Language and cognitionLanguage and cognition

Psychology, 15 April, Psychology, 15 April, 20102010

Zoltán JakabZoltán Jakab

The components of languageThe components of language• (1) Phonology(1) Phonology

-- The basic units of speech are -- The basic units of speech are phonemesphonemes. .

-- Each language uses only a subset of -- Each language uses only a subset of speech sounds that humans can speech sounds that humans can generategenerate

PhonotacticsPhonotactics

(2) Morphology and semantics(2) Morphology and semantics

• The units of language The units of language that have meaning of that have meaning of some sort belong to some sort belong to this level. this level.

• Morphology studies Morphology studies the internal structure the internal structure of words. Morphemes of words. Morphemes either have meaning either have meaning on their own, modify on their own, modify the meaning of the the meaning of the associated associated constituents.constituents.

(3) Syntax(3) Syntax

• The rules that specify how words can be combined into The rules that specify how words can be combined into meaningful phrases and sentences.meaningful phrases and sentences.

(1) [[Max and Samantha][went shopping]](1) [[Max and Samantha][went shopping]] Spelling out an intuitive distinction between subject Spelling out an intuitive distinction between subject

and predicate.and predicate.

Resolving ambiguityResolving ambiguity::(2) (2) Put the box on the table by the window in the kitchen.Put the box on the table by the window in the kitchen.

Put Put [[the boxthe box] [] [on the table by the window in the kitchenon the table by the window in the kitchen]]..

Put Put [[the box on the tablethe box on the table]] [[by the window in the kitchenby the window in the kitchen]]..

Put Put [[the box on the table by the windowthe box on the table by the window]] [[in the kitchenin the kitchen]]..

(4) Pragmatics(4) Pragmatics

(3) She will trip over that.(3) She will trip over that.

Literal meaning: there is a female human being who is Literal meaning: there is a female human being who is in danger of stumbling because there is an obstance in danger of stumbling because there is an obstance in her way.in her way.

Filling in the contextual details:Filling in the contextual details:

(3b) Sue will trip over that step-stool.(3b) Sue will trip over that step-stool.

A further element to reconstruct:A further element to reconstruct: there is a tacit there is a tacit imperative in these sentences (i.e., Would you please imperative in these sentences (i.e., Would you please remove that step-stool so that it does not block Sue’s remove that step-stool so that it does not block Sue’s way?)way?)

Language development: some Language development: some theoriestheories

• (1) The behaviorist approach (1) The behaviorist approach (Skinner)(Skinner)

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1957): Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1957): Verbal BehaviorVerbal Behavior

-- Language learning is the -- Language learning is the shaping of behavior via shaping of behavior via reinforcement schedulesreinforcement schedules

-- sounds are shaped into words, -- sounds are shaped into words, then words are shapes into then words are shapes into sentences. sentences.

-- Reinforcement is attention, -- Reinforcement is attention, approval, etc.approval, etc.

-- -- Communication pressure:Communication pressure: children children

-- -- ImitationImitation

Objections to the behaviorist accountObjections to the behaviorist accountNoam Chomsky’s reviewNoam Chomsky’s review

Imitation, reinforcement, and Imitation, reinforcement, and communication pressure communication pressure obviously play some role, obviously play some role, however…however…

……syntax is not shaped by syntax is not shaped by parents or caregivers parents or caregivers (parental feedback focuses on (parental feedback focuses on meaning, not grammaticality)meaning, not grammaticality)

……children are creative children are creative language users who gradually language users who gradually recognize and apply rules of recognize and apply rules of syntax resulting in special syntax resulting in special types of errors never shown types of errors never shown by adults or second language by adults or second language usersusers

children do not imitate a children do not imitate a grammatical rule until they grammatical rule until they have used it spontaneouslyhave used it spontaneously

• The scientist was baffled.• The scientist the boy talked to was

baffled.• (i.e., The scientist to whom the boy

talked was baffled)

• The scientist the boy(->the woman looked at) talked to was baffled.

