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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_learning

http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/index.html -- List of learning Theories

Educational psychologists and pedagogues have identified several principles of learning , also referredto as laws of learning , which seem generally applicable to the learning process. These principles havebeen discovered, tested, and used in practical situations. They provide additional insight into what makespeople learn most effectively. Edward Thorndike developed the first three "Laws oflearning:" readiness , exercise , and effect . Since Thorndike set down his basic three laws in the early partof the twentieth century, five additional principles have beenadded: primacy , recency , intensity , freedom and requirement .

The majority of these principles are widely applied in aerospace instruction, and some in many otherfields, as outlined below:

Readiness [edit ]

Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. Individuals learn best when they arephysically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and do not learn well if they see no reason forlearning. Getting students ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value of the subject matter, andproviding continuous mental or physical challenge, is usually the instructor ’s responsibility. If studentshave a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a definite reason for learning something, they make moreprogress than if they lac kmotivation . In other words, when students are ready to learn, they meet theinstructor at least halfway, simplifying the instructor’s job.

Since learning is an active process, students must have adequate rest, health, and physical ability. Basicneeds of students must be satisfied before they are ready or capable of learning. Students who are

exhausted or in ill health cannot learn much. If they are distracted by outside responsibilities, interests, orworries, have overcrowded schedules , or othe r unresolved issues , students may have little interest inlearning.

Exercise [edit ]

The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is thebasis of drill and practice . It has been proven that students learn best and retain information longer whenthey have meaningful practice and repetition. The key here is that the practice must be meaningful. It isclear that practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive feedback.

The human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts or practices

after a single exposure. Students do not learn complex tasks in a single session. They learn by applyingwhat they have been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. These includestudent recall, review and summary, and manual drill and physical applications. All of these serve tocreate learning habits. The instructor must repeat important items of subject matter at reasonableintervals , and provide opportunities for students to practice while making sure that this process is directedtoward a goal .

Effect [edit ]

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The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It has a direct relationship tomotivation. The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant orsatisfying feeling , and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. The studentwill strive to continue doing what provides a pleasant effect to continue learning. Positive reinforcement ismore apt to lead to success and motivate the learner, so the instructor should recognize and commend

improvement. Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that affect the studentspositively and give them a feeling of satisfaction. Therefore, instructors should be cautious about usingpunishment in the classroom.

One of the important obligations of the instructor is to set up the learning situation in such a manner thateach trainee will be able to see evidence of progress and achieve some degree of success. Experiencesthat produce feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion, or futility are unpleasant for the student. If,for example, an instructor attempts to teach advanced concepts on the initial engagement, the student islikely to feel inferior and be frustrated. Impressing upon students the difficulty of a task to be learned canmake the teaching task difficult. Usually it is better to tell students that a problem or task, althoughdifficult, is within their capability to understand or perform. Every learning experience does not have to be

entirely successful, nor does the student have to master each lesson completely. However, every learningexperience should contain elements that leave the student with some good feelings. A student’s chanceof success is definitely increased if the learning experience is a pleasant one.

Further information: Emotion and memory and Operant conditioning

Primacy [edit ]

Not to be confused with Law of primacy in persuasion .

Primacy , the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. Things learnedfirst create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase. For the instructor, this means thatwhat is taught must be right the first time. For the student, it means that learning must be right.―Unteaching‖ wrong first impress ions is harder than teaching them right the first time. If, for example, astudent learns a faulty technique, the instructor will have a difficult task correcting bad habits and―reteaching‖ correct ones.

The student's first experience should be positive, functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to follow.What the student learns must be procedurally correct and applied the very first time. The instructor mustpresent subject matter in a logical order, step by step, making sure the students have already learned thepreceding step. If the task is learned in isolation, is not initially applied to the overall performance, or if itmust be relearned, the process can be confusing and time consuming. Preparing and following a lessonplan f acilitates delivery of the subject matter correctly the first time.

Further information: Serial position effect

Recency [edit ]

The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered . Conversely, thefurther a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is toremember. For example, it is fairly easy to recall a telephone number dialed a few minutes ago, but it isusually impossible to recall a new number dialed last week. The closer the training or learning time is tothe time of actual need to apply the training, the more apt the learner will be to perform successfully.

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Information acquired last generally is remembered best; frequent review and summarization help fix in themind the material covered. Instructors recognize the principle of recency when they carefully plan asummary for a lesson or learning situation. The instructor repeats, restates, or reemphasizes importantpoints at the end of a lesson to help the student remember them. The principle of recency oftendetermines the sequence of lectures within a course of instruction.

