restaurants, more than one in five of the meals served are vegetarian.

The trend towards vegetarianism us being led by women, who are now twice as likely to be non-meat eating as men. But for non-vegetarian parents the arguments impressionable children bring home ignite a little time bomb that is ticking away in the kitchen. Even if parents have sympathy with the arguments, what they worry about is whether giving up protein-rich meat is safe for a body that still has a lot of growing to do.

According to Dr. Tom Sanders, lecturer in nutrition at King's College, London and an authority on the growth and development of vegetarian children, we need not worry if our offspring suddenly take it into their heads to give up meat. "One starts off life as a vegetarian, taking in only milk and cereal; so long as there are dairy products and a variety of other foods in the diet, vegetarian children can grow up just as healthy as omnivores."

Sanders, a meat-eater himself, says: "Problems come about when children go on to veganism and want to cut out milk and cheese altogether - then they have to avoid Vitamin B12 deficiency by taking supplements. Vegan children can still grow ok, although they are small in size and light in weight, but I'm not going to say that is harmful."

A collaborative study of the effects of the fibre contents of diet on bowel function and health in general by Professor John Dickerson, head of the division of nutrition and food science in the Department of Biochemistry at the University of Surrey, and Dr. Jill Davies, a senior lecturer in the Home Economics and Consumer Studies Department at South Bank Polytechnic, showed that lifelong vegetarians are healthier than meat-eaten.

"We discovered that certain diseases, like appendicitis, irritable bowel syndrome, haemorrhoids, varicose veins and constipation occurred more often among omnivores, and that the age at which they occurred was much earlier than in vegetarians," Davies says.

"Compared with omnivores, vegetarians had made only 22 per cent of the visits to hospital out-patients and had spent a similar proportion of the time in hospital. Converted into economic terms, the lifelong vegetarians we studied cost the NHS �12,340 compared with the omnivores" �58,062."

Davies adds: "I am not a vegetarian, but what our study showed us that vegetarianism is very healthy and would be good for children so long as their diet is very carefully planned. People often speak defensively about vegetarianism and a lot of nonsense is talked about vitamin deficiency. Take iron - most of it comes from plant sources, and because vegetarians eat a lot of fruit their intake of vitamin C will increase their ability to absorb iron."

Dr. Michael Turner, the former director general of the British Nutrition Foundation and now a consultant nutritionist, worries that teenagers may not have enough nutritional knowledge to ensure that a new regime has adequate nutrients, "I think parents should insist that their children make the change gradually to give them time to find out what are the right things to eat so that the body can adjust." Janet Lambert, a nutritionist with the Meat and Livestock Commission, claims that "In terms of 100 calories consumed, you get a lot more nutrients from meat than other foods. Evidence of the number of children who are becoming vegetarian is a bit vague. You're not allowed to interview children so the Gallup survey has come from parents."

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The Vegetarian Society is currently running a campaign called SCREAM, School Campaign for Reaction Against Meat, which the campaign co-ordinator, Graham Clarke, claims was launched as an antidote to the meat industry's Adopt a Butcher advertising. Part of the campaign is a powerful half-hour video, which shows the inside of an abattoir and a cow being shot in the head.

It is hardly surprising that after this short, sharp, shock treatment many youngsters announce their conversion. Typical of what tends to happen next is explained by Barbara Humber, headmistress of Glendower Prep School in South Kensington: "My daughter Nicki decided to become a vegetarian when she was 14, but my husband and I remain carnivores. It can be a bit of a bore making two separate meals."

The accusation that the Vegetarian Society is bent on indoctrinating children is dismissed as patronizing by 17-year-old Chris Davies, a pupil at Bromsgrove High School in Worcestershire, and a vegetarian. "I don't think people of my generation can be indoctrinated that easily," he says. "I think it is healthier to be a vegetarian. I used to drink milk and eat cheese and eggs until I read an article recently about the cruelty inherent in milk production. Now I've given all those up, too, but I'm still very healthy."

Healthy, but only because his mother, teacher Margot Davies, has taken a lot of time and trouble to find out about the right alternative foods for him. "We were quite worried at first when he announced it, not because of the inconvenience, but about whether he would be getting the right sort of protein." she says. "You have to be prepared to do quite a bit of forward planning - particularly when you're a full-time working mother.

"Vegetarian cheese is very expensive, and soya milk costs more than ordinary milk and we can't get it delivered. Chris is entitled to his views and I don't want mealtimes turned into a battleground. He hasn't tried to convert us, but when we go out for a meal now we choose a vegetarian restaurant."

The Times, 25th February, 1988.

Notes

The text shows arguments for and against vegetarianism. A table is therefore a useful way to make notes.

Arguments for and against vegetarianism

For Against

Meat eaters eat chopped-up dead pigs and dead chickens

We begin life as vegetarians - eating only milk and cereal

Vegetarians - healthier Vegetarians don't get appendicitis, irritable

bowel syndrome, haemorrhoids, varicose veins and constipation so often

Vegetarians made only 22 per cent of visits to hospital

Iron and vitamin C come from plants

Meat - rich in protein Meat - rich in the essential

VitaminB12 More nutrients come from

meat Vegetarian cheese and soya

milk - expensive

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Milk production - cruel

In both ways, you can use headings, underlining, colours, and white space to make the relationships clear. There is no generally best layout - it depends on what you like and your purpose. Some ways of taking notes are more appropriate for some topics. A description of a process suits a flow chart and a classification is shown clearly using a tree diagram. It is important to show how the ideas are the connected and how the information is organised.

Make sure you write down where your notes have been taken from. It will save you time when you need to check your facts or write a bibliography. In lecture notes, make sure you write down the name of anyone quoted and where the quote has been taken from. You can then find it if you want to make more detailed use of the information.

4) Abbreviations and symbolsNotes are a summary and should therefore be much shorter than the original. Thus,

abbreviations and symbols can be used whenever possible. The table below shows some conventional English symbols and abbreviations. You will need specific ones for your own subject.

and &and others (people) et. al.and other things etc.answer A

approximately , approx., c.

at @becausebefore example :centimetre cmcentury Cchapter ch.compare cf.correctdecreases, fallsdegrees �department dept.divided by �east Eequal to =equivalent toespecially esp.for example e.g.government govt.greater than >grows, increasesimportant N.B.

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in one year p.a.information info.kilogram kgless than <maximum max.minimum min.minus -much greater than >>much less than <<multiplied by �north Nnot come fromnot equalnot lead tonot proportional tonumber No. or #page p.pages pp.percent %plus +possibly poss.probably prob.proportional toquestion Qresults fromresults in, leads tosame as above "similar tothat is to say, in other

words i.e.

thereforesouth Sunlikely ??uncertain, not sure ?very v.with reference to re.wrong Xwest Wyear yr.

Exercise 1Read the following text and make notes:

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HOW CHILDREN FAIL

Most children in school fail.For a great many this failure is avowed and absolute. Close to forty per cent of those

who begin high school drop out before they finish. For college the figure is one in three.Many others fail in fact if not in name. They complete their schooling only because we

have agreed to push them up through the grades and out of the schools, whether they know anything or not. There are many more such children than we think. If we 'raise our standards' much higher, as some would have us do, we will find out very soon just how many there are. Our classrooms will bulge with kids who can't pass the test to get into the next class.

But there is a more important sense in which almost all children fail: except for a handful, who may or may not be good students, they fail to develop more than a tiny part of the tremendous capacity for learning, understanding, and creating with which they were born and of which they made full use during the first two or three years of their lives.

Why do they fail?They fail because they are afraid, bored, and confused.They are afraid, above all else, of failing, of disappointing or displeasing the many

anxious adults around them, whose limitless hopes and expectations for them hang over their heads like a cloud.

They are bored because the things they are given and told to do in school are so trivial, so dull, and make such limited and narrow demands on the wide spectrum of their intelligence, capabilities, and talents.

They are confused because most of the torrent of words that pours over them in school makes little or no sense. It often flatly contradicts other things they have been told, and hardly ever has any relation to what they really know - to the rough model of reality that they carry around in their minds.

How does this mass failure take place? What really goes on in the classroom? What are these children who fail doing? What goes on in their heads? Why don't they make use of more of their capacity?

This book is the rough and partial record of a search for answers to these questions. It began as a series of memos written in the evenings to my colleague and friend Bill Hull, whose fifth-grade class I observed and taught in during the day. Later these memos were sent to other interested teachers and parents. A small number of these memos make up this book. They have not been much rewritten, but they have been edited and rearranged under four major topics: Strategy; Fear and Failure; Real Learning; and How Schools Fail. Strategy deals with the ways in which children try to meet, or dodge, the demands that adults make on them in school. Fear and Failure deals with the interaction in children of fear and failure, and the effect of this on strategy and learning. Real Learning deals with the difference between what children appear to know or are expected to know, and what they really know. How Schools Fail analyses the ways in which schools foster bad strategies, raise children's fears, produce learning which is usually fragmentary, distorted, and short-lived, and generally fail to meet the real needs of children.

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These four topics are clearly not exclusive. They tend to overlap and blend into each other. They are, at most, different ways of looking at and thinking about the thinking and behaviour of children.

It must be made clear that the book is not about unusually bad schools or backward children. The schools in which the experiences described here took place are private schools of the highest standards and reputation. With very few exceptions, the children whose work is described are well above the average in intelligence and are, to all outward appearances, successful, and on their way to 'good' secondary schools and colleges. Friends and colleagues, who understand what I am trying to say about the harmful effect of today's schooling on the character and intellect of children, and who have visited many more schools than I have, tell me that the schools I have not seen are not a bit better than those I have, and very often are worse.

How children fail by John Holt, Pitman, 1965

Exercise 2Read the following text and make notes:

COFFEE AND ITS PROCESSINGThe coffee plant, an evergreen shrub or small tree of African origin, begins to produce

fruit 3 or 4 years after being planted. The fruit is hand-gathered when it is fully ripe and a reddish purple in colour. The ripened fruits of the coffee shrubs are processed where they are produced to separate the coffee seeds from their covering and from the pulp. Two different techniques are in use: a wet process and a dry process.

The wet process First the fresh fruit is pulped by a pulping machine.  Some pulp still clings to the coffee, however, and this residue is removed by fermentation in tanks. The few remaining traces of pulp are then removed by washing. The coffee seeds are then dried to a moisture content of about 12 per cent either by exposure to the sun or by hot-air driers. If dried in the sun, they must be turned by hand several times a day for even drying.

The dry process In the dry process the fruits are immediately placed to dry either in the sun or in hot-air driers. Considerably more time and equipment is needed for drying than in the wet process. When the fruits have been dried to a water content of about 12 per cent the seeds are mechanically freed from their coverings.

The characteristic aroma and taste of coffee only appear later and are developed by the high temperatures to which they are subjected during the course of the process known as roasting. Temperatures are raised progressively to about 220-230°C. This releases steam, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and other volatiles from the beans, resulting in a loss of weight of between 14 and 23 per cent. Internal pressure of gas expands the volume of the coffee seeds from 30 to 100 per cent. The seeds become rich brown in colour; their texture becomes porous and crumbly under pressure. But the most important phenomenon of roasting is the appearance of the characteristic aroma of coffee, which arises from very complex chemical transformations within the beans. The coffee, on leaving the industrial roasters, is rapidly cooled in a vat where it is stirred and subjected to cold air propelled by a blower. Good quality coffees are then sorted by electronic sorters to eliminate the seeds that

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roasted badly. The presence of seeds which are either too light or too dark depreciates the quality.

From: 'Coffee Production' in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edition (1974).

Exercise 3Read the following text and summarise it in 50 words and e-mail the diagram to

your teacher:

Ways of Investigating StereotypesThere are experimental ways of investigating stereotypes. One of the most obvious is

to ask a group of people what traits characterize the Germans, the Italians, the Americans and so forth. Results of such studies on the whole agree fairly well with what might have been expected; there is considerable agreement between different people in any one nation regarding the most characteristic traits of other nations. There is even agreement between different nations; for instance, the Americans and English agree with respect to other groups, and even, though less markedly, themselves. The Germans, for instance, are regarded as scientifically minded and industrious by English and Americans alike; they are also considered solid, intelligent, mathematical, extremely nationalistic, efficient and musical by the Americans, and arrogant, aggressive and over-nationalistic by the English. Italians are regarded as artistic, impulsive, passionate, quick-tempered, musical, religious, talkative, revengeful, lazy, unreliable and dirty by both. Negroes fare even worse. They are considered to be superstitious, lazy, happy-go-lucky, ignorant, ostentatious, musical, slovenly, unreliable, dirty and religious by both Americans and English.

