Cognition 7e, Margaret MatlinChapter 10 Cognition Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism Chapter 10

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

CognitionCognition

Language II: Language Language II: Language Production and BilingualismProduction and Bilingualism

Chapter 10Chapter 10


IntroductionIntroduction

Many forms of language production

Social nature of language production

More research on comprehension than production


SpeakingSpeaking

Producing a WordProducing a WordSelecting the wordGrammatical, semantic, and phonological accuracy

Are all three kinds of information retrieved simultaneously or independently?

van Turennout and colleagues (1998)—grammatical gender accessed about 40 milliseconds before phonological properties


SpeakingSpeaking

Producing a WordProducing a WordMotor movements of vocal system and gestures

Frick-Horbury and Guttentag (1998)read definitions and identify word with or

without hand movements restricted

Eyes and looking before naming


SpeakingSpeaking

Producing a SentenceProducing a SentenceLimits of attention and memoryOrder of producing speech:

• Plan the gist – intent/meaning• Construct general structure of sentence – syntax,

not words• Choose words (with correct grammatical form)• Connect to phonemes• Coordinate muscle movements to produce speech


SpeakingSpeaking

Producing a SentenceProducing a SentencePauses occupy about half of our speaking timeLinearization problem—transforming general

thought or mental image into an ordered, linear sequence of words

Prosody—"melody", rhythm, emphasis


SpeakingSpeaking

Speech ErrorsSpeech Errorsslips-of-the-tongue—errors in which sounds or entire

words are rearranged between two or more different words

Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors1. Sound errors

2. Morpheme errors

3. Word errors


SpeakingSpeaking

Speech ErrorsSpeech ErrorsTypes of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors• each type can involve errors of: exchange,

anticipation, perseveration, and/or deletion• errors reveal our extensive language

knowledge• errors tend to occur across items from the

same category


SpeakingSpeaking

Speech ErrorsSpeech ErrorsDell's Model of Sound Processing in Sentence Production

similar to connectionist approachspreading activationplanning activates sound elementseach sound can be activated by several different

wordshigh activation can cause the incorrect sound to be

produced


DellDell’’s Model of Sound s Model of Sound Processing in Sentence Processing in Sentence Production (simplified)Production (simplified)


SpeakingSpeaking

Producing DiscourseProducing Discoursediscourse—language units larger than a sentencenarrative—type of discourse in which someone describes a series of actual or fictional events

time-related sequenceemotionally involvinggoal to conveywords chosen carefullyentertaining


SpeakingSpeaking

Producing DiscourseProducing Discoursenarrative structure

overviewsummary of characters and settingcomplicating actionpointresolutionfinal signal of completion


SpeakingSpeaking

The Social Context of SpeechThe Social Context of SpeechSpeakers must consider their conversation partnerscoordinating turn-takingagreed meaningsintentionspragmatics—knowledge of the social rules that underlie language use; how speakers successfully communicate messages to their audience


SpeakingSpeaking

The Social Context of SpeechThe Social Context of SpeechCommon Ground

common ground—occurs when conversationalists share similar background knowledge, schemas, and experiences necessary for mutual understanding

collaborationpaying attentionavoiding ambiguous statementsclarify misunderstandingsnonverbal language to clarify


SpeakingSpeaking


Clark and Wilkes-Gibbs (1986)pairs of participants arranging figures in orderdeveloping mutual shorthand and shared vocabularyconversational partners become more skilled in

communicating efficiently


Common GroundCommon Ground

Figures from Demonstration 10.3: Collaborating to Establish Common Ground


SpeakingSpeaking


lexical entrainment—pattern two communicators use when they create and adopt a standard term to refer to an object


SpeakingSpeaking


Bortfeld and Brennan (1997)photos of chairsEnglish, Japanese, Chinese, and Korean speakersall pairs showed same degree of lexical entrainmentspeakers often overestimate listeners' ability to understand a

message


SpeakingSpeaking


• speakers tend to assume that listeners need and want the same things the speakers themselves do

• less likely to effectively establish common ground under time pressure


SpeakingSpeaking

The Social Context of SpeechThe Social Context of SpeechDirectives

directive—a sentence that requests someone to do something

polite directives require more wordsoverly elaborate directives may seem insultinganticipate potential obstacles to complianceindirect request—stated like a request for information,

even though really a request for someone to do something or to stop doing something


WritingWriting

Writing requires virtually every cognitive process

One of the least understood linguistic tasks

Similarities and differences from speaking

Planning, sentence generation, revising


WritingWriting

A Cognitive Model of WritingA Cognitive Model of WritingCognitive processes, social factors, motor factors, motivational factorsself-efficacy—your own assessment of your capabilities


WritingWriting

A Cognitive Model of WritingA Cognitive Model of Writingworking memory

phonological loopvisuospatial sketchpadcentral executive

long-term memory including semantic memory, expertise, schemas, and knowledge about specific writing style


WritingWriting

Planning the Writing AssignmentPlanning the Writing Assignmentprewriting—generating a list of ideas; difficult and strategic; large individual differencesoutliningresolving linearization problem