Further information: Serial position effect , Forgetting , and Forgetting curve

Intensity [edit ]

The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A sharp, clear, vivid,dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. Theprinciple of intensity implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute.For example, a student can get more understanding and appreciation of a movie by watching it thanby reading the script. Likewise, a student is likely to gain greater understanding of tasks byperforming them rather than merely reading about them. The more immediate and dramatic thelearning is to a real situation, the more impressive the learning is upon the student. Real worldapplications that integrate procedures and tasks that students are capable of learning will make avivid impression on them.

In contrast to practical instruction, the classroom imposes limitations on the amount of realism thatcan be brought into teaching. The instructor needs to use imagination in approaching reality asclosely as possible. Classroom instruction can benefit from a wide variety of instructional aids , toimprove realism, motivate learning, and challenge students. Instructors should emphasize importantpoints of instruction with gestures, showmanship, and voice. Demonstrations, skits, and role playingdo much to increase the learning experience of students. Examples, analogies, and personalexperiences also make learning come to life. Instructors should make full use of the senses(hearing , sight , touch ,taste , smell , balance , rhythm , depth perception , and others).

Freedom [edit ]

The principle of freedom states that things freely learned are best learned. Conversely, the further astudent is coerced, the more difficult is for him to learn, assimilate and implement what is learned.Compulsion and coercion are antithetical to personal growth. The greater the freedom enjoyed byindividuals within a society, the greater the intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed by society asa whole.

Since learning is an active process, students must have freedom: freedom of choice, freedom ofaction, freedom to bear the results of action —these are the three great freedoms that constitutepersonal responsibility. If no freedom is granted, students may have little interest in learning.

Requirement [edit ]

The law of requirement states that "we must have something to obtain or do something." It canbe an ability, skill, instrument or anything that may help us to learn or gain something. A starting pointor root is needed; for example, if you want to draw a person, you need to have the materials withwhich to draw, and you must know how to draw a point, a line, a figure and so on until you reach yourgoal, which is to draw a person.

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Further information: Law of Requirement

aws of Learning Applied to Learning Games [edit ]

The principles of learning have been presented as an explanation for why learning games (the use ofgames to introduce material, improve understanding, or increase retention) can show such incredibleresults .[1] In particular, the principles of learning present conditions which are very similar to a number ofthe design techniques used in games. Games use the technique of Flow , which is "the state in whichpeople are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience itself is soenjoyable that people will do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it." (MihályCsíkszentmihályi )[2] The primary aim of flow in games is to create intrinsically motivating experiences,which is a part of the principle of readiness.

Games use many other techniques which tie to the principles of learning . [1] They use practice to prolonggame play, which is part of the principle of exercise. Game designers also place heavy emphasis onfeedback, which goes with practice as part of exercise. Games use the technique of simplicity to reducedistractions, balance difficulty versus skill, and accurately correlate actions to corrective feedback. This

impacts flow and motivation and increases the positive feelings toward the activity, which links back to theprinciples of exercise, readiness, and effect. Games use immersion and engagement as ways to createriveting experiences for players, which is part of the principle of intensity. Finally, part of the primaryappeal of games is that they are fun. Although fun is hard to define, it is clear that it involves feelings suchas engagement, satisfaction, pleasure, and enjoyment which are part of the principle of effect.

See also [edit ]

Learning theory (education)

Constructivism (learning theory)

Radical behaviorism Instructional design

Instructional theory

http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/edref/traingde.htm -- Train the Trainer Guide

Learning theory (education)Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how information is absorbed, processed,and retained during learning . Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as priorexperience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed, and knowledgeand skills retained .[1][2]

Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and will advocate a system of rewards andtargets in education. Educators who embrace cognitive theory believe that the definition of learning as achange in behavior is too narrow and prefer to study the learner rather than the environment, and in

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particular the complexities of human memory . Humanists emphasize the importance of self-knowledgeand relationships in the learning process. Those who advocate constructivism believe that a learner'sability to learn relies to a large extent on what he already knows and understands, and that the acquisitionof knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction.

Outside the realm of educational psychology , techniques to directly observe the functioning of the brainduring the learning process, such as event-related potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging , are used in educational neuroscience . As of 2012, such studies are beginning to support a theoryof multiple intelligences , where learning is seen as the interaction between dozens of different functionalareas in the brain, each with their own individual strengths and weaknesses in any particular humanlearner.

Behaviorism [edit ] Main article: Behaviorism (learning theory)

Behaviorism, as a learning theory, is based on a change in knowledge through controlledstimulus/response conditioning. This type of learner is dependent upon an instructor for acquisition of

knowledge. The instructor must demonstrate factual knowledge, then observe, measure, and modifybehavioral changes in specified direction. This type of learning is a conditioned response or rotememorization of