The Irish do rather better. While they too are religious and happy-go-lucky, they are also supposed to be quick-tempered, witty, industrious, nationalistic, quarrelsome, aggressive and pugnacious. Jews are believed to be shrewd, mercenary, industrious, intelligent, loyal to family, grasping, ambitious, sly and persistent. They are also credited with being very religious. The Chinese, as one would have expected, are looked upon with more favour by the English, who consider them industrious, courteous, meditative, intelligent and loyal to their families, than by the Americans, who consider them superstitious, sly, conservative, ignorant and deceitful. The Japanese stereotype seems to have altered considerably as a result of the war. Where pre-war they were considered intelligent, progressive, industrious, shrewd and meditative, they are now considered cruel, fanatic, treacherous, though still imitative and industrious. Perhaps a few more years will serve to restore them to their previous status. Turks do rather badly; apparently they are cruel, treacherous, sensual, dirty, deceitful, sly, quarrelsome, revengeful and superstitious. They make up for this by being very religious. The French, needless to say, are sophisticated, talkative, artistic, passionate and witty, whereas the Russians are industrious, tough, suspicious, brave and progressive. The English consider themselves sportsmanlike, reserved, tradition-loving, conventional and intelligent; astonishingly enough, Americans agree, adding, however, that the English are also sophisticated, courteous, honest, industrious, extremely nationalistic, and, I hardly dare put this down, humourless! The Americans consider themselves industrious, intelligent, materialistic, ambitious, progressive, pleasure-loving, alert, efficient, straightforward, practical and sportsmanlike;

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the English agree that Americans are materialistic and pleasure-loving, but also consider them generous, talkative and, most widely used adjective of all, boastful.

The close agreement found in English and American groups is probably due to the fact that these stereotypes derive from books, films and other cultural media shared by both groups. It is unlikely that a comparison between stereotypes held by Spaniards, Turks or Russians would show much agreement with those given here. To judge by German writings, it appears that, to the Germans, the average Englishman is ' a clever and unscrupulous hypocrite; a man who, with superhuman ingenuity and foresight, is able in some miraculous manner to be always on the winning side; a person whose incompetence in business and salesmanship is balanced by an uncanny and unfair mastery of the diplomatic wiles; a cold-blooded, prescient, ruthless opportunist; a calculating and conceited egoist. There is little resemblance between this picture of the Englishman, quoted from an account by Harold Nicolson, and another one given by him. The French portrait of the Englishman is a picture of an inelegant, stupid, arrogant and inarticulate person with an extremely red face. The French seem to mind our national complexion more than other things. They attribute it to over-consumption of ill-cooked meat. They are apt, for this reason, to regard us as barbarians and gross. Only at one point does the French picture coincide with the German picture. The French share with the Germans the conviction of our hypocrisy..

H. J. Eysenck: Uses and Abuses of Psychology, (Penguin Books, 1953)

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MODULE 3 AVOIDING PLAGIARISM: PARAPHRASING/SUMMARY

One of the most important aspects of reading for academic study is reading so you can make use of the ideas of other people. This is important as you need to show that you have understood the materials you have read and that you can use their ideas and findings in your own way. In fact, this is an essential skill for every student. Spack (1988, p. 42) has pointed out that the most important skill a student can engage in is "the complex activity to write from other texts", which is "a major part of their academic experience." It is very important when you do this to make sure you use your own words, unless you are quoting. You must make it clear when the words or ideas that you are using are your own and when they are taken from another writer. You must not use another person's words or ideas as if they were your own: this is Plagiarism and plagiarism is regarded as a very serious offence.

Paraphrasing refers to rewriting a given sentence using your own words. When we need to use a sentence in our writing that someone else wrote, we paraphrase it. That is, we use the same idea(s) in that sentence and write it differently. In addition to using different words, we use different grammar. The main purpose of paraphrasing has to do with being able to use someone else’s ideas while we write our own texts. Of course, it is required that any writer acknowledges the original source using the proper citation format.

Types of plagiarism

Hamp-Lyons & Courter (1984, pp. 161-166) distinguish between four types of plagiarism:

outright copying paraphrase plagiarism patchwork plagiarism stealing an apt term

Examples:

Original Text

While the Education Act of 1870 laid the groundwork for the provision of elementary or primary education for all children in England and Wales, it was not until the implementation of the 1944 Education Act that all girls and boys were entitled to a secondary education. Indeed, the decades immediately following the Second World War saw such a rapid increase in educational provision - in the USA, and many countries of Western and Eastern Europe, as well as in Britain - that some writers refer to the 'educational explosion' of the 1950s and 1960s. The minimum school-leaving age was extended from 14 to 15 years (in 1947) and raised to 16 (in 1971-2), but the proportion of people choosing to pursue their studies beyond this age hurtled upward; by 1971, 30 per cent of 17- year-olds were in full-time education in schools or colleges, compared with 2 per cent in 1902, 4 per cent in 1938, 18 per cent in 1961

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and 22 per cent in 1966. The Robbins Report (1963) undermined the view that there was a finite pool of ability - a limited number of people who could benefit from advanced education - and provided ammunition for the expansion of higher education. This expansion took place through the establishment of new universities and growth of existing ones, as well as through the conversion of colleges into polytechnics which could offer degree courses, and the founding of the Open University. In 1970, 17.5 per cent of 18- year-olds entered further or higher education on a full-time basis (compared with 1.2 per cent in 1900, 2.7 per cent in 1938, 5.8 per cent in 1954, and 8.3 per cent in 1960); another three million people enrolled for part-time day classes, evening classes or sandwich courses.

Bilton, Bonnett, Jones, Stanworth, Sheard & Webster (1981, p. 381)

Outright copying is when a student uses exactly the same words as the original author without using quotation marks or saying where the words are from. For example:

Student's text

While the Education Act of 1870 laid the groundwork for the provision of elementary or primary education for all children in England and Wales, it was not until the implementation of the 1944 Education Act that all girls and boys were entitled to a secondary education. Indeed, the decades immediately following the Second World War saw such a rapid increase in educational provision - in the USA, and many countries of Western and Eastern Europe, as well as in Britain - that some writers refer to the 'educational explosion' of the 1950s and 1960s.

Paraphrase plagiarism is changing some of the words and grammar but leaving most of the original text the same. For example:

Student's text

The Education Act of 1870 put down the basis for providing primary education for every child in the United Kingdom. It was not, however, until the establishment of the 1944 Education Act that all male and female children were given the right to education at secondary school.

Patchwork plagiarism is when parts of the original author's words are used and connected together in a different way. For instance:

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Student's text

The right to elementary education for every child in England and Wales was established in the 1870 Education Act. However, the right to secondary education had to wait until the implementation of the 1944 Education Act. Following that act, in many countries of the world, there was such a rapid increase in educational provision that it was called the'educational explosion' of the 1950s and 1960s.

Stealing an apt term is when a short phrase from the original text has been used in the students work, possibly because it is so good. For example:

Student's text

In England and Wales, all 5 year all children have had the right to an education since 1870. This has not, however, been the case for 11 year olds, who had to wait until 1944 for a national system of secondary education. Once this system was established, though, secondary education expanded rapidly in the decades immediately following the Second World War.

Example1:Original sentence:PayLess is closed because of the bad weather conditions.Inappropriate paraphrase:PayLess is closed because of the bad weather.This paraphrase has too many words, such as “PayLess is closed because of” are repeated. It is

important to use different words and grammatical structure, while keeping the same meaning of the original sentence.

Appropriate paraphrase:Since the weather is terrible, the grocery store is not open.As can be seen in the above example, in addition to using different words, the grammatical structure

of the sentence was changed by starting with the second part (dependent clause) of the original sentence.

Example 2:Source MaterialSome argue that the approximately 11 million undocumented immigrants in the United States ought

to receive a path to US citizenship, while others claim that these immigrants need to be deported back to their home countries.

Inappropriate paraphraseSome say that the 11 million undocumented immigrants in the United States ought to receive a way

for citizenship, while other people say that the immigrants should go back to their countries.The inappropriate paraphrase is too close to the original sentence. Several words are the same and the

complex structure of the sentence is the same. Deleting some words from the original sentence is not enough to write an appropriate paraphrase.

Appropriate paraphraseAlthough some individuals maintain that undocumented immigrants should go back to their

countries, others defend these immigrants’ right for a path to citizenship.

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The appropriate paraphrase uses a different structure for the sentence, and most words are different from the original.

SummarizingA summary should be a short version of a longer original source. Its main goal is to

present a large amount of information in a short and concise text that includes only the most important ideas of the original text.

Example 3:Original sentence:“The movement toward education by computer is developing fast. Massive Open Online Courses,

called MOOCs, are changing how people learn in many places. For years, people could receive study materials from colleges or universities and take part in online classes. But such classes were not designed for many thousands of students at one time, as MOOCs are.” (MOOCS Are Moving Forward , Voice of America, learningenglish.voanews.com)

Inappropriate summary:Voice of America website:“Computer education is growing fast. MOOCs are influencing how we study. People received

materials from universities for a long time to be able to take classes online. MOOCs are the only ones thousands can take at a time.”

The inappropriate summary is almost as long as the original text, which is a characteristic of a paraphrase. A summary needs to be concise.

Appropriate summary: According to a Voice of America article, a fast-growing MOOCs movement allows thousands to take

online classes at once, changing how we learn.The appropriate summary keeps the original main idea and it is much shorter than the original text.

Example 4As part of an essay, you need to include a section of about 100 words on the formation of

volcanic islands. You find the following text:Volcanic IslandsIslands have always fascinated the human mind. Perhaps it is the instinctive response of man, the

land animal, welcoming a brief intrusion of earth in the vast, overwhelming expanse of sea. When sailing in a great ocean basin, a thousand miles from the nearest continent, with miles of water beneath the ship, one may come upon an island which has been formed by a volcanic eruption under the sea. One's imagination can follow its slopes down through darkening waters to its base on the sea floor. One wonders why and how it arose there in the midst of the ocean.

The birth of a volcanic island is an event marked by prolonged and violent travail: the forces of the earth striving to create, and all the forces of the sea opposing. At the place where the formation of such an island begins, the sea floor is probably nowhere more than about fifty miles thick. In it are deep cracks and fissures, the results of unequal cooling and shrinkage in past ages. Along such lines of weakness the molten lava from the earth's interior presses up and finally bursts forth into the sea. But a submarine volcano is different from a terrestrial eruption, where the lava, molten rocks, and gases are hurled into the air from an open crater. Here on the bottom of the ocean the volcano has resisting it all the weight of the ocean water above it. Despite the immense pressure of, it may be, two or three miles of sea water, the new volcanic cone builds upwards towards the surface, in flow after flow of lava. Once within reach of the waves, its soft

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ash is violently attacked by the motion of the water which continually washes away its upper surface, so that for a long period the potential island may remain submerged. But eventually, in new eruptions, the cone is pushed up into the air, where the lava hardens and forms a rampart against the attacks of the waves.

1. Read the passage carefully twice from beginning to end.2. Remember your purpose: to describe the formation of a volcanic island.3. Select the relevant information4. Mark all the points which should come into your answer. Do this very carefully, and

be sure not to miss anything.The birth of a volcanic island is an event marked by prolonged and violent travail: the forces of

the earth striving to create, and all the forces of the sea opposing. At the place where the formation of such an island begins, the sea floor is probably nowhere more than about fifty miles thick. In it are deep cracks and fissures, the results of unequal cooling and shrinkage in past ages. Along such lines of weakness the molten lava from the earth's interior presses up and finally bursts forth into the sea. But a submarine volcano is different from a terrestrial eruption, where the lava, molten rocks, and gases are hurled into the air from an open crater. Here on the bottom of the ocean the volcano has resisting it all the weight of the ocean water above it. Despite the immense pressure of, it may be, two or three miles of sea water, the new volcanic cone builds upwards towards the surface, in flow after flow of lava. Once within reach of the waves, its soft ash is violently attacked by the motion of the water which continually washes away its upper surface, so that for a long period the potential island may remain submerged. But eventually, in new eruptions, the cone is pushed up into the air, where the lava hardens andforms a rampart against the attacks of the waves.

5. Make noteso island formation: earth versus sea.o where? sea bed, not more 50 miles thick, cracked and uneven.o weak   lava bursts through.o c.f. land volcano: no sea pressureo how? lava cone pushes upwardso surface - washed away by waves   submergedo lava hardens   island.

6. Using this list of points, write your rough draft, referring to the original only when you want to make sure of some point.A volcanic island comes into being after a long and violent struggle has taken place between

the forces of the earth and the sea. The island begins to form when hot lava breaks through weak points on the sea-bed where the earth's crust is not more than fifty miles thick and is marked by deep cracks. The volcanic island, unlike a land volcano, has to push up through the immense pressure of the sea. The cone made up of lava finally reaches the surface, but it does not appear because waves wash away its upper surface. When the lava hardens it stands up to the waves and the island is formed.

7. After correcting your draft, write an accurate copy of your text.A volcanic island is born only after a long and violent struggle between the forces of the earth

and the sea. It begins to form when hot lava breaks through a cracked and uneven part of the sea-bed where the earth's crust is weak. Unlike the land volcano, it has to build upwards despite the immense water-pressure until it finally reaches the surface. Even then it is too soft to withstand the waves and remains underwater until the cone is pushed into the air from below and the lava hardens.

8. Check your work.Take care to make your text accurate. Your sentences should be well connected to each other

so that your text reads as a continuous paragraph.

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Exercise 1Read the text and summarise it in your own words:

WorkMankind is always searching for a better life. One way of improving it is to plan work

so that it corresponds to the capacities and needs of the worker. Ergonomics is concerned with fitting work to man. It doesn't limit its goal to the elimination of physical hazards to health, but aims at making the work more satisfying to the worker.

