Learning by Consequence

Part I

Higher National Diploma in PsychologyModule Code GP003

Kumari KarandawalaBA Psycology (Hons) (US)

MSc.(MSSW) In Social Enterprise Managementand International Social Work / Development

Contents:• Instrumental Learning (Thorndike)• Operant Conditioning (Skinner)• Acquisition and Shaping• Extinction• Stimulus Control• Discrimination• Delayed Reinforcement• Schedules of Reinforcement• Negative and Positive Reinforcement• Escape• Avoidance

Recap: Social Learning Theory

• What is SLT?

Social Learning Theory

• Social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others

Social Learning Theory• It focuses on learning by observation and modeling.

• The theory originally evolved from behaviorism but now includes many of the ideas that cognitivists also hold; as a result it is some times called social cognitive learning

• Social learning theory talks about how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior. It focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling (Abbott, 2007)

• Source: http://www.southalabama.edu/oll/mobile/theory_workbook/social_learning_theory.htm

Social Learning Theory

Reciprocal Causation

According to Bandura, behavior can also influence both the environment and the person. Each of the three variables: environment, person, behavior influence each other. (p, be, e)

RECIPROCAL CAUSATION

Self efficacy:

Self regulation:

Modeling: (Live model, symbolic model, and imitation model.)Imitation:

Vicarious reinforcement – behavior is acceptable

Vicarious punishment – behavior is unacceptable

TERMINOLOGY TO KNOW

Social Learning Theory and Abnormal or Deviant Behavior

• Abnormal or Deviant behavior in Social learning is best summarized by its leading proponent, Ronald L. Akers (1998):

• “The probability that persons will engage in criminal and deviant behavior is increased and the probability of their conforming to the norm is decreased when they differentially associate with others who commit criminal behavior and espouse definitions favorable to it,

• … they are relatively more exposed in-person or symbolically to salient criminal/deviant models, define it as desirable or justified in a situation discriminative for the behavior,

• … and they have received in the past and anticipate in the current or future situation relatively greater reward than punishment for the behavior (50).

• Source: http://www.children.gov.on.ca/htdocs/English/topics/youthandthelaw/roots/volume5/chapter08_social_learning.aspx

Important concepts:

• Differential Association• Definitions• Differential Reinforcement• ImitationCharacteristics:-Low self-control-Peer Group Associations**Role of FamilyRole of Peers

A Study Abnormal BehaviorSocial Learning and Deviant Behavior: A Specific Test of a General Theory - Akers , Krohn et al. (Study conducted in 1979) Abstract:

A social learning theory of deviant behavior is tested with survey data on adolescent drinking and drug behavior. The theory is strongly supported. The major explanatory variables from that theory, differential association, differential reinforcement, definitions, and imitation combine to account for 68% of the variance in marijuana use (39% of abuse) and 55% of the variance in alcohol use (32% of abuse) by adolescents.

Learning by Consequence

Basic example:• A child goes up to a hot pan and the mother tells

the child that the pan is hot to stay away, but the child doesn't listen and touches the pan. The child is burned because of his/her actions and in the process learns that hot things will burn you.

• That child just learned something new. Piaget would call this assimilation and accommodation of what just happened.

Learning by Consequence

• People do this everyday in many ways and a great deal of learning is the consequence of experience.

Instrumental Learning

– Edward L. Thorndike (1874 – 1949) founded instrumental learning at the same time as Pavlov’s research on classical conditioning.

– Thorndike’s research was based on his dissertation.– His research was influential: showed that animals can

form new associations and described innovative apparatus for the observation of animal learning.

He demonstrated the use of such apparatus in systematic laboratory research.Thorndike’s research: Cats and puzzle boxes.

Classical conditioning Vs. Instrumental Learning

• Thorndike’s method shows that the type of learning demonstrated by the cats is similar to, but also different from, classical conditioning

• The most important similarity is that, in both classical conditioning and instrumental learning, subjects learn to associate paired events.