- We can interpret novel and unfamiliar structures – ones we have never seen

- There are performance limitations though

Joint attentionJoint attention

Willingness to initiate and Willingness to initiate and maintain verbal communicationmaintain verbal communication

Motherese: slow talk, high-pitched Motherese: slow talk, high-pitched voice, simple utterances (e.g., voice, simple utterances (e.g., questions, imperatives) that are questions, imperatives) that are easily repeatableeasily repeatable

Parents gradually increase the Parents gradually increase the length and complexity of their length and complexity of their utterances (so that they are just utterances (so that they are just ahead of the child’s level, ahead of the child’s level, ”pulling” it forward) ”pulling” it forward) Zone of Zone of proximal development!proximal development!

Parents’ goal is effective Parents’ goal is effective communication, not, for communication, not, for instance, teaching grammarinstance, teaching grammar

Expansions, recasts, and topic Expansions, recasts, and topic extensionsextensions

Companions and language learning

NativismNativism

• N. Chomsky (1968):N. Chomsky (1968):

Humans are equipped with a language acquisition Humans are equipped with a language acquisition device (LAD). device (LAD).

The LAD is a language processor which contains a The LAD is a language processor which contains a universal grammar, common to all languages.universal grammar, common to all languages.

What are the principles or rules of universal grammar? What are the principles or rules of universal grammar? Are there such rules at all?Are there such rules at all?

An exampleAn exampleStructure Dependence: Structure Dependence: all rules of syntax, in all all rules of syntax, in all

languages, refer to syntactic categories, phrase structure, languages, refer to syntactic categories, phrase structure, or other entities of syntax.or other entities of syntax.

Isn’t this principle vacuous? Isn’t this principle vacuous?

A pair of rules:A pair of rules:• Nonexistent Rule #1:Nonexistent Rule #1: Invert the Invert the first and second wordfirst and second word

in a sentence to form a question (not structure dependent)in a sentence to form a question (not structure dependent)• ActualActual Rule #1: Rule #1: Invert Invert the subject and the auxiliary verbthe subject and the auxiliary verb

in a sentence to form a question. (structure dependent)in a sentence to form a question. (structure dependent)

Here are some linguistic data:Here are some linguistic data: two grammatical sentences two grammatical sentences

(4) John is singing. (4) John is singing.

(4’) Is John singing?(4’) Is John singing?

Which rule explains this Which rule explains this transformation? Can we choose?transformation? Can we choose?

Yes, if we have a little more linguistic input.Yes, if we have a little more linguistic input.

(5) That teacher is very good.(5) That teacher is very good.

(5’) *Teacher that is very good(5’) *Teacher that is very good?? (ungrammatical) (ungrammatical)

(5’’) Is that teacher very good? (OK)(5’’) Is that teacher very good? (OK)

ActualActual RRule#1 explains the formation of both ule#1 explains the formation of both grammtical questionsgrammtical questions it wins, the other is out. it wins, the other is out.

Can we generalize? No language studied so far violates Can we generalize? No language studied so far violates the structure dependence principle.the structure dependence principle.

Another universal:Another universal: Case filter Case filter• All noun phrases are case-assigned, even if All noun phrases are case-assigned, even if

their case is not overtly marked.their case is not overtly marked. SamanthaSamantha

(6) Max thought (6) Max thought she she had cheated on him.had cheated on him.**herher

SamanthaSamantha(7) Max thought (7) Max thought **sheshe to have cheated on to have cheated on

him.him.herher

SamanthaSamantha(8) It was thought(8) It was thought she she cheated on Max.cheated on Max.

**herher

SamanthaSamantha(9) (9) **It was thoughtIt was thought sheshe to have cheated on Max.to have cheated on Max.

herher

Types of universalsTypes of universals

• (1) Syntactic categories (verb, noun, etc.)(1) Syntactic categories (verb, noun, etc.)

• (2) Constraints on the types of rules that can occur (2) Constraints on the types of rules that can occur in different languages (structure dependence; in different languages (structure dependence; case case filterfilter: noun phrases must be assigned case, even : noun phrases must be assigned case, even when it is not overtly marked)when it is not overtly marked)

• (3) Implications (e.g., if nouns have gender, then (3) Implications (e.g., if nouns have gender, then pronouns do too).pronouns do too).

The principles and parameters The principles and parameters approachapproach

• Why are the rules of syntax in a particular language Why are the rules of syntax in a particular language what they are?what they are?

• How can we connect the general principles of universal How can we connect the general principles of universal grammar with the particular rules that obtain in grammar with the particular rules that obtain in different natural languages?different natural languages?