Exercise 2In a paragraph of not more than 100 words, sum up what the writer says about

the causes of conflict:

The causes of conflictThe evidence taken from the observation of the behavior of apes and children suggests

that there are three clearly separable groups of simple causes for the outbreak of fighting and the exhibition of aggressiveness by individuals.

One of the most common causes of fighting among both children and apes was over the possession of external objects. The disputed ownership of any desired object - food, clothes, toys, females, and the affection of others - was sufficient ground for an appeal to force. On Monkey Hill disputes over females were responsible for the death of thirty out of thirty-three females. Two points are of particular interest to notice about these fights for possession.

In the first place they are often carried to such an extreme that they end in the complete destruction of the objects of common desire. Toys are torn to pieces. Females are literally torn limb from limb. So overriding is the aggression once it has begun that it not only overflows all reasonable boundaries of selfishness but utterly destroys the object for which the struggle began and even the self for whose advantage the struggle was undertaken.

In the second place it is observable, at least in children, that the object for whose possesion aggression is started may sometimes be desired by one person only or merely because it is desired by someone else. There were many cases observed by Dr Isaacs where toys and other objects which had been discarded as useless were violently defended by their owners when they became the object of some other child’s desire. The grounds of possessiveness may, therefore, be irrational in the sense that they are derived from inconsistent judgments of value. Whether sensible or irrational, contests over possession are commonly the occasion for the most ruthless use of force among children and apes.

One of the commonest kinds of object arousing possessive desire is the notice, good will, affection, and service of other members of the group. Among children one of the commonest causes of quarrelling was ‘jealousy’ - the desire for the exclusive possession of the interest and affection of someone else, particularly the adults in charge of the children. This form of behaviour is sometimes classified as a separate cause of conflict under the name of ‘rivalry’ or ‘jealousy’. But, in point of fact, it seems to us that it is only one variety of possessiveness. The object of desire is not a material object - that is the only difference.

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The object is the interest and affection of other persons. What is wanted, however, is the exclusive right to that interest and affection - a property in emotions instead of in things. As subjective emotions and as causes of conflict, jealousy and rivalry are fundamentally similar to the desire for the uninterrupted possession of toys or food. Indeed, very often the persons, property which is desired, are the sources of toys and food.

Possessiveness is, then, in all its forms a common cause of fighting. If we are to look behind the mere facts of behaviour for an explanation of this phenomenon, a teleological cause is not far to seek. The exclusive right to objects of desire is a clear and simple advantage to the possessor obit. It carries with it the certainty and continuity of satisfaction. Where there is only one claimant to a good, frustration and the possibility floss is reduced to a minimum. It is, therefore, obvious that, if the ends of the self are the only recognized ends, the whole powers of the agent, including the fullest use of his available force, will be used to establish and defend exclusive rights to possession.

Another cause of aggression closely allied to possessiveness is the tendency for children and apes greatly to resent the intrusion of a stranger into their group. A new child in the class may be laughed at, isolated, and disliked and even set upon and pinched and bullied. A new monkey may be poked and bitten to death. It is interesting to note that it is only strangeness within a similarity of species that is resented. Monkeys do not mind being joined by a goat or a rat. Children do not object when animals are introduced to the group. Indeed, such novelties are often welcomed. But when monkeys meet a new monkey or children a strange child, aggression often occurs. This suggests strongly that the reason for the aggression is fundamentally possessiveness. The competition of the newcomers is feared. The present members of the group feel that there will be more rivals for the food or the attention of the adults.

Finally, another common source of fighting among children is a failure or frustration in their own activity. A child will be prevented either by natural causes such as bad weather or illness or by the opposition of some adult from doing something he wishes to do at a given moment - sail his boat or ride the bicycle. The child may also frustrate itself by failing, through lack of skill or strength, to complete successfully some desired activity. Such a child will then in the ordinary sense become ’naughty.’ He will be in a bad or surly temper. And, what is of interest from our point of view, the child will indulge in aggression - attacking and fighting other children or adults. Sometimes the object of aggression will simply be the cause of frustration, a straightforward reaction. The child will kick or hit the nurse who forbids the sailing of his boat. But sometimes - indeed, frequently - the person or thing that suffers the aggression is quite irrelevant and innocent of offence. The angry child will stamp the ground or box the ears of another child when neither the ground nor the child attacked is even remotely connected with the irritation or frustration.

Of course, this kind of behaviour is so common that everyone feels it to be obvious and to constitute no serious scientific problem. That a small boy should pull his sister’s hair because it is raining does not appear to the ordinary unreflecting person to be an occasion for solemn scientific inquiry. He is, as we should all say, ‘in a bad temper.’ Yet it is not, in fact, really obvious either why revenge should be taken on entirely innocent objects, since no good to the aggressor can come of it, or why children being miserable should seek to make others miserable also. It is just a fact of human behaviour that cannot really be

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deduced from any general principle of reason. But it is, as we shall see, of very great importance for our purpose. It shows how it is possible, at the simplest and most primitive level, for aggression and fighting to spring from an entirely irrelevant and partially hidden cause. Fighting to possess a desired object is straightforward and rational, however disastrous its consequences, compared with fighting that occurs because, in a different and unrelated activity, some frustration has barred the road to pleasure. The importance of this possibility for an understanding of group conflict must already be obvious.

(From Personal Aggressiveness and War by E. F. M. Durbin and John Bowlby)

Exercise 3In a paragraph of around 100 words, summarise the results of the investigations

into schoolbooks described in the text.

Schoolbooks and the female stereotypeIllustrations and stories in United States primary school textbooks tend to convince

young girls that they should be ‘passive’ and ‘dependent’ creatures who need aspire only to lives of service to their future husbands and children, a conference of educators was told here yesterday. 

Speaking at the first national conference on schools and sex role stereotypes, a University of California professor said a study of the 100 most widely used elementary text-books demonstrated that girls are constantly depicted as dependent on and subservient to boys. 

Louise White, of the U.S. Office of Education, told the conference that the female stereotype presented to elementary school children was so overwhelming that by the time most girls reached fourth grade they believed they had only four occupations open to them - nurse, secretary, teacher, or mother. 

The director of the elementary school textbook study, Lenore Weitzman, of the University of California, said that texts in spelling, reading, mathematics, science, and social studies were examined. 

Most stories and illustrations tended to centre on boys rather than girls, and those boys tended to demonstrate qualities of strength, intelligence, love of adventure, independence, and courage. 

Girls, however, were depicted in passive roles. Usually they were inside a house, and often they were helping with housework or playing with dolls. 

When boys and girls appeared together in a text, she said, the girls were either watching the boys do something or they were helping the boys. 

Adult men appearing in elementary school texts were depicted in various jobs - astronaut, truck driver, policeman, cowboy, scientist, banker - in addition to the role of father. 

But the overwhelming picture of women that emerged from the elementary texts was that of mother and housewife. Even at that, said Professor Weitzman, the picture was one of a woman performing simple but time-consuming chores. It failed completely to reflect the complexities facing a modern housewife. 

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A study was done by an affiliate of the Central New Jersey National Organisation for women on 34 books published by 14 major publishing companies and involving 2,760 stories for elementary school children.

According to the findings the composite housewife or mother was a ‘limited, colourless, mindless creature...’ Not only does she wash, cook, clean, nurse, and find mittens: these chores constitute her only happiness. 

‘In illustration, she frequently appears in the servant’s posture, body slightly bent forward, hands clasped, eyes riveted on the master of the house or the children.’ 

In contrast, the typical father found in the study was ‘the “good guy” in the family. He’s where the fun is. He builds things with his children and takes them hunting, fishing and up in planes. He solves the problems.’ 

The effect of this on young girls, Professor Weitzman said, is to make them think their role is to serve others. They think they should be attractive so that they can please others and although they generally have better academic records than boys by the time they reach adolescence, they value academic and scholastic excellence less than boys do.

(Report in The Guardian)

Exercise 4Read the article and summarise it in your own words:

Where and how to cut your lossesHalf the skill in getting ahead on the career front is knowing when to move on. In

everyone's life there comes a moment when they should make the break - the world is full of has-beens who, perhaps, just didn't have the courage to take a chance when that chance came. It pays to constantly reassess where you stand. A good stock question to ask yourself is "Where am I going to be, this time next year, if I stay in the same job?" Each career has a different kind of time-scale. The sales scene moves fast - you tend to make your money in the early years, then move on to management before you are too old and too tired to continue with the foot-in-the-door technique and the patter. The same thing goes, to a certain extent, for advertising. But other careers move at a different pace - to become head curator in a museum, for instance, or head librarian, may take years.

Exercise 5Read the following text: (Flower, 1990. p. v) The study presented here takes an unusually comprehensive look at one critical point of entry into

academic performance. It shows a group of freshmen in the transition into the academic discourse of college, looking at the ways in which they interpret and negotiate an assignment that calls for reading-to-write. On such tasks, students are reading to create a text of their own, trying to integrate information from sources with ideas of their own, and attempting to do so under the guidance of a purpose they must themselves create. Because these reading-to-write tasks ask students to integrate reading, writing, and rhetorical purpose, they open a door to critical literacy. Yet this same interaction often makes reading-to-write a difficult process for students to learn and to manage.

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The task: The texts given below have used Flower's ideas and words. Which of them do you consider to be acceptable?

AOn such tasks, students are reading to create a text of their own, trying to integrate

information from sources with ideas of their own, and attempting to do so under the guidance of a purpose they must themselves create. Because these reading-to-write tasks ask students to integrate reading, writing, and rhetorical purpose, they open a door to critical literacy. Yet this same interaction often makes reading-to-write a difficult process for students to learn and to manage.

BThe study presented here (Flower, 1990) takes an unusually comprehensive look at one

critical point of entry into academic performance. It shows a group of freshmen in the transition into the academic discourse of college, looking at the ways in which they interpret and negotiate an assignment that calls for reading-to-write. On such tasks, students are reading to create a text of their own, trying to integrate information from sources with ideas of their own, and attempting to do so under the guidance of a purpose they must themselves create. Because these reading-to-write tasks ask students to integrate reading, writing, and rhetorical purpose, they open a door to critical literacy. Yet this same interaction often makes reading-to-write a difficult process for students to learn and to manage.

CAccording to Flower (1990), on such tasks, students are reading to create a text of

their own, trying to integrate information from sources with ideas of their own, and attempting to do so under the guidance of a purpose they must themselves create. Because these reading-to-write tasks ask students to integrate reading, writing, and rhetorical purpose, they open a door to critical literacy. Yet this same interaction often makes reading-to-write a difficult process for students to learn and to manage.

DIn English, an essay is a piece of argumentative writing several paragraphs long

written about one topic, usually based on your reading. The purpose of an essay is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to create a text of your own by integrating information from sources with ideas of your own. The emphasis should be on working with other people's ideas, rather than reproducing their words, but your own voice should show clearly. The ideas and people that you refer to need to made explicit by a system of referencing.

EIn English, an essay is a piece of argumentative writing several paragraphs long

written about one topic, usually based on your reading. The purpose of an essay is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to create a text of your own by integrating information from sources with ideas of your own (Flower, 1990). The

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emphasis should be on working with other people's ideas, rather than reproducing their words, but your own voice should show clearly. The ideas and people that you refer to need to made explicit by a system of referencing.

FOn these tasks, students are reading in order to make a text of their own, trying to

integrate facts from texts with their own ideas, and trying to do this with a purpose they must make themselves. As these reading-to-write tasks require students to combine reading, writing, and purpose, they provide a route to critical literacy. However, this same combination can make reading-to-write a complicated process for students to learn and to carry out.

GIn English, an essay is a piece of argumentative writing several paragraphs long

written about one topic, usually based on the student's reading. The purpose of an essay is for the student to say something for themselves using the ideas of the subject, for them to present ideas they have learned in their own way. The emphasis should be on working with other people's ideas, rather than reproducing their words, but the student's own voice should show clearly. This is a very difficult task for students in the transition into the academic discourse of college.

HWhen students start higher education, they have a great deal to learn about academic

writing. In school academic writing usually consists of writing about things they have already learned about with no reference to how this was learned. In higher education, however, students will need to learn to negotiate an assignment that calls for reading-to-write. This involves reading sources and then trying to understand information from them. They then need to create their own texts by integrating this information with ideas of their own. All this must be done under the guidance of a purpose they must themselves create.

IIn English, an essay is a piece of argumentative writing several paragraphs long

written about one topic, usually based on the student's reading. The purpose of an essay is for the student to say something for themselves using the ideas of the subject, for them to present ideas they have learned in their own way. The emphasis should be on working with other people's ideas, rather than reproducing their words, but the student's own voice should show clearly. Students should be, as Flower (1990, p. v) points out: "reading to create a text of their own, trying to integrate information from sources with ideas of their own, and attempting to do so under the guidance of a purpose they must themselves create."