WritingWriting

Sentence Generation During WritingSentence Generation During Writingsentence generation—translate the general

ideas developed during planning into actual sentences of the text

hesitant phases and fluent phaseslonger vs. shorter wordswriting errors most likely to be spelling errors

within a single word rather than between-word errors like slips-of-the-tongue


WritingWriting

The Revision Phase of WritingThe Revision Phase of Writing• emphasize the importance of organization and

coherence• reconsider whether the writing accomplishes

the goals of the assignment• revision should be time consuming


WritingWriting

The Revision Phase of WritingThe Revision Phase of Writing• effective writers use flexible revision strategies• college students typically devote little time to

revising• metacognitions about the writing process seem

to be inaccurate


WritingWriting

The Revision Phase of WritingThe Revision Phase of WritingExperts vs. Novices

• novices revise sentence-by-sentence; focus on spelling and grammar

• experts work more on organization, focus, and transition between ideas

• novices judge defective sentences as appropriate• experts better able to diagnose the source of a

problem in a sentence


WritingWriting

The Revision Phase of WritingThe Revision Phase of WritingProofreading

• difficult to proofread your own writing• spell-checkers don't catch everything• proofread for spelling separately from content


WritingWriting

Metacognition and WritingMetacognition and Writing• metacognitive strategies helpful at all stages

of writing• random thoughts vs. transforming knowledge• analyzing potential problems in advance and

planning how to solve them• monitoring whether writing matches intended

message• beware of overconfidence


WritingWriting

Applied Psychology: Writing About Applied Psychology: Writing About Emotional ProblemsEmotional Problems

Pennebaker and colleagues—writing in clinical psychology settings

15-20 minutes a day, 3 to 4 consecutive dayswrite about previous traumatic experience vs.

trivial topics


WritingWriting


Pennebaker and colleagues (continued)

experimental condition benefits—better grades, finding job, improved immune system

words about cognitive activity better predictor of physical health than words revealing emotions

creating an understanding of the painful experience


WritingWriting


Westling and colleagues (2007)writing program with HIV-positive womenwomen who wrote about life meaning more likely to

show improvement in taking medications


Bilingualism and Second-Bilingualism and Second-Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition

most people throughout the world have mastered two or more languages

bilingual speaker—a person who actively uses two different languages

multilingual

simultaneous bilingualism

sequential bilingualism, first language, second language

interlanguage



Background on BilingualismBackground on BilingualismMore than half of the people in the world are at

least somewhat bilingualValuing non-English first languages

Political and social-psychological implicationsSocial-psychological factors predictive of success

in acquiring a second language—motivation and attitude toward speakers of that language

Learning a language can also influence attitudes



Advantages of BilingualismAdvantages of Bilingualism1. Bilinguals actually acquire more expertise in

their native (first) language.2. Bilinguals are more aware that the names

assigned to concepts are arbitrary (part of metalinguistics, or knowledge about the form and structure of language).

3. Bilinguals excel at paying selective attention to relatively subtle aspects of a language task, ignoring more obvious linguistic characteristics.



Advantages of BilingualismAdvantages of Bilingualism4. Bilingual children are better at following

complicated instructions and performing tasks where the instructions change from one trial to the next.

5. Bilinguals perform better on concept-formation tasks and on tests of nonverbal intelligence that require reorganization of visual patterns. Bilinguals also score higher on problem-solving tasks that require them to ignore irrelevant information.



Advantages of BilingualismAdvantages of Bilingualism6. Bilingual children perform better than

monolinguals on tests of creativity, such as thinking of a wide variety of uses for a paper clip.

7. Bilingual children are more sensitive to some pragmatic aspects of language.



Advantages of BilingualismAdvantages of BilingualismBialystok (2001, 2002)—most advantages can be

traced to selective-attention skills; inhibiting the most obvious response to produce an alternative response

Disadvantages far outweighed by advantages



In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisitiona Function of Age of Acquisition

age of acquisitioncritical period hypothesisgradual decline vs. abrupt drop




Phonologyage of acquisition does influence mastery of

phonology (sounds of speech)Flege and coauthors (1999)

Korean-Americansdegree of accent inversely correlated with age

of emigrationfairly smooth decline rather than abrupt drop




Vocabularywhen the measure of language proficiency is

vocabulary, age of acquisition does not seem to be related to language skills




GrammarFlege and coauthors (1999)

judging sentences as grammaticalonce we control for years of education in the

United States, age of acquisition was not related to an individual's mastery of English grammar

Studies with other languages—no consistent relationship between age of arrival and mastery of English grammar



Individual Differences: Simultaneous Individual Differences: Simultaneous Interpreters and Working MemoryInterpreters and Working Memory

translation—from a text written in one language into a second written languageinterpreting—the process of translating from a spoken message in one language into a second spoken languagethree working-memory tasks at the same time



Individual Differences: Simultaneous Individual Differences: Simultaneous Interpreters and Working MemoryInterpreters and Working Memory

Christoffels, de Groot, and Kroll (2006)Dutch speakers—students, teachers of English,

interpretersreading-span test and speaking-span testall groups recalled more words in their native language

(Dutch)simultaneous interpreters remembered significantly more

words than the other two groups, both in reading span and speaking span


Simultaneous Simultaneous InterpretersInterpreters

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Cognition 7e, Margaret MatlinChapter 10 Cognition Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism Chapter 10