• Universal principlesUniversal principles plus plus parameter settingparameter setting – the latter – the latter is triggered by linguistic input. is triggered by linguistic input.

• Example: the Example: the pro-drop parameterpro-drop parameter. Some languages . Some languages allow optional deletion of the grammatical subject; allow optional deletion of the grammatical subject; others don’t. others don’t.

It is raining.It is raining.Esik. [Rain-Esik. [Rain-3rd-singular3rd-singular]]

Are you guys hungry?Are you guys hungry?Éhesek vagytok? [HungryÉhesek vagytok? [Hungry--pluralplural is- is-2nd-2nd-pluralplural]]

Toward an explanation of linguistic Toward an explanation of linguistic knowledgeknowledge

• UG and the variable parameters specify what kind of language UG and the variable parameters specify what kind of language processing system we are born with, namely…processing system we are born with, namely…

a biological system that can handle or implement the complex a biological system that can handle or implement the complex formal system provided by Chomskian linguistic theoryformal system provided by Chomskian linguistic theory

• The interaction between genetic blueprint and linguistic The interaction between genetic blueprint and linguistic environment leads to the internal representation of one’s environment leads to the internal representation of one’s known languagesknown languages

Support for nativismSupport for nativism• The arguments are similar The arguments are similar

to those which undermine to those which undermine behaviorismbehaviorism

• The poverty of the The poverty of the stimulusstimulus

• Speed;Speed; nono explicit teching explicit teching• Children form many novel Children form many novel

sentences; sentences; and make and make ‘creative’ mistakes‘creative’ mistakes

• AAcquisition has culture-cquisition has culture-independent steps and independent steps and stages.stages.

Sensitive periodSensitive period

• Children before puberty spontaneously acquire Children before puberty spontaneously acquire languages that they are exposed to. languages that they are exposed to.

• This differs much from the second-language This differs much from the second-language acquisition of grownups which takes a lot of effort.acquisition of grownups which takes a lot of effort.

• The prognosis for recovering from traumatic aphasia The prognosis for recovering from traumatic aphasia depends on the age at which the injury was sustained.depends on the age at which the injury was sustained.

• Children who suffer brain damage before age 5 will Children who suffer brain damage before age 5 will recover all or most of their language without special recover all or most of their language without special therapy.therapy.

• After puberty, aphasic patients need extensive After puberty, aphasic patients need extensive therapy even for partial recovery.therapy even for partial recovery.

Some problems with nativismSome problems with nativism

• Child language does differ in several respects from Child language does differ in several respects from the language of adults. Children do not really speak the language of adults. Children do not really speak like adults, and it does take a long time until they like adults, and it does take a long time until they reach full proficiency in their native language.reach full proficiency in their native language.

• What causes this difference between child language What causes this difference between child language and adult language?and adult language?

Nativist answer:Nativist answer:

(1) Competence vs. performance: (1) Competence vs. performance:

-- children’s memory span is below adult levels-- children’s memory span is below adult levels

-- their vocabulary is small-- their vocabulary is small

-- articulatory control is under development -- articulatory control is under development

(2) Parameter setting is not yet complete.(2) Parameter setting is not yet complete.

A variant of nativism: Steven PinkerA variant of nativism: Steven Pinker

The Semantic bootstrapping The Semantic bootstrapping hypothesis:hypothesis: children utilize children utilize their semantic knowledge to their semantic knowledge to access grammatical categories access grammatical categories when learning their first when learning their first language.language.

Early combinations are guided Early combinations are guided by heuristic principles of by heuristic principles of limited validitylimited validity

These rudimentary principles These rudimentary principles refine later.refine later.

Some interesting evidence for Some interesting evidence for nativism, I.nativism, I.

• Linguistic isolation (Susan Linguistic isolation (Susan Goldin-meadow and Carolyn Goldin-meadow and Carolyn Mylander, 1984)Mylander, 1984)

• Deaf children with hearing Deaf children with hearing parentsparents

-- invented verbs, nouns, and -- invented verbs, nouns, and adjectives, formed adjectives, formed sentencessentences

-- --

Some interesting evidence for Some interesting evidence for nativism, II.nativism, II.