JWhen students start higher education, they have a great deal to learn about academic

writing. In school academic writing usually consists of writing about aspects they have

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already learned about with no reference to how this was obtained. In higher education, however, students will need to learn to read and explicitly use the results of their reading to carry out the writing task. They will need to "negotiate an assignment that calls for reading-to-write" (Flower, 1990, p. v). This involves reading sources and trying to understand information from them, and then, according to Flower (1990, p. v) "create a text of their own" by "integrating information ... with ideas of their own."

KAccording to Flower (1990, p. v) "On such tasks, students are reading to create a text

of their own, trying to integrate information from sources with ideas of their own, and attempting to do so under the guidance of a purpose they must themselves create. Because these reading-to-write tasks ask students to integrate reading, writing, and rhetorical purpose, they open a door to critical literacy. Yet this same interaction often makes reading-to-write a difficult process for students to learn and to manage."

Exercise 6 Write a paraphrase of each of the following passages. Try not to look back at the

original passage.

1. "The Antarctic is the vast source of cold on our planet, just as the sun is the source of our heat, and it exerts tremendous control on our climate," [Jacques] Cousteau told the camera. "The cold ocean water around Antarctica flows north to mix with warmer water from the tropics, and its upwellings help to cool both the surface water and our atmosphere. Yet the fragility of this regulating system is now threatened by human activity." From "Captain Cousteau," Audubon (May 1990):17.

2. "The twenties were the years when drinking was against the law, and the law was a bad joke because everyone knew of a local bar where liquor could be had. They were the years when organized crime ruled the cities, and the police seemed powerless to do anything against it. Classical music was forgotten while jazz spread throughout the land, and men like Bix Beiderbecke, Louis Armstrong, and Count Basie became the heroes of the young. The flapper was born in the twenties, and with her bobbed hair and short skirts, she symbolized, perhaps more than anyone or anything else, America's break with the past." From Kathleen Yancey, English 102 Supplemental Guide (1989): 25.

3. "Of the more than 1000 bicycling deaths each year, three-fourths are caused by head injuries. Half of those killed are school-age children. One study concluded that wearing a bike helmet can reduce the risk of head injury by 85 percent. In an accident, a bike helmet absorbs the shock and cushions the head." From "Bike Helmets: Unused Lifesavers,"Consumer Reports (May 1990): 348.

4. "While the Sears Tower is arguably the greatest achievement in skyscraper engineering so far, it's unlikely that architects and engineers have abandoned the quest for the world's tallest building. The question is: Just how high can a building go? Structural

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engineer William LeMessurier has designed a skyscraper nearly one-half mile high, twice as tall as the Sears Tower. And architect Robert Sobel claims that existing technology could produce a 500-story building." From Ron Bachman, "Reaching for the Sky." Dial (May 1990): 15.

Exercise 7 Follow the links below to practise:

1) https://ilrb.cf.ac.uk/plagiarism/exercise/index.html2) http://www4.caes.hku.hk/plagiarism/self_test.asp3) https://plagiarism.arts.cornell.edu/tutorial/exercises.cfm 4) http://web.uts.edu.au/teachlearn/avoidingplagiarism/tutorial/index.html

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MODULE 4 ORGANIZATION OF A TRADITIONAL ACADEMIC PAPER

Many academic disciplines have different guidelines for organizing an academic paper. You should always check with your professor about the basic layout for the paper you are writing. Alternatively, you can check style guides (MLA, APA, Turabian, etc.) for further information about organizing an academic paper. Most traditional academic papers adhere to the following basic format:

1. Titles 2. Authors 3. Abstracts 4. Key words 5. Introductions 6. Methods 7. Results 8. Discussions 9. Conclusions10. Acknowledgements 11. References 12. Footnotes

Remember, not all academic papers require all of these sections. Also, particular assignments may have specific requirements not covered by this layout. This organizational design is meant as a general guideline, across disciplines, to get you started writing a traditional academic paper. You should always consult the requirements of a specific field, academic journal or professor before making final decisions about the layout and organization of your paper.

ABSTRACTS

Writing an abstractThe abstract is the first section of an academic paper. It usually comes after the title

and before the introduction. The abstract provides an overview of the study based on information from the other sections of the report. The reader can read the abstract to obtain enough information about the study to decide if they want to read the complete paper. Because it contains elements from the whole article, it is usually written last.

Ordering Your InformationAbstracts from almost all fields of study are written in a very similar way. The types of

information included and their order are very conventional. The box that follows shows the typical information format of an abstract (Weissberg & Buker, 1990, p. 186):

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IntroductionIntroduce the study by describing the contextExplain why the subject is important↓PurposeDescribe the purpose of the study↓MethodsReport how the study was undertaken↓ResultsReport the results that were found.↓EvaluationBriefly evaluate the results↓ConclusionConclude brieflyExplain what is important and why

Introductory sentences

The paper/article……… discusses/deals with/analyses/considers/explains/describes/establishes/introduces ….. develops/presents/provides/studies/represents/features/contains/concentrates on ….. covers/suggests/proposes/shows ….. demonstrates the feasibility of ….. opens up a new field/issue gives/aims to give a comprehensive account of ….. offers a solution to ….. serves as an introduction to …..The main objective/goal/purpose of the paper/article is …..Common mistakes:

Wrong: In this paper there/it is presented a novel method of ….. Right: This paper presents a novel method of …../In this paper, a novel method of …..

is presented

Exercise 1:Read the following abstract carefully. It is taken from the field of computer

assisted learning. Identify the sentences in the abstract that correspond to the elements in the preceding box:

Use Of A Writing Web-Site By Pre-Masters Studentson An English for Academic Purposes Course.A. J. Gillett, University of HertfordshireAbstract1During the last 10 years, use of the World-Wide-Web for educational purposes has increased

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dramatically. 2However, very little empirical research has been carried out to determine the effectiveness of this use. 3The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the effectiveness of using the World-Wide-Web on an EAP writing course. 4Two groups of students were taught writing by two different methods: one group was taught by a teacher in a traditional classroom, while a second group included use of an on-line web-site in their course. 5The two groups were assessed in the same way after a twelve-week period of instruction. 6Results of the assessment showed significant differences between the two groups, the group that used the on-line web-site performing much better on all aspects of the test. 7This suggests that the use of computer assisted learning programmes for at least some of the teaching time available can be recommended for EAP writing courses.

Sentence 1Sentence 2Sentence 3Sentence 4Sentence 5Sentence 6Sentence 7

Exercise 2:Write an abstract for the following report.

Investigation of the perceived usefulness of a VLE group discussion facility by international students.

Andy Gillett, Claire WeetmanSchool of Combined Studies, Faculty of Interdisciplinary Studies, University of

HertfordshireAbstract

IntroductionThe University of Hertfordshire Internal Bridging Programme prepares Students in

Higher Education for post-graduate study at the University of Hertfordshire. To follow the programme, students usually have a first degree and the appropriate academic qualifications to enrol on a Masters degree. However, the students' English competence is inadequate for a postgraduate course so it is necessary for them to improve it. Hence they need to follow our course or a similar one elsewhere. It is a one-year course and the students take several different modules. The largest module is English for Academic Purposes. It consists of 16 hours per week of class contact in Semester A and 6 hours per week in Semester B.

The main aims of the Semester B course are to: improve the students' command of academic English: language structure, use and

vocabulary

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consolidate their language skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking in academic contexts

put to practical use appropriate academic conventions observed in British higher education

acquire a range of transferable academic skills essential for effective study at postgraduate level

develop learner independence.By the end of the course they should have a knowledge and understanding of: relevant conventions followed in academic English (both written and oral) the difference between the informal and formal registers of the English language what is linguistically expected of an overseas postgraduate student in British higher

education.and they should be able to: listen to, understand and take notes in lectures apply a range of reading strategies and use the library appropriately produce a substantial piece of researched writing take part in discussions, seminars and tutorials prepare and deliver presentations employ a range of general and academic vocabulary.Our objectives are defined by the needs of the students' academic courses in the

following year. The main job, therefore, in preparing these courses is to investigate what our students will have to do in their academic course, work out what aspects of language - grammar, vocabulary, skills etc - they will need and then find ways to teach and assess it (Gillett, 1989).

One skill needed by postgraduate students is the ability to take part in discussions. It is generally accepted that student-student interaction, both formal and informal, is beneficial in higher education (Pica & Doughty, 1985 Topping, 1996 Tan, 2003). It has also been reported that many Students in Higher Education, especially those from Asia, find this difficult and do not participate well enough in these discussions (Jones, 1999 Leki, 2001 Basturkmen, 2002). So participation in discussions is included as one of the objectives of our course. For several years, we have included a face-to face discussions of an academic article, whereby one student introduces an academic article to the class and then leads a discussion.

With the recent introduction, though, of StudyNet, our in-house VLE, and a strong belief that any effective use of a VLE must begin with clear integration of the VLE into the course, it was decided to extend this aspect of the course to include an on-line discussion using the StudyNet group discussion facility. One reason is that much research has shown that on-line discussions produce more interaction (Dysthe, 2002). They also allow quieter students to participate and show that Students in Higher Education will participate more if they have time to think about their contributions and plan the language they want to use. It has also been reported that international students have increased motivation to use the target language and therefore produce more language (Bump, 1990 Beauvois, 1992 Kern, 1995 Oliva & Pollastrini, 1995). Moreover, there is a more balanced participation (Kern, 1995 Sullivan & Pratt, 1996 Warschauer, 1996). Students also use a wider variety of language

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(Chun, 1994 Warschauer, 1996), which is syntactically and lexically more complex (Warschauer, 1996). This structured use of the VLE benefits students with a range of learning styles from a wider range of sociocultural backgrounds (Pennington, 1996). It was hoped students would find this to their advantage.

Thus there is evidence that group discussion is beneficial in education and that on-line discussions can also be valuable. However, how predominantly East Asian students would deal with an on-line discussion was an important question. Often, their view of education is that it is essentially a passive process, something that happens to them, not something they have to do for themselves, something that is mainly the job of the teacher (Jin & Cortazzi, 1993 Cortazzi & Jin, 1997 Catterick, 2004). So the purpose of the research was to investigate whether such students would undertake the task in the manner set, whether they regarded the activity as being advantageous to them and whether they would see the underlying reasons for such a task. Finally, it was useful to determine whether the students perceived learning was in fact occurring.

MethodologyThe programme had about 120 students in 2003/2004, divided into 9 groups for

teaching purposes. The on-line discussion took place in the first four weeks of the second semester. The educational purpose of the on-line discussion, which we did not evaluate in this study, was to help students improve their ability to read an academic article, to take part in discussions on such an article and to experience this via StudyNet. As with most of the teaching on this programme, the purpose of this is twofold: to improve students' language and study skills, and also to experience using StudyNet in preparation for their future academic lives. They were given very clear instructions about exactly what was required of them and their contribution was assessed, in order to encourage full participation.

The on-line discussion element was worth 6.25% of the coursework element of the course for the semester. All the students discussed the same article and were told they could read the article on-line, print it out or copy it to their own computers. At the end of this discussion period, the lecturers evaluated the students' contributions. The assessment consisted of a combination of the quantity of contributions to the discussion and the quality - ideas, interaction and language. In other words, students were rewarded for contributing more than the minimum, as well as using the activity as a learning tool, not simply as a bare assessment. The students were then asked about what they felt about doing this activity and what they learned from it. This was done via a questionnaire in which students were asked how they took part in the discussion, what they felt about taking part in the discussion and what they thought they learned from it. The questionnaire was given to all the students who had taken part and they were asked to complete it in class time. This was done in weeks seven and eight, three to four weeks after having completed the activity. The questionnaire consisted of twenty-two questions, divided into multiple choice and short-answer questions. The rationale behind the questionnaire was to assess the perceived worthiness of the task by the students.

The students were told that a grade would be given for their contribution to this discussion, and that a good contribution consisted of demonstrating knowledge of the article and making a relevant contribution to the discussion in appropriate English. They were

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instructed to make their first contribution by the end of week 2 of the semester and their second by the end of week three. Two contributions was the bare minimum if they wanted to pass and more was expected for a good mark. Each contribution had to be four or five sentences.

The students were advised on, and given practice in class, about what a contribution consisted of. This could include, among other things:

a question to a member of the group an opinion about the article giving further information on the subject agreement or disagreement with a member of their group reasons for their opinions invitations to other members of their group to contribute asking other people about their opinions supporting and encouraging other members of their groupThey were told to read all the contributions from their group members, not just those

from the lecturer and furthermore to respond not only to the lecturer's points, but carry on a discussion with the other members of their group as well. Appropriate language needed to be used as this was a formal academic discussion, not an e-mail to a friend. Their contributions had to be written in accurate academic English and it might therefore be useful to compose their contributions in a word-processor, check it for accuracy and then paste it into the discussion. Their mark would depend on how well they achieved this task.

Results and discussionThe purpose was therefore to see whether or not students undertook the task, what

advantages they saw to it, whether they saw the reasons for doing it and what they thought they learned from it. 112 completed questionnaires were received. The questions most relevant to the research aims will be discussed, with the hope that it will be useful for lecturers in similar circumstances.