Classical conditioning Vs. Instrumental Learning

One very important difference is:• in classical conditioning, the learned response (or

conditioned response - the CR) is elicited involuntarily by a stimulus that comes before it (the CS)

• in instrumental learning, the learned response (the instrumental response) is emitted voluntarily because of its consequence — that is, because of a stimulus (a reward) that follows it

Classical conditioning Vs. Instrumental Learning

• The degree to which a response is voluntary is best represented on a continuum:

Involuntary <—————————————–> Voluntary

Classical conditioning (CR) Vs. Instrumental Learning

• A SECOND important difference between classical conditioning and instrumental learning involves the nature of the association formed in each:

• in classical conditioning, two stimuli are associated — the CS is associated with the UCS after they have been paired repeatedly.

Classical conditioning (CR) Vs. Instrumental Learning

• in instrumental learning, a response is associated with a stimulus that follows it — the instrumental response is associated with the reward after they have been paired repeatedly.

Thorndike

If an action brings a reward, that reward becomes stamped into the mind. Eg. Cat and the puzzle box the reward is the treat/food placed outside the puzzle box. (See video at: http://sccpsy101.com/home/chapter-4/section-15/)

Behavior changes consequences The Law of Effect.

Operant Conditioning - Skinner

• Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s law of effect.

• Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement.

• Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened).

Operant Conditioning – Skinner

• More productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental events.

• Believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences He called this approach operant conditioning.

• Based on the work of Thorndike’s theory - “The Law of Effect” basically means…

Operant Conditioning – Skinner

If the consequences of a behavior are pleasant, the behavior will likely increase.

“Skinner Box”

Skinner – 3 types of Operant• Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that

can follow behavior.• • Neutral operants: responses from the environment that

neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.

• • Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

• • Punishers: Response from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

Skinner – 3 types of Operant

• Positive Reinforcement (+): the addition of something pleasant to increase a behavior. If I want to to study more and give you chocolate for studying, the chocolate is the positive reinforcement because it is pleasant and meant to increase your behavior.

• Negative Reinforcement (-): the removal of something unpleasant to increase a behavior. If you have a headache and I want you to study, I may give you a panadol. The panadol is the negative reinforcement because it is removal something unpleasant (headache) and increasing your behavior (studying).

Skinner – 3 types of Operant

• Positive Punishment: the addition of something unpleasant to make a behavior less likely. I want you to stop talking in class, so I flick you with a rubber band every time you open your mouth.

• Omission Training (or negative punishment): the removal of something pleasant to decrease a behavior. Your Mom does not let you watch Gray's Anatomy because you swore at the dinner table.

Reinforces and Punishers

• Watch pigeon video at http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html

Acquisition and Shaping• Acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning something.

• In operant conditioning, acquisition is the formation of a new response tendency.

• Procedures used to establish a habit or tendency to emit a voluntary operant response are different from those used to create a reflexive conditioned response. Operant responses are typically established through a gradual process called Shaping.*

• Source: http://www.appsychology.com/Book/Behavior/operant_conditioning.htm

Acquisition and Shaping

Shaping Behaviors

• Shaping is the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.

• It is necessary when an organism does not, on its own, emit the desired response.

REFERENCES

• Skinner, B. F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis. New York: Appleton-Century.

• Skinner, B. F. (1948). 'Superstition' in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-172.

• Thorndike, E. L. (1905). The elements of psychology. New York: A. G. Seiler.• McLeod, S. A. (2007). B.F. Skinner | Operant Conditioning. Retrieved from

http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html• http://www.appsychology.com/Book/Behavior/operant_conditioning.htm• Source:

http://www.southalabama.edu/oll/mobile/theory_workbook/social_learning_theory.htm

• Weiten, Wayne (2005). Psychology: Themes and Variations – Sixth Edition.

END OF PART I

• QUESTIONS?

Thank you!