• Pidgin and creole Pidgin and creole languages (Derek languages (Derek Bickerton, 1983).Bickerton, 1983).

Within a generationWithin a generation

Children are thought to be Children are thought to be responsibleresponsible

-- Children do not use pidgin-- Children do not use pidgin

-- New grammatical rules -- New grammatical rules inventedinvented

-- Syntax mirrors patterns of -- Syntax mirrors patterns of language acquisition language acquisition

-- Similarities all over the -- Similarities all over the worldworld

Interactionism and language Interactionism and language acquisitionacquisition

• Piaget; Vigotsky; Elizabeth Bates; Piaget; Vigotsky; Elizabeth Bates; M. TomaselloM. Tomasello

• The role of general cognitive The role of general cognitive developmentdevelopment

• Communication Communication • Conceptual development affects Conceptual development affects

language uselanguage use

ExamplesExamples

-- The complexity of motherese-- The complexity of motherese

-- deferred imitation and the first -- deferred imitation and the first wordswords

-- Semantics of first words-- Semantics of first words

-- object permanence-- object permanence

-- hypotheticals and counterfactuals -- hypotheticals and counterfactuals in different languagesin different languages

Is language ability human-specific?Is language ability human-specific?

• R. E. Passingham: Monkeys and chinchillas have R. E. Passingham: Monkeys and chinchillas have powers of auditory discrimination similar to humans powers of auditory discrimination similar to humans (categorical perception).(categorical perception).

• Categorical phoneme perception:Categorical phoneme perception: an experiment an experiment ((David B. David B. Pisoni)Pisoni)

Probability

PA BASyntetized syllables

1

0

Dashed curve: The probability of discrimination for two adjacent stimuli in the series Highest at the category obrderSolid curve: likelihood of ‘pa’ decision

Vocal learningVocal learning (E. Jarvis) (E. Jarvis)6 csoport:6 csoport:

- - parrotsparrots

- - songbirdssongbirds

- - hummingbihummingbirdsrds

- - batsbats

- cet- cetaceans aceans (whales and (whales and dolphins)dolphins)

- - humanshumans

GGeneticallyenetically

innate vocainnate voca--

lizationslizationseverywhere everywhere

elseelse

Posterior vocal centerAuditory area.Anterior vocal center.

Language-learning apesLanguage-learning apes

• Washoe the chimpanzee (1965-2007):Washoe the chimpanzee (1965-2007):Raised in human environment; over more than 20 years of Raised in human environment; over more than 20 years of

training, she learned about 250 signs of ASL (Gardner and training, she learned about 250 signs of ASL (Gardner and Gardner).Gardner).

-- Creative description of objects and events, e.g., ‘water bird’ -- Creative description of objects and events, e.g., ‘water bird’ for duck for duck

-- Making requests (‘give candy’)-- Making requests (‘give candy’)-- Asking and answering questions (e.g., naming her own -- Asking and answering questions (e.g., naming her own

bodyparts and other familiar objects in response to bodyparts and other familiar objects in response to questions; color naming)questions; color naming)

Other chimps were introduced to linguistic hieroglyphics Other chimps were introduced to linguistic hieroglyphics printed on computer keys (Savage-Rumbaugh and printed on computer keys (Savage-Rumbaugh and Rumbaugh, 1978).Rumbaugh, 1978).

-- chimps comminucated with each other using the special -- chimps comminucated with each other using the special keyboardkeyboard

-- made requests to the companion and complied with them -- made requests to the companion and complied with them

Language training of apesLanguage training of apes

Washoe (1965-2007)

Loulis (1978-)

Any difference from humans?Any difference from humans?• Yes indeed!Yes indeed!

(1) Grammar(1) Grammar

(2) Word-learning rate(2) Word-learning rate

(3) (3) Parental teachingParental teaching

human

Stages of acquisitionStages of acquisition

I. The prelinguistic periodI. The prelinguistic period

-- Newborns “tune in” to human speech (opening their eyes, -- Newborns “tune in” to human speech (opening their eyes, gazing at the speaker, and occasionally vocalizing).gazing at the speaker, and occasionally vocalizing).

-- One-month-old infants are already capabe of categorically -- One-month-old infants are already capabe of categorically discriminating consonants (Peter Eimas, 1982).discriminating consonants (Peter Eimas, 1982).

-- By age two months infants reliably discriminate vowels, -- By age two months infants reliably discriminate vowels, and may also recognize them when uttered by different and may also recognize them when uttered by different speakersspeakers

Prelingustic vocalizations:Prelingustic vocalizations:

-- cooing by 3-5 weeks (repeating vowel-like sounds)-- cooing by 3-5 weeks (repeating vowel-like sounds)

-- babbling starts sometime between 4-6 months (syllables)-- babbling starts sometime between 4-6 months (syllables)

-- up until 12 months, babbling becomes selective to speech -- up until 12 months, babbling becomes selective to speech sounds present in the infant’s linguistic environmentsounds present in the infant’s linguistic environment

-- Vocal turn-taking by 7-8 months-- Vocal turn-taking by 7-8 months

-- Sensitivity to intonational cues: the -- Sensitivity to intonational cues: the tone of voice conveys different tone of voice conveys different messages messages

-- Nonverbal communication: -- Nonverbal communication: imperative and declarative gesturesimperative and declarative gestures

-- 13-month-olds do, whereas 11--- 13-month-olds do, whereas 11-month-olds do not understand the month-olds do not understand the meanings of words – names of meanings of words – names of familiar objects (tested by familiar objects (tested by preferential looking on hearing the preferential looking on hearing the name of the object).name of the object).

II. The holophrastic periodII. The holophrastic period

-- Early limits of -- Early limits of articulation: the first articulation: the first words are abbreviated, words are abbreviated, fragmentary fragmentary

-- By 18 months, simplified -- By 18 months, simplified pronunciations are guided pronunciations are guided by rules and are more by rules and are more intelligibleintelligible

-- Pronunciation is -- Pronunciation is approximately adult-like approximately adult-like by 4-5 years of ageby 4-5 years of age

Early semantic developmentEarly semantic development

• At the beginnging, word learning is slow; the first 50 words At the beginnging, word learning is slow; the first 50 words are acquired roughly between 12 and 18 months of ageare acquired roughly between 12 and 18 months of age

• Vocabulary spurt:Vocabulary spurt: the rate of learning increases dramatically the rate of learning increases dramatically between 18-24 months (20-40 words per week, on average)between 18-24 months (20-40 words per week, on average)

• ~200 actively used words by age 2, and likely a lot more ~200 actively used words by age 2, and likely a lot more that are understoodthat are understood

• The semantic content of early words (Katherine Nelson, The semantic content of early words (Katherine Nelson, 1973):1973):

Roughly 2/3 of the first 50 words are names of objects Roughly 2/3 of the first 50 words are names of objects including family members including family members

Objects whose names were learned included manipulable ones Objects whose names were learned included manipulable ones (e.g., toys, utensils), and objects that move on their own (e.g., toys, utensils), and objects that move on their own (cars, animals)(cars, animals)

Overextension and underextensionOverextension and underextension

HoloHolophrasesphrases

• One-word utterances often convey messages that One-word utterances often convey messages that grownups would express using sentences.grownups would express using sentences.

Greenfield and Smith (1976): Greenfield and Smith (1976):

Shelley, 17 months old, used the word ‘ghetti’ three Shelley, 17 months old, used the word ‘ghetti’ three times in a five-minute period:times in a five-minute period:

-- First pointing to a pan on the stove (apparently asking -- First pointing to a pan on the stove (apparently asking if the stuff in it was spaghetti)if the stuff in it was spaghetti)

-- Then naming it when it was on the table -- Then naming it when it was on the table

-- Finally asking for it (repeating the word in a whiny -- Finally asking for it (repeating the word in a whiny tone)tone)

The ambiguities that arise this way may also help the The ambiguities that arise this way may also help the child realize the advantage of combining more words child realize the advantage of combining more words in a single utterance.in a single utterance.

Toward simple sentences: Toward simple sentences: telegraphic utterancestelegraphic utterances

• Beginning between 18 and 24 months of age, the Beginning between 18 and 24 months of age, the first combinations of words occur in children’s first combinations of words occur in children’s speech.speech.

““Daddy car”, “Go doggie”, “Mommie drink milk”, “No Daddy car”, “Go doggie”, “Mommie drink milk”, “No wet”, “There ball”wet”, “There ball”

-- Only the critical content words are present-- Only the critical content words are present

-- Although clearly ungrammatical, some influence of -- Although clearly ungrammatical, some influence of grammar is already present; e.g., in English, grammar is already present; e.g., in English, “Mommy drink” is much more likely than “Drink “Mommy drink” is much more likely than “Drink Mommy”, “My car” is is typical, whereas “Car my” is Mommy”, “My car” is is typical, whereas “Car my” is virtually never occurs. virtually never occurs.

An early recognition of the fact that some word orders An early recognition of the fact that some word orders are better then others to convey meanings.are better then others to convey meanings.

The semantics of early speechThe semantics of early speech• By focusing only on the By focusing only on the

syntactic structure of early syntactic structure of early speech one might understimate speech one might understimate the the young child’s linguistic the the young child’s linguistic capabilities. capabilities.

• Children rely heavily on the Children rely heavily on the context in conveying their context in conveying their meaningsmeanings

Lois Bloom (1970):Lois Bloom (1970): “Mommy “Mommy sock” meant sock” meant Mommy’s sockMommy’s sock in in one context (when the child one context (when the child held the sock in her hand), and held the sock in her hand), and Mommy is putting on my sockMommy is putting on my sock in another (being dressed up).in another (being dressed up).

Roger Brown (1973):Roger Brown (1973): The typical The typical two-word utterances of two-word utterances of “telegraphese” capture a single “telegraphese” capture a single semantic relation. semantic relation.

Semantic relations expressed in children’s earliest sentences(Brown, 1973):

Agent + action Mommy come; Daddy sit

Action + object drive car; eat grapeAgent + object Mommy sock;

baby bookAction + location Go park; sit chairEntity + location Cup table; toy floor

Possessor+possessionMy teddy; Mommy dress

Recurrence More milkNonexistence Allgone cookie;

no wet

Fast improvement between 2½ and 5 Fast improvement between 2½ and 5 years: some examplesyears: some examples

Speech samples by one child at three ages (After McNeill, Speech samples by one child at three ages (After McNeill, 1970):1970):

28 months28 months 35 months35 months 38 months38 months

Somebody pencilSomebody pencil No – I don’t knowNo – I don’t know I like a racing carI like a racing car

FloorFloor What dat feeled like?What dat feeled like? I broke my racing carI broke my racing car

Where birdie go?Where birdie go? Lemme do againLemme do again It’s brokedIt’s broked

Read datRead dat Don’t – don’t hold with meDon’t – don’t hold with me You got some beadsYou got some beads

Hit hammer, mommyHit hammer, mommy I’m going to drop it inne dump truckI’m going to drop it inne dump truck Who put dust on my Who put dust on my hair?hair?

Have screwHave screw Those are minesThose are mines Why it’s not working?Why it’s not working?

-- Increasing complexity and function-word use-- Increasing complexity and function-word use

-- Syntactic overregularization/overgeneralization errors -- Syntactic overregularization/overgeneralization errors (It’s broked; Those are mines)(It’s broked; Those are mines)

-- Increasing understanding of pragmatics-- Increasing understanding of pragmatics

OverregularizationOverregularization• Even though children often learn and use the grammatical Even though children often learn and use the grammatical

form of some sentences around 2-2½ years (e.g., It form of some sentences around 2-2½ years (e.g., It ranran away; my away; my feetfeet are cold), a little later (3 yrs or so) they are cold), a little later (3 yrs or so) they begin use the same types of utterances erroneously (e.g., begin use the same types of utterances erroneously (e.g., It It runnedrunned away; she away; she goedgoed; I brushed my ; I brushed my toothstooths).).

• Why does this happen? Why does this happen?

Nativist explanation:Nativist explanation: children discover more general rules of children discover more general rules of syntax and start applying them to novel cases. Exceptions, syntax and start applying them to novel cases. Exceptions, irregular cases, or more special rules that modify the irregular cases, or more special rules that modify the general ones may not have tgeneral ones may not have takeaken effect yet.n effect yet.

Alternative explanation:Alternative explanation: past tense overregularizations may past tense overregularizations may occur because children occasionally fail to retrieve the occur because children occasionally fail to retrieve the irregular form from memory.irregular form from memory.

Which explanation might be correct?Which explanation might be correct?

A quick comparison with HungarianA quick comparison with Hungarian• Hungarian is an agglutinative language, which means that is Hungarian is an agglutinative language, which means that is

uses lots of suffixes (three general classes of them) to mark uses lots of suffixes (three general classes of them) to mark syntactic roles. (As opposed to English, where word order syntactic roles. (As opposed to English, where word order often plays the same role.)often plays the same role.)

An example:An example:

in our housesin our houses (preposition, possesive pronoun, (preposition, possesive pronoun, nounnoun+plural+plural))

házainkbanházainkban

househouse-pl_ours-in-pl_ours-in (noun+plural possession affix+locative affix)(noun+plural possession affix+locative affix)

Garfield chased Odie.Garfield chased Odie. Garfield kergette Garfield kergette UbulUbultt..

Odie chased GarfieldOdie chased Garfield UbulUbul kergette Garfielde kergette Garfieldett..

It was Garfield whom Odie chased.It was Garfield whom Odie chased. GarfieldeGarfieldett kergette kergette UbulUbul..

How does this affect acquisition?How does this affect acquisition?

• In Hungarian, accusative case is overtly marked, almost In Hungarian, accusative case is overtly marked, almost without exception, with a suffix without exception, with a suffix -t-t..

• However, there is lots of variation regarding how the However, there is lots of variation regarding how the accusative suffix is attached to the root:accusative suffix is attached to the root:

Acc.Acc.horsehorse lóló lovatlovat (insertion of -va- plus ‘ó’ changes to ‘o’)(insertion of -va- plus ‘ó’ changes to ‘o’)handhand kézkéz kezetkezet (insertion of -e- plus ‘é’ changes to ‘e’)(insertion of -e- plus ‘é’ changes to ‘e’)scarfscarf sálsál sálatsálat (insertion of -a-; no change in the root)(insertion of -a-; no change in the root)saltsalt sósó sótsót (oops; simple addition: compare with ‘ló’)(oops; simple addition: compare with ‘ló’)screw/boltscrew/bolt csavarcsavar csavartcsavart (simple addition again)(simple addition again)dreamdream álomálom álmotálmot (deletion plus insertion)(deletion plus insertion)fingernailfingernail körömköröm körmöt (same) körmöt (same)

Of course…Of course…

• Hungarian children learn to use the -t suffix much Hungarian children learn to use the -t suffix much earlier than the various special ways in which it has earlier than the various special ways in which it has to be added in particular cases.to be added in particular cases.

• As a result, children around 3 years of age quite often As a result, children around 3 years of age quite often make errors attaching the accusative suffixmake errors attaching the accusative suffix

CorrectCorrect Typical errorTypical errorlovat lovat lót lótsálatsálat sált sáltkörmötkörmöt körömt körömt-- In such cases they appear to have mastered the -- In such cases they appear to have mastered the

general rule, but not the specific procedures general rule, but not the specific procedures -- May this be due to failure of memory recall? No, -- May this be due to failure of memory recall? No,

because, very likely, 2½-year-olds haven’t because, very likely, 2½-year-olds haven’t yet yet had a had a chance to memorize all these special cases.chance to memorize all these special cases.

Constructivism and language Constructivism and language acquisitionacquisition

• Constructivism rejects the idea of an innate, domain-Constructivism rejects the idea of an innate, domain-specific language-processorspecific language-processor

• It assumes that domain-general learning mechanisms It assumes that domain-general learning mechanisms underlie language acquisition – language is a product of underlie language acquisition – language is a product of general intelligencegeneral intelligence

• Knowledge of grammar does not develop in an isolated Knowledge of grammar does not develop in an isolated manner; instead it is linked up with other types of ability manner; instead it is linked up with other types of ability (e.g., the complexity of children’s play is correlated with (e.g., the complexity of children’s play is correlated with the complexity of their utterances).the complexity of their utterances).

Constructivist response to poverty-of-stimulus type of Constructivist response to poverty-of-stimulus type of arguments:arguments:

-- we mentioned some above: parents do react to -- we mentioned some above: parents do react to ungrammatical utterances in informative ways; child ungrammatical utterances in informative ways; child language is influenced by that of the companionslanguage is influenced by that of the companions

Challenge to constructivism:Challenge to constructivism: let’s see the detailed story! let’s see the detailed story!