First is the question of the extent to which students undertook the task. This was measured by looking at the number, frequency, style and length of students' contributions. Although the minimum number of contributions was two in order to achieve a pass, they were encouraged to contribute as much as possible, in order to be successful, and for their skills to be practised. The assessment period being over 4 weeks, 35% of students made one contribution a week, 23% twice a week, while 36 % of students contributed three times a week or more (Figure 1). It was certainly clear, therefore, that most students were contributing more than the minimum. It may be the case, though, that very few decided that doing any extra work for an assessment that counted such a small amount of the overall course mark was not worth the effort.

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Figure 1: Frequency of contribution

Considering the style of discussion, with threads connected to single opinions or ideas, one would have expected students to have read all or most of the contributions on the list prior to adding their own point of view. Figure 2 shows that 48% of students claimed to have read more than 5 previous contributions, while 22% of those students had read more than ten. Surprisingly, though, 10% of students claimed not to have read any contributions before adding their own. It can thus be speculated that these students do not quite understand the concept of a discussion, though, but this is predicated on there being 10 contributions to actually read.

Figure 2: Contributions read prior to contributing

As regards the length of their own contributions, 42% stated they had written a paragraph, while the rest either equally wrote a few sentences or more than a paragraph. This was confirmed by the class lecturer, who monitored the contributions on a weekly basis. The students were expected to write at least a few sentences, so in this respect, it can be deemed successful.

It was felt that the level of participation would depend to some extent on whether they had enjoyed the exercise. As can be seen from Figure 3, less than 2% said they hated it.

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Almost 50% chose 'OK' and 29% said they had enjoyed it. It was pleasing to note that 12.5% asserted that they had enjoyed it very much.

Figure 3: Degree of enjoyment

Secondly was whether or not the students found the exercise advantageous or useful. More than 50% of the students responded affirmatively (Figure 4), while only 6% of students did not it find it useful. No one considered it to be a waste of time. This was crucial for us, considering this was the first attempt at this type of task and is an evaluation method which needs to be used more actively in the future, as the use of the on-line facility is playing a larger role in academic life (Browne & Jenkins, 2003).

Figure 4: Relative usefulness

Thirdly, the open question of 'Why do you think we used the on-line method for discussion?' elicited numerous favourable responses. Chief among these, the students were of the opinion that it would improve their reading and writing skills. Why they believed their writing skills would improve is not quite certain, as none of their contributions were corrected. In any case, they were making use of English in a formal academic style to communicate their ideas, an essential part of learning to write. Furthermore, the act of reading others' contributions and being able to compare grammar, vocabulary and level of

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sophistication of an argument with ones' own writing is a key part of peer learning, which is an aspect which is greatly emphasised in second language learning (Flower & Hayes, 1981 Grabe, 2001 Vincent, 1999). In addition they felt that it would allow them to analyse ideas more clearly and to think more independently. This may be linked to the time factor involved in being able to formulate ideas without pressure due to language ability and peer observation. This is particularly relevant to the quiet students who are often unwilling to be in focus in a class situation. They did consider that it would allow everyone more time and opportunities to discuss ideas and was particularly useful for the shy students. This is what was hoped for. Often the amount of time for discussion in class is limited, so allowing students this extra time to debate is of great importance.

Lastly we wanted to see if the students thought they had learned something from the exercise. In this case, only 5 of 112 students said no, and 3 'not really, but it was good to practise.' Thus the great majority were of the opinion that they had learned from the task. Whether the students' perception is borne out in reality was not the focus of this research but should be researched at a future date. The areas they highlighted are being able to see the grammar mistakes of others, and being able to learn from them. Here the previous comment on peer learning is reflected.  They decided that their knowledge, vocabulary and discussion skills had been enriched by the task. Some also considered that the experience allowed them to share ideas better than in class, and allowed them to feel more confident to give their opinion. This is a core issue, as many Students in Higher Education, especially those from the Far East, usually have a great deal to say, but lack the confidence when surrounded by local students with whom they often have minimal actual contact. If their confidence can be initially improved in this way, one hopes it can be extended to class situations. The chance to summarise and organise ideas better was another issue mentioned. These are essential skills all students need.

ConclusionPost-graduate international students at UK institutions of Higher Education often find

difficulty dealing with seminar type discussions. An attempt was made to help students with this by utilising the group discussion facility of a university Virtual Leaning Environment (VLE). However, as most of the students were from East Asia, who often consider education as essentially a passive process, it was felt necessary to investigate whether they would undertake such an activity and what the benefits were. Despite some criticisms, the students generally took part in the activity seriously and saw the usefulness of it. They were generally found to understand the purpose of the activity and felt they had learned from it. Thus, overall, when the activity was clearly seen to be related to the learning outcomes and integrated into the course, the verdict was overwhelmingly positive and the rationale understood. By taking the various points students made and adjusting the task slightly, by integrating the on-line discussion more into class work, involving the lecturers more and by thinking more about the text, we hope that the positive outcomes can be further cemented, and further areas probed and students helped to take part in seminar style discussions more confidently and competently.

References

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Basturkmen, H. (2002). Negotiating meaning in seminar-type discussion and EAP. English for Specific Purposes, 21, 233-242.

Beauvois, M. H. (1992). Computer-assisted classroom discussion in the foreign language classroom: Conversation in slow motion. Foreign Language Annals, 25(5), 455-464.

Browne, T. & Jenkins, M. (2003). VLE Surveys - A longitudinal perspective between March 2001 and March 2003 for Higher Education in the United Kingdom. Retrieved August 10, 2004, from http://www.ucisa.ac.uk/groups/tlig/vle/

Bump, J. (1990). Radical changes in class discussion using networked computers. Computers and the Humanities, 24, 49-65.

Catterick, D. (2004). Mapping and managing cultural beliefs about language learning of Chinese EAP learners. In L. Sheldon (Ed.), Directions for the future (pp. 65-78). Oxford: Peter Lang.

Chun, D. (1994). Using computer networking to facilitate the acquisition of interactive competence. System, 22(1), 17-31.

Cortazzi, M. & Jin, L. (1997) Communicating for Learning across Cultures. In D. McNamara & R. Harris (Eds.), Overseas students in higher education: Issues in teaching and learning (pp. 76-90). London: Routledge.

Dysthe, O. (2002). The learning potential of a web-mediated discussion in a university course.Studies in Higher Education, 27, 339-352.

Flower, L. & Hayes, J. R. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. College Composition and Communication, 32, 365-387.

Gillett, A. J. (1989). Designing an EAP course: English language support for further and higher education. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 13(2), 92-104.

Grabe, W. (2001). Reading-writing relations: Theoretical perspectives and instructional practices. In D. Belcher & A. Hirvela (Eds.), Linking literacies: Perspectives on L2 reading-writing connections (pp. 15-47). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Jin, L. & Cortazzi, M. (1993). Cultural orientation and academic language use. In D. Gradol, L. Thompson, & M. Byram (Eds.), Language and culture (pp. 84-97). Clevedon, Avon: BAAL and Multilingual Matters.

Jin, L. & Cortazzi, M. (1996). 'This way is very different from Chinese ways': EAP needs and academic culture. In M. Hewings and T. Dudley-Evans (Eds.), Evaluation and course design in EAP (pp. 205-216). Hemel Hempstead: Phoenix.

Jones, J. F. (1999). From silence to talk: Cross-cultural ideas on students' participation in academic group discussion. English for Specific Purposes, 18, 243-259.

Kern, R. (1995). Restructuring classroom interaction with networked computers: Effects on quantity and quality of language production. Modern Language Journal, 79, 457-476.

Kulik, C. L. C., and Kulik, J. A. (1986). Effectiveness of computer-based education in colleges. AEDS Journal, 19, pp. 81-108.

Leki, I. (2001). " A narrow thinking system" : Nonnative-English-speaking students in group projects across the curriculum. TESOL Quarterly, 35, 39-66.

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Oliva, M., & Pollastrini, Y. (1995). Internet resources and second language acquisition: An evaluation of virtual immersion. Foreign Language Annals, 28(4), 551-563.

Pennington, M. C. (1996). The power of the computer in language education. In M. C. Pennington (Ed.), The power of CALL (pp. 1-14). Houson, TX: Athelstan.

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Vincent, S. (1999). Peer support through shared learning experience in an essay writing task. In H. Bool & P. Luford (Eds.), Academic standards and expectations: The role of EAP (pp. 109-115). Nottingham: Nottingham University Press.

Warschauer, M. (1996). Comparing face-to-face and electronic communication in the second language classroom. CALICO Journal, 13(2-3), 7-26.

INTRODUCTIONSAn introduction is crucial, not just for what it says about the topic, but for what it tells

the reader about the writer’s style and approach. Unless you can introduce the subject clearly the reader may not wish to continue. An introduction gets the reader’s attention and gives the reader enough background information to understand your topic, which is usually the last sentence in your introduction.  A good introduction does not depend on the reader being too familiar with the topic or assigned question. It also avoids being too general or obvious, and defines key words or terms that are important to the reader’s understanding of the topic.  Think of your introduction as a way to prepare the reader for your main idea – start off general (but not boring), and lead up to what you want the reader to believe by the end of your paper. The purpose of the introduction is to show your reader what you are doing in your writing. It is also helpful to explain why you are doing it and how you are doing it.

In many parts of your writing - but especially in introductions - you may need to provide background information and introduce new concepts or ideas and provide a description of how you are going to proceed in the rest of your writing.

Example:Use Of A Writing Web-Site By Pre-Masters Students On An English for Academic Purposes

Course.A. J. Gillett, University of HertfordshireIntroduction1During the past 10 years, the availability of computers in educational institutions has increased

dramatically (James, 1999). 2Progress in computer development has been made to the point that powerful, inexpensive computers with large capacities are available in many classrooms and libraries for student

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use. 3Many students also have purchased and are purchasing computers for their own use at home. 4Most studies seem to agree that the microcomputer will continue to hold an important role in education in the future. 5For example, James (1999) and Smith (2000) suggest large increases in the numbers of computers both in educational institutions and the home in the near future. 6As far as education is concerned, Shaw (2001) identified three main uses of computers: the object of a course, an administrative tool, and a means of providing instruction. 7Fish and Cheam (2002) cite four uses of computers as a means of providing instruction: exercise, tutorial, simulation and problem solving. 8A wide range of computer programmes are now therefore available in all these areas for individual and classroom use.

9However, even though many studies have reported an increased use of computers in education, there has been very little research reported on the effectiveness of such use. 10The purpose of the present study is therefore to ascertain the effectiveness of using computer-assisted instruction as compared to traditional classroom instruction in an EAP writing class.

Useful phrases are: The purpose of this paper is to ... The purpose of this investigation is to ... The aim of this paper is to ... This paper reports on the results obtained .... This study was designed to ... In this paper, we give results of ...

In this paper, we argue that .... This paper argues that .... We have organise the rest of this paper in the following way .... This paper is structured as follows .... The remainder of this paper is divided into five sections ....

In most cases, the Introduction section is treated as a whole and is not divided into subsections. The subheadings below should only help you organize the information.

1. Problem background

….. plays an important/vital role in …..….. is an important issue for …..….. is extensively/widely used in …..….. is a very effective method for …..In the last few years there has been a growing interest in …..Quite recently, considerable attention has been paid to …..….. have/has been gaining importance in recent years …..….. have/has been utilized in many applications such as …..

2. Literature review/Summary of previous research

- Referring to the sources in general:

Current research on ….. is focused on …..Previous studies indicate that …..

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The literature on ….. shows a variety of approachesMuch research on ….. has been done.The focus of recent research has been on …..….. has/have been widely researched/investigated.In recent years, research on/into ….. has become very popular.In the last decade ….. has attracted much attention from research teams …..For several years great effort has been devoted to the study of …..Several publications have appeared in recent years documenting …..Previous research has documented/shown/demonstrated that …..To solve this problem/issue, many researchers have proposed various methods of (+-ing)In the literature, several theories have been proposed to explain …..

- Referring to individual authors:

….. and …. are discussed in [3] and [6].X [4] and Y [3] indicate that …..X et al. [1] argue that …..One of the first examples of ….. is presented in [2].Another/The latest solution is described in [3].The results obtained/offered by X in [5] suggest that …..Recently, several authors [4], [5], [7] have proposed (a new theory) …..X [2] and X [5] have demonstrated that …..A/The most interesting approach to this issue has been proposed by [2].X [6] has also found that ….. . However, our researchers have arrived at the conclusion/haveconcluded that …..….. was experimentally measured by [7].X et al. [7] studied ….. and showed that …..X [11] developed a novel sensor using …..In this work and in related references it was observed that …..In [8] it was shown that …..As reported by X [2], …..In a recent paper by X [9], …..

- Saying that little research has been done in a particular field:

However, to the author´s/authors´ best knowledge, very few publications can be found/are available in the literature that discuss/address the issue of ….

To the author´s/authors´ knowledge, ….. has/have been scarcely investigated from the point of view of …../from the theoretical point of view.

- Pointing out limitations of previous researchA key limitation of this research is that (it does not address the problem of …..)The major drawback of this approach is …..However, most of the previous studies do not take into account …..This approach may not be practical/orthodox/conventional in all situations.Reference [3] analyses and compares various aspects of ….. . Nevertheless, there are still some

interesting and relevant problems to be addressed.However, studies on ….. are still lacking.The problem with this approach is in that it …..Although several studies have indicated that ….., little attention has been paid/given to …..

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3. Problem statement, purpose/main objective of the paper

Problem statement and description of the objective of the paper are very specific parts of the paper and the phrases used depend on the nature of the problem. Examples showing how closely this part is related to the literature review and previous research are given below.

(A ….. theory of ….. ) has recently been presented in [..…]. However, several practical questions arise when dealing with .….: 1) It is important to (identify …..). 2) It is key to (predict …..). 3. It is crucial to (establish when …..). To answer all these questions, we present an original approach which ….. .

Even though (the efficiency of …..) has been improved in recent years, most improvements have been achieved by (minimizing the amount of energy lost in …..). Nonetheless, it is possible to further improve (the efficiency by …..). With this goal, this work (explores, seeks to …..).

Based on the approach presented in [3], the purpose of this paper is to ….In this paper, while we refer to our earlier work [2], [3], and [4], the focus is different.Like most authors, we …..The objective/aim of this paper/study is to propose …..The paper presents/proposes a new approach to …..This article introduces a new type of …..In this paper, we/the authors offer …..In this paper, we explore the possibility of …..In this study, a new technique that improves ….. is suggested.

4. Framework of the paper (usually the last part of the Introduction)

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows/into ….. sections:Section II describes/outlines ….., Section III discusses/analyses ….. . (Experimental results) are

presented in Section IV; Section V concludes the paper.In Section II, ….. will be discussed. Section III is devoted to ….. . Section IV presents (the

experimental results). The conclusion is reported in Section V.The proposed (design) is discussed in Section II (The implementation of the proposed design)

is presented in Section III. Section IV shows (the experimental results of …..). Finally, Section V concludes with a summary.

In Section II we explain ….. . In Section III we introduce our ….. . The measurements are presented in Section IV. Section V summarizes the results of this work and draws conclusions.

1. Some students cannot begin writing the body of the paper until they feel they have the perfect introduction. Be aware of the dangers of sinking too much time into the introduction. Some of that time can be more usefully channeled into planning and writing.

2. You may be the kind of writer who writes an introduction first in order to explore your own thinking on the topic. If so, remember that you may at a later stage need to compress your introduction.

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3. It can be fine to leave the writing of the introduction for a later stage in the paper-writing process. Some people write their introduction only after they have completed the rest of the paper. Others write the introduction first but rewrite it significantly in light of what they end up saying in the body of their paper.

4. The introductions for most papers can be effectively written in one paragraph occupying half to three-quarters of the first page. Your introduction may be longer than that, and it may take more than one paragraph, but be sure you know why. The size of your introduction should bear some relationship to the length and complexity of your paper. A twenty page paper may call for a two-page introduction, but a five-page paper will not.

5. Get to the point as soon as possible. Generally, you want to raise your topic in your very first sentences. A common error is to begin too broadly or too far off topic. Avoid sweeping generalizations.

How do I write an interesting, effective introduction?Consider these strategies for capturing your readers' attention and for fleshing out

your introduction:1. Find a startling statistic that illustrates the seriousness of the problem you will

address.2. Quote an expert (but be sure to introduce him or her first).3. Mention a common misperception that your thesis will argue against.4. Give some background information necessary for understanding the paper.5. Explain key scientific concepts and refer to relevant literature. Lead up to your

own contribution or intervention.6. In a more technical paper, define a term that is possibly unfamiliar to your

audience but is central to understanding the paper.

In fleshing out your introduction, you will want to avoid some common pitfalls:

1. Don't provide dictionary definitions, especially of words your audience already knows.

2. Don't repeat the assignment specifications using the professor's wording.3. Don't give details and in-depth explanations that really belong in your body

paragraphs. You can usually postpone background material to the body of the paper.

Exercise 1What is the purpose of the introduction to an academic paper? Choose from

the items below:

a) to define some of the terms in the titleb) to give your opinion of the subjectc) to show that you have read some research on the subjectd) to show that the subject is worth writing aboute) to explain which areas of the subject you will deal with

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f) to get the reader’s attention with a provocative ideag) to show how you intend to organize your paper

Exercise 2Study the extracts from introductions below, and decide which of the

functions in the box they fulfil.

1) explain starting point or research2) state aims/goals3) refer to recent research in same area4) give results of research5) provide background information6) concede limitations

a) In many companies, the knowledge of most employees remains untapped for solving problems and generating new ideas.

b) This paper positions call centres at the core of the mix of technologies public administration can use to innovate e-commerce.

c) In fact, this is one of our main findings based on an extended sample period up to 1998.

d) Admittedly, the tenor of my argument is tentative and exploratory.e) The purpose of this paper is to investigate changes in the incidence of extreme

warm and cold temperatures over the globe since 1870 . . .f) To what extent do increases in the food available per person at a national level

contribute to reductions in child malnutrition? This question has generated a wide range of responses (Haddad et al., 1997).

MAIN BODYThe main body of an academic paper comprises of the points that you have first

established in the introduction. The main body will contain paragraphs which will explain the arguments you have settled to prove your stance of the topic. After the introductory paragraph, each paragraph should explain one argument and narrate details about it. It is best if you can add facts and figures about the relevant argument of your topic. Remember that each paragraph should connect to previous one. For that you can make the first sentence an interactive sentence which will act as a connection.

The structure of the main body depends on the length of the paper. Special phrases can be used to mark the beginning of new paragraphs, or the introduction of new topics.

To introduce a new paragraph/topic:The main/chief factor/issue is . . .Turning to the subject of . . .Moving on to the question of . . .Another important area is . . .. . . . . . . . . . should also be examined.

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To add information inside a paragraph:a) Firstly, . . . The first point . . . In the first place . . .b) Secondly, . . . Next, . . . . Then, . . . In addition . . . Moreover . . .c) Finally, . . . Lastly, . . .

The Body of the paper is very specific in its content. For this reason, the number of generally applicable phrases is smaller than in the other parts. Examples of some of these phrases are given below. There are, however, linguistic means common to all kinds of research papers, i.e. words and phrases expressing cause, results, addition, similarity, etc.

1. Materials and Methods/ Methods of Approach

- Describing what was done and how it was done

We started by investigating …..We designed a new technique for ……We used a new approach.These experiments were carried out to find out …..In order to verify the validity of the ….. method, we carried out several experiments.The (signals) were measured before and after …..The ….. analysis was performed in order to …..We checked for the presence of …..The increase in ….. was not caused by/was not due to a decrease in …...The (optimized condition) was obtained from ….

- Describing numerical methods

The equation that describes ….. is as follows:Equation X represents/defines/expresses …..The equation can be written as .…., where …..Thus, the following equation is obtained:….. can be computed by the following equation:Equations X and Y approximate (the original formulas).….. satisfies equation X.Equations X and Y demonstrate that ….. X implies that …..….. is described by Y.The function f is given/defined by…...It follows from X that …..We can now proceed analogously to …..This is true for …../This holds for …..Similarly, X is also valid/true for the following relation.We will make the following assumptions: …..From now on we assume that …..Let us define the following dependence/relation by/as …..Equality holds in (10) if and only if …..

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The inequality is satisfied if and only if …..We shall write the above expression as …..In this way we obtain …...According to X we have/obtain …..…. is obtained as .…./can be obtained as …..….. takes the form ….. /….. can be written in the form …..As is clear from X…..We first prove that …../Let us first prove that …..It remains to prove that …..It is clear/evident/obvious that …..From this we conclude/see/deduce that …..- Referring to/Describing figures, graphs, tables, diagramsFig. 2 shows/presents/depicts/outlines/illustrates/represents …..Fig. 3 gives an example of …..Such cases are depicted in the following figures.This is illustrated in Fig. 5.….. is/are shown/given in Figs. 3 and 4.….. can be found in Fig. 8.Consider Fig. 2, which plots ….. versus/against ….. .As can be seen from Figs. 5 and 3, …..As shown in Fig. 1, …..As follows from the figures shown above, …..From this figure it can be seen that …..For the resulting plot, see Fig. 2.For visual representation of the dependence ….. the reader is referred to Tables V and VI.Table II summarizes …..The graph/diagram suggests/indicates that …..

2.Results

Some of the phrases listed under Materials and Methods may also be suitable for the Results section, e.g. summarizing what was done, referring to diagrams, graphs, etc.

It has been found that …..The results show that …..The results thus obtained are compatible with …..The overall measurement results are summarized in Table II.As mentioned earlier/above, …..The previous sections have shown that …..This method is based on …..The method was tested on …..The method is an effective way to improve …..The analysis and simulation indicate that …..The …. analysis plays a crucial role in …..As may be seen below, …..We have introduced a new approach to …..A similar approach is used for …..This approach may fail if/due to …..One of the big advantages of (this approach/method) .…. is that …..To verify this method, ….. is compared with …..

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The only disadvantage/drawback of such ….. is …..There is no evident relationship between ….. and …..….. are in good agreement/correspond with …..There is a good match between ….. and …..To illustrate the result, a simulation of ….. was performed.The simulation results match the calculations.The differences in (temperature) result in significant differences in …..The decrease/increase in ….. can be contributed to …..To overcome/avoid this problem/difficulty, it is necessary to adopt a …..One possible solution to this problem is to (use) ……This solution requires …..

3. Discussion

In this paper we propose/examine/study …..This paper proposes/has proposed …..The purpose of the paper/study is to …..The paper presents/has presented several solutions to …..This paper is a modest contribution to the ongoing discussions about/on …..It was the main purpose of the paper to draw attention to …..The main concern of the paper was to …..In our paper, the focus of attention was/is on …..This study shows/has shown that …..This experiment/technique/demonstrates that …..Particular attention is paid to …..The author´s attention was focused/concentrated not only on ….. but also on …..We have addressed not only ….. but also …..We have also considered the consequences of …..Our paper presents an innovative/a novel view of …..The originality of our solution lies in the fact that …..This is a novel solution to …..Our results describe for the first time the …..To our knowledge, this is the first study to deal with/examine/investigate …..Only one other study, to our knowledge, has come up with …..This paper presents a pilot study to find the answer to …..Our observations that ….. are not new, but …..- Interpreting the factsThe data obtained is/are broadly consistent with the major trends …..These results agree/concur/are consistent/are in good agreement with other studies which have shown

that …..In contrast to some reports in the literature, there were …..An important implication of these findings is that …..The finding was quite unexpected/surprising and suggests that …..The most likely explanation of the negative result is …..The findings have a number of possible limitations, namely …..So far, the significance of this finding is not clear.The main limitation of the experimental result is …..One question still unanswered is whether …..The analysis does not enable us to determine …..These results are not conclusive.

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Exercise 1: Follow the link: http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al/learning_english/leap/writing/body/activity/

CONCLUSIONS The conclusion is the last brick in the structure and is very important. Impression

is usually determined by the quality and persuasiveness of its starting and concluding paragraphs. There is usually a link between the starting point, i.e. the title, and the conclusion. If the title is asking a question the answer should be contained in the conclusion. The reader may look at the conclusion first to get a summary of the main arguments or points. The concluding paragraph must contain the following details:

- It must be able to sum up the whole paper.- You should state your general conclusion in it.- Describes the importance or significance of your arguments.- It should not contain anything new.

Some general advice about conclusions1. A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your

thesis. If you wish to summarize—and often you must—do so in fresh language. Remind the reader of how the evidence you've presented has contributed to your research.

2. The conclusion, like much of the rest of the paper, involves critical thinking. Reflect upon the significance of what you've written. Try to convey some closing thoughts about the larger implications of your argument.

3. Broaden your focus a bit at the end of the article. A good last sentence leaves your reader with something to think about, a concept in some way illuminated by what you've written in the paper.

4. For most papers, one well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion. In some cases, a two-or-three paragraph conclusion may be appropriate.

How do I write an interesting, effective conclusion?The following strategies may help you move beyond merely summarizing the key

points of your paper:1. If your paper deals with a contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible

consequences of not attending to the problem.2. Recommend a specific course of action.3. Use an apt quotation or expert opinion to lend authority to the conclusion you

have reached.4. Give a startling statistic, fact, or visual image to drive home the ultimate point

of your paper.5. If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding

point with a relevant narrative drawn from your own life experiences.6. Return to an anecdote, example, or quotation that you introduced in your

introduction, but add further insight that derives from the body of your paper.

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7. In a science or social science paper, mention worthwhile avenues for future research on your topic.

Conclusion Words

Sometimes “conclusion” words like these will help you write the conclusion of a paper. Most of the time, using the word or phrase in the middle of a sentence is better than making it the first word of the conclusion.

in fact in conclusion for these reasons as a result of in effect altogetherindeed surely clearly to sum up overall truly all in all due toobviously definitely ultimately thus in effect consequently after allall things considered briefly by and large in any case in any event  

in brief on the whole in short in summary in the final analysis in the long run on balance to summarize finally

The Conclusion(s) section usually starts with

- Stating the objective

The objective presented in the Conclusion(s) section should agree with the objective stated

in the Introduction.

- Drawing conclusions

From the research that has been carried out/done/conducted/performed/undertaken, it is possible to conclude that …..Based on the results, it can be concluded that the research into ….. has been very successful.From the outcome of our investigation it is possible to conclude that …..The findings of our research are quite convincing, and thus the following conclusions can be drawn:

…..Summing up the results, it can be concluded that …..In conclusion, it is evident that this study has shown …..This paper has clearly shown that …..It has been demonstrated/shown/found that …..The results/data obtained indicate/have indicated/suggest/show that …..The existence of (these effects ) implies that …..

- Suggesting possible application(s)

The proposed method can be readily used in practice.The technique/approach/result is applicable to …..….. can be successfully used for a number of ….. applications.The/our ….. has great potential for other applications such as …..This research was concerned with …..; however, the results should be applicable also to …..The findings suggest that this approach could also be useful for …..The findings are of direct practical relevance.

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- Suggesting further research

In our future research we intend to concentrate on …..Future work will involve …..On the basis of the promising findings presented in this paper, work on the remaining issues is continuing and will be presented in future papers.The next stage of our research will be (experimental confirmation of our theory).Further study of the issue would be of interest.Clearly, further research will be needed/required to prove/validate …..Several other questions remain to be addressed/resolved.More research into ….. is still necessary before obtaining a definitive answer to …..Further study of the issue is still required.Further research on/into ….. is desirable/necessary (to extend our knowledge of) …..Continuing/continued research on/into ….. appears fully justified because …..More tests/experiments/calculations will be needed to verify whether …..

Exercise 1. Read the following extracts from conclusions and match them with the list of functions in the box.

1) comparisons with other studies2) summary of main body3) limitations of research4) suggestions for further research5) practical implications and proposals

a) In this review, attempts have been made to summarise and assess the current research trends of transgenic rice dealing exclusively with agronomically important genes.

b) As always, this investigation has a number of limitations to be considered in evaluating its findings.

c) Obviously, business expatriates could benefit from being informed that problem focused coping strategies are more effective than symptom focused ones.

d) Another line of research worth pursuing further is to study the importance of language for expatriate assignments.

e) Our review of thirteen studies of strikes in public transport demonstrates that the effect of a strike on public transport ridership varies and may either be temporary or permanent . . .

f) These results of the Colombia study reported here are consistent with other similar studies conducted in other countries (Baron and Norman, 1992).

g) To be more precise, there was a positive relation between tolerant and patient problem solving and all four measures of adjustment: general, interaction, work and subjective well-being.

h) To empirically test this conjecture, we need more cross-national replication of this research.

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REFERENCES AND QUOTATIONS

Academic writing relies on more than just the ideas and experience of one author. It also uses the ideas and research of other sources: books, journal articles, websites, and so forth. These other sources may be used to support the author's ideas, or the author may be discussing, analysing, or critiquing other sources. Referencing is used to tell the reader where ideas from other sources have been used in an assignment. There are many reasons why it is important to reference sources correctly:

It shows the reader that you can find and use sources to create a solid argument It properly credits the originators of ideas, theories, and research findings It shows the reader how your argument relates to the big picture

Once you have chosen a topic for a paper, have researched a topic, and have begun writing, your next concern is often how to cite the information that you want to use within their paper.  The most important thing to remember about citing sources is that you must give credit to the sources you are using whether you are taking the information word-for-word (a direct quote) or just paraphrasing (putting the information in your own words for an indirect quote).  You also need to provide the proper citation when you are summarizing information from an outside source (stating in your own words information from a source briefly but concisely). Another important part of citing sources is to be aware of when you are over-using outside information in your writing.  For example, some students write papers in which almost every sentence is a direct or an indirect quote.  There is nothing in a paper like this that is contributed by the student.  The point of a research paper is not just to provide a lot of information through outside sources, but to analyze that information and comment upon it.  You need to include your own opinions, observations, and analysis in your papers; otherwise, there would be no point in someone reading your paper – he or she could just go to your outside sources and get the same information. To stop yourself from over-using outside sources, keep this simple rule in mind:  For every line of a direct or indirect quote that you use, have at least one line of your own commentary or analysis regarding that quote.  For example, if you have a quote that is three lines long, have at least three lines of your own writing in which you comment on that quote.  This way the reader knows (A) that you understand what the quote means and (B) that you are using the quote for a reason, not just to take up space.    

Exercise 1: Study the sample annotated bibliography below.This is an example of an annotation with its appropriately referenced source, using

APA referencing. This example is from Jingjing Jiang's annotated bibliography written for a Massey University assignment in 2006.

Thaman, K.H. (1994). Ecotourism-friendly or the new sell? One woman's view of ecotourism in Pacific Island countries. In A. Emberson-Bain (Ed.), Sustainable development or malignant growth? Perspectives of Pacific Island women (pp. 183-193). Suva, Fiji: Marama Publications.

Thaman argues that there is an inherent contradiction between cultural conservation and ecotourism business: the latter always leads to the erosion of the former. Thaman

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addresses the importance of indigenous culture, and recognises the gradually increasing phenomenon of cultural alienation. She rejects applying the Western model of ecotourism in the Pacific, and incisively maintains that ecotourism has become a new sell in Pacific Islands, promoted by profits. Consequently, she advocates "ecocultural tourism development" as an alternative form of development. Further, Thaman touches on the issue of gender, and emphasises the role of education in improving people's consciousness.

Like Simmons (1993), Thaman critically examines the crucial problems of ecotourism in developing countries, rather than accepting it as unproblematic. Similar to Scheyvens (1999), Thaman emphasises the importance of local people's full participation, and social and political empowerment, but in different ways. Also like Scheyvens, Thaman believes that it is possible to promote both development and conservation. Thaman's proposal of "ecocultural tourism development" is fairly perceptive, constructive, and more radical than Scheyven's community-based approach. Although Thaman provides incisive views on ecotourism, it is difficult to change people's perceptions radically, and it is unrealistic for foreign donors to relinquish certain rights and provide aid unconditionally. Moreover, Thaman fails to find any solutions derived from the local community's own perspective - what these people can do for their own sake, instead of depending on others.

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MODULE 5 REVISIONS: REWRITING, PROOFREADING, AND EDITING

Writing is revising. Many authors make this statement in various ways: writing is rewriting, writing is polishing, writing is proofreading and editing. The gist is that the bulk of work happens after the first draft. That is, once you’ve got your ideas down, the real craft of writing is making your work clear and presentable. One could argue that this means when the creative writing is done, the more mechanical process of polishing begins. Once you get all creative writing ideas out of your head, revision becomes critical. You may find that you spend more time revising than you did drafting. It becomes clear that revision is essential.

Revisions: Rewriting, Proofreading, and EditingRevision is all about change. More specifically, it’s about making changes that

improve our work. Rewriting, proofreading, and editing are all revision methods. Each has a specific function.

Rewriting is the process of making deep, contextual changes to a piece of written work.

Editing may deal loosely with context but its true focus is on readability. Are the best word choices made? Do the sentences make sense? Are the paragraphs well organized? Does the work read smoothly and effortlessly? The primary purpose of editing is to make the work ready for a readership.

Proofreading is limited to checking for correctness. Proofreading focuses on grammar, spelling, and punctuation (including typos and syntax).

Proofreading can be much easier when you know what you are looking for. Although everyone will have different error patterns, the following are issues that come up for many writers. When proofreading your paper, be on the lookout for these errors. Always remember to make note of what errors you make frequently—this will help you proofread more efficiently in the future!

Spelling Do NOT rely on your computer's spell-check—it will not get everything! Examine each word in the paper individually by reading carefully. Moving a pencil

under each line of text helps you to see each word. If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly. Be especially careful of words that are typical spelling nightmares, like "ei/ie" words

and homonyms like your/you're, to/too/two, and there/their/they're.

Left-out and doubled wordsReading the paper aloud (and slowly) can help you make sure you haven't missed or

repeated any words.

Fragment Sentences Make sure each sentence has a subject. In the following sentence, the subject is

"students": The students looked at the OWL website.

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Make sure each sentence has a complete verb. In the following sentence, "were" is required to make a complete verb; "trying" alone would be incomplete: They were trying to improve their writing skills.

See that each sentence has an independent clause; remember that a dependent clause cannot stand on its own. The following sentence is a dependent clause that would qualify as a fragment sentence: Which is why the students read all of the handouts carefully.

Run-on Sentences Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause. If there is more than one independent clause, check to make sure the clauses are

separated by the appropriate punctuation. Sometimes, it is just as effective (or even more so) to simply break the sentence into

separate sentences instead of including punctuation to separate the clauses.Example run-on: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports all

I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.Edited version: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports, and

all I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.Another option: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports. All

I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.

Comma Splices Look at the sentences that have commas. Check to see if the sentence contains two main clauses. If there are two main clauses, they should be connected with a comma and a

conjunction like and, but, for, or, so, yet. Another option is to take out the comma and insert a semicolon instead.Example: I would like to write my paper about basketball, it's a topic I can talk about

at length.Edited version: I would like to write my paper about basketball because it's a topic I

can talk about at length.Edited version, using a semicolon: I would like to write my paper about basketball; it's

a topic I can talk about at length.

Subject/Verb Agreement Find the subject of each sentence. Find the verb that goes with the subject. The subject and verb should match in number, meaning that if the subject is plural,

the verb should be as well and vice versa.Example: Students at the university level usually is very busy.Edited version: Students at the university level usually are very busy.

Mixed construction

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Read through your sentences carefully to make sure that they do not start with one sentence structure and shift to another. A sentence that does this is called a mixed construction.

Example: Since I have a lot of work to do is why I can't go out tonight.Edited version: Since I have a lot of work to do, I can't go out tonight.

ParallelismLook through your paper for series of items and make sure these items are in parallel

form.Example: Being a good friend involves good listening skills, to be considerate, and

that you know how to have fun.Edited version: Being a good friend involves knowing how to listen, being considerate,

and having fun.

Pronoun Reference/Agreement Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun. Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces. If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change the pronoun to a noun. If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun.

Apostrophes Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end in "s." If the "s" is used to

indicate possession, there should be an apostrophe, as in Mary's book. Look over the contractions, like you're for you are, it's for it is, etc. Each of these

should include an apostrophe. Remember that apostrophes are not used to make words plural. When making a word

plural, only an "s" is added, not an apostrophe and an "s."

Exercise 1: Sentence Structure. Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses.

The following sentences in italics are incorrect. Make your suggestions to fix the errors.

1. Incorrect: I like this class, it is very interesting.

A comma splice is the use of a comma between two independent clauses. You can usually fix the error by changing the comma to a period and therefore making the two clauses into two separate sentences, by changing the comma to a semicolon, or by making one clause dependent by inserting a dependent marker word in front of it.

2. Incorrect: My professor is intelligent I've learned a lot from her.

Repair the Fused Sentence. Fused sentences happen when there are two independent clauses not separated by any form of punctuation. This error is also

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known as a run-on sentence. The error can sometimes be corrected by adding a period, semicolon, or colon to separate the two sentences.

3. Incorrect: Because I forgot the exam was today.

Fix the Sentence Fragment. Sentence fragments happen by treating a dependent clause or other incomplete thought as a complete sentence. You can usually fix this error by combining it with another sentence to make a complete thought or by removing the dependent marker.

Exercise 2: Sentence Fragments The sentences below appeared in papers written by students. Act as their editor,

marking a C if the sentences in the group are all complete and an F if any of the sentences in the group is a fragment. Could you tell these writers why the fragments are incomplete sentences?

____ 1. Then I attended Morris Junior High. A junior high that was a bad experience.

____ 2. The scene was filled with beauty. Such as the sun sending its brilliant rays to the earth and the leaves of various shades of red, yellow, and brown moving slowly in the wind.

____ 3. He talked for fifty minutes without taking his eyes off his notes. Like other teachers in that department, he did not encourage students' questions.

____ 4. Within each group, a wide range of features to choose from. It was difficult to distinguish between them.

____ 5. A few of the less serious fellows would go into a bar for a steak dinner and a few glasses of beer. After this meal, they were ready for anything.

____ 6. It can be really embarrassing to be so emotional. Especially when you are on your first date, you feel that you should be in control.

____ 7. The magazine has a reputation for a sophisticated, prestigious, and elite group of readers. Although that is a value judgment and in circumstances not a true premise.

____ 8. In the seventh grade every young boy goes out for football. To prove to himself and his parents that he is a man.

____ 9. She opened the door and let us into her home. Not realizing at the time that we would never enter that door in her home again.

____10. As Christmas grows near, I find myself looking back into my childhood days at fun-filled times of snowball fights. To think about this makes me happy.

____11. Making up his mind quickly. Jim ordered two dozen red roses for his wife. Hoping she would accept his apology.

____12. They were all having a good time. Until one of Joe's oldest and best friends had a little too much to drink.

____13. Although it only attained a speed of about twelve miles an hour. My old rowboat with its three-horsepower motor seemed like a high-speed job to me.

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____14. With my brother standing by my side, I reached for the pot handle. Tilting the pot way too much caused the boiling water to spill.

____15. The small, one-story houses are all the same size and style. With no difference except the color.

____16. Being a friend of mine like he was when we first joined the soccer team. Together we learned a lot.

Exercise 3: Sentence FragmentsThese paragraphs need proofreading for possible fragments. Use the space below

each paragraph for revising.1. How can a person find patriotism in a local night club? Well, it did not take me too

long. About four weeks ago in a little night club in Louisville, Kentucky, a couple of my friends, Rick and Lon, the duo who were providing the entertainment that night for the club.  

2. For the past twenty years, the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan has been measuring the level of Americans' trust and confidence in their politicians and quasi-political trust and confidence in their political institutions and their leaders. "Political" being all levels of government, and "quasi-political" churches, labor unions, large professional/business associations, educational institutions, and the like. The result is that a very sharp decline has taken place every year since 1964.

3. For 200 years Americans believed in better jobs, better homes, a better life for one's children. This confidence no longer exists. Polls now indicate that fewer Americans feel they are better off today than they were five years ago. A public-opinion analysis group has found that large numbers of Americans, at some times and in some places, see themselves as lower on the ladder. Adding worse living conditions and anticipation of further decline over the next five years.

4. Well, in looking at the picture at the left you see an old lady. She has a very funny look on her face. As if she's lonely and just wants to be left alone. She also looks as if she has seen a lot and experienced lots of things.

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5. A president is an appointed leader. Someone who is a decision maker in the executive branch of our government. This doesn't necessarily mean that the person the people elect is capable. Just hopefully assumes. Assumes through his past record as a politician, over the years' buildup of experience and handling situations.

Exercise 4: Sentence Fragments The following paragraph has no capital letters or periods to mark the beginnings

and ends of sentences. Add capitals, periods, commas, and/or other punctuation that may be needed to make the word groups into complete sentences. Your goal is to be sure that there are no fragments.

...my brother was always my best friend when I was a child especially as we two were

almost alone in the world we lived with our old grandmother in a little house, almost a shack, in the country whenever I think of him now I see a solemn, responsible boy a boy too old for his years who looked out for me no matter what once there was a bully John Anson who looked enormous to me though he was probably an average twelve-year-old John had it in for me because he liked Littice Grant who liked me he decided to beat me up right before her eyes I was lucky my brother came by he didn't interfere any he just stood there somehow though his presence gave me confidence I licked the stuffing out of John Anson if my brother hadn't been there I don't think I could have done it.

Exercise 5: Run-ons, Comma Splices, and Fused SentencesRun-ons, comma splices, and fused sentences are all names given to compound

sentences that are not punctuated correctly. The best way to avoid such errors is to punctuate compound sentences correctly by using one or the other of these rules.

Join the two independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet), and use a comma before the connecting word.

_________________________, and _________________________.1. He enjoys walking through the country. He often goes backpacking on his vacations. When you do not have a connecting word (or when you use a connecting word other

than and, but, for, or nor, so, or yet between the two independent clauses) use a semicolon (;).

__________________________;_____________________________.2. He often watched TV when there were only reruns. She preferred to read instead.or__________________________; however,____________________. So, run-ons and fused sentences are terms describing two independent clauses that are

joined together with no connecting word or punctuation to separate the clauses. The

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following sentences are both examples that are missing the connecting words and/or the appropriate punctuation. 

3. They weren't dangerous criminals they were detectives in disguise.4. I didn't know which job I wanted I was too confused to decide.

Exercise 6: Subject and Verb Agreement Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject.1. Annie and her brothers (is, are) at school.2. Either my mother or my father (is, are) coming to the meeting.3. The dog or the cats (is, are) outside.4. Either my shoes or your coat (is, are) always on the floor.5. George and Tamara (doesn't, don't) want to see that movie.6. Benito (doesn't, don't) know the answer.7. One of my sisters (is, are) going on a trip to France.8. The man with all the birds (live, lives) on my street.9. The movie, including all the previews, (take, takes) about two hours to watch.10. The players, as well as the captain, (want, wants) to win.11. Either answer (is, are) acceptable.12. Every one of those books (is, are) fiction.13. Nobody (know, knows) the trouble I've seen.14. (Is, Are) the news on at five or six?15. Mathematics (is, are) John's favorite subject, while Civics (is, are) Andrea's

favorite subject.16. Eight dollars (is, are) the price of a movie these days.17. (Is, Are) the tweezers in this drawer?18. Your pants (is, are) at the cleaner's.19. There (was, were) fifteen candies in that bag. Now there (is, are) only one left!20. The committee (debates, debate) these questions carefully.21. The committee (leads, lead) very different lives in private.22. The Prime Minister, together with his wife, (greets, greet) the press cordially.23. All of the CDs, even the scratched one, (is, are) in this case.

Exercise 7: Eliminating Wordiness Revise these sentences to state their meaning in fewer words. Avoid passive voice,

needless repetition, and wordy phrases and clauses. The first sentence has been done as an example.

1. Although Bradley Hall is regularly populated by students, close study of the building as a structure is seldom undertaken by them. Bradley Hall is usually filled with students who do not study the building as a structure.

2. He dropped out of school on account of the fact that it was necessary for him to help support his family.

3. It is expected that the new schedule will be announced by the bus company within the next few days.

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4. There are many ways in which a student who is interested in meeting foreign students may come to know one.

5. It is very unusual to find someone who has never told a deliberate lie on purpose.6. Trouble is caused when people disobey rules that have been established for the

safety of all.7. A campus rally was attended by more than a thousand students. Five students were

arrested by campus police for disorderly conduct, while several others are charged by campus administrators with organizing a public meeting without being issued a permit to do so.

8. The subjects that are considered most important by students are those that have been shown to be useful to them after graduation.

9. In the not too distant future, college freshmen must all become aware of the fact that there is a need for them to make contact with an academic adviser concerning the matter of a major.

10. In our company there are wide-open opportunities for professional growth with a company that enjoys an enviable record for stability in the dynamic atmosphere of aerospace technology.

11. Some people believe in capital punishment, while other people are against it; there are many opinions on this subject.

Exercise 8: Eliminating Wordiness Combine each sentence group into one concise sentence.1. The cliff dropped to reefs seventy-five feet below. The reefs below the steep cliff

were barely visible through the fog.2. Their car is gassed up. It is ready for the long drive. The drive will take all night.3. Sometimes Stan went running with Blanche. She was a good athlete. She was on the

track team at school.4. Taylor brought some candy back from Europe. It wasn't shaped like American

candy. The candy tasted kind of strange to him.5. Government leaders like to mention the creation of new jobs. They claim that these

new jobs indicate a strong economy. They don't mention that low-wage jobs without benefits and security have replaced many good jobs.

Exercise 9: Eliminating Wordiness Revise the following passage, avoiding wordiness and undesirable repetition.A large number of people enjoy reading murder mysteries regularly. As a rule, these

people are not themselves murderers, nor would these people really ever enjoy seeing someone commit an actual murder, nor would most of them actually enjoy trying to solve an actual murder. They probably enjoy reading murder mysteries because of this reason: they have found a way to escape from the monotonous, boring routine of dull everyday existence.

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To such people the murder mystery is realistic fantasy. It is realistic because the people in the murder mystery are as a general rule believable as people. They are not just made up pasteboard figures. It is also realistic because the character who is the hero, the character who solves the murder mystery, solves it not usually by trial and error and haphazard methods but by exercising a high degree of logic and reason. It is absolutely and totally essential that people who enjoy murder mysteries have an admiration for the human faculty of logic.

But murder mysteries are also fantasies. The people who read such books of fiction play a game. It is a game in which they suspend certain human emotions. One of these human emotions that they suspend is pity. If the reader stops to feel pity and sympathy for each and every victim that is killed or if the reader stops to feel terrible horror that such a thing could happen in our world of today, that person will never enjoy reading murder mysteries. The devoted reader of murder mysteries keeps uppermost in mind at all times the goal of arriving through logic and observation at the final solution to the mystery offered in the book. It is a game with life and death. Whodunits hopefully help the reader to hide from the hideous horrors of actual life and death in the real world.

MODULE 6

GETTING YOUR RESEARCH PUBLISHED

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THE PROCESS OF PUBLISHING IN JOURNALS

Before writing or revising an article, decide on the target journal. Consider the following:

is it appropriate to subject matter and theoretical perspectives? what is the standing of the journal? Is it national or international? what is the size of circulation and frequency of citation? is the journal refereed or non-refereed?

Weigh up the risk of rejection versus the standing of the journal. It is essential to follow the advice to contributors published in the most recent edition of your chosen journal (if this is not available, ask the editors to send you a copy). Tailor your contribution to the style and content of the journal. You can check their potential interest in your paper, but don't ask for a commitment in advance.

Include a brief covering letter offering the manuscript for publication in the journal. Remember that editors do not want material that has been submitted elsewhere. After receiving an acknowledgement of receipt, get on with your life (you may have a long wait).

Acceptance is usually conditional on making some amendments. Rejection must be regarded as a normal part of the process, but don't give up: this is not the end of the process unless you say so. A rejection letter is usually accompanied by comments from editor and referees; sometimes it indicates that the paper was not properly understood. The fault may not be entirely yours, but rather than writing back an angry letter treat the feedback you received as useful advice: revise the paper and submit it elsewhere.

What needs to be referenced?Whenever an assignment uses words, facts, ideas, theories, or interpretations from

other sources, that source must be referenced. Referencing is needed when: You have copied words from a book, article, or other source exactly (quotation) You have used an idea or fact from an outside source, even if you haven't used their

exact wording (paraphrasing and summarising)The only exception to this is when the information is common knowledge, which is

something that anyone is likely to know. If you are uncertain whether to reference something or not, it is better to reference it.

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ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ

Академическое письмо как важный компонент речевой деятельности студентов-магистрантов выступает как цель высшей профессиональной подготовки будущих специалистов. Роль академического письма в повышении их качественной подготовки бесспорна.

Представленные в данном УПИ рекомендации к оформлению научных статей, а также задания способствуют развитию навыка генерировать собственные идеи, владеть стилем профессионального письма, избегать лексико-терминологические ошибки, структурировать текст как единое целое и др.

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СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ

1. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/606/1/2. http://writingcenter.tamu.edu/how-to/planning-drafting/thesis-statements/3. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/545/01/4. http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/aso/aso-online/academic-writing/thesis-statement.php5. http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/thesis.html6. http://faculty.ncwc.edu/lakirby/English%20090/090%20Thesis.htm7. http://www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/ac-paper/write.html8.http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/argument.html9.http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/588/01/10.http://writingcenter.tamu.edu/how-to/academic/arguments/11.http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/paragrph.html12.http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/paragraphs.html13. http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/argument.html14. http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/planning-and-organizing/paragraphs15. http://writingcenter.tamu.edu/how-to/planning-drafting/paragraph-construction/16. http://www.tlu.fbe.unimelb.edu.au/pdfs/GEP/GEPS110/ParagraphingTJB.pdf 17.http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/paragraphs.html18.http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/574/1/19.http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/transitions.html20.http://www.fas.harvard.edu/%7Ewricntr/documents/Transitions.html21.http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/trans2.html22.http://www.cws.illinois.edu/workshop/writers/tips/transitions/23.http://writingcenter.tamu.edu/c/how-to/learning-to-write-in-english/24.http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/1/5/25.http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/structure.html26.http://www.cws.illinois.edu/workshop/writers/27.http://writing-program.uchicago.edu/resources/grammar.htm    28. http://www.uefap.com/29. http://www.uefap.com/writing/exercise/plagiar/plagex3.htm30. https://ilrb.cf.ac.uk/plagiarism/exercise/index.html31. http://www4.caes.hku.hk/plagiarism/self_test.asp32. https://plagiarism.arts.cornell.edu/tutorial/exercises.cfm 33. http://web.uts.edu.au/teachlearn/avoidingplagiarism/tutorial/index.html34. https://www.grammarly.com/?breadcrumbs=true&page=fail_install35. http://www.york.ac.uk/celt/grammar-academic-writing/#tab-336. http://www.massey.ac.nz/massey/home.cfm37. http://simpson.edu/hawley/38.http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al/learning_english/leap/writing/body/activity/39. https://www.oxford-royale.co.uk/articles/words-phrases-good-essays.html40. https://www.asdk12.org/middlelink/la/writing/stepup/writing_conclusion.pdf

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References and further readingDavidson, C. & Lunt, N. (1998). Getting published is easy: The art and science of

writing academic journal articles. Auckland, New Zealand: Albany Campus, Massey University. [Massey Library link]

Davidson, C. & Lunt, N. (2000). The art of getting published: A guide for academics. Palmerston North, New Zealand: Dunmore Press. [Massey Library link]

Fondiller, S. H. (1999). The writer's workbook: Health professionals' guide to getting published (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. [Massey Library link]

Hamp-Lyons Liz & Courter Karen Berry (1984) Research matters. /Newbury House, pp. 161-166.

Hamp-Lyons, L. & Heasley, B. Study Writing: A Course in Written English for Academic Purposes/ Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Luey, B. (2002). Handbook for academic authors (4th ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. [Massey Library link]

Pears Richard & Shields Graham (2013) Cite Them Right. The Essential Referencing Guide. Ninth edition. 121 p.

Spack, R. (1988). Initiating ESL students into the academic discourse community: How far should we go? TESOL Quarterly, 22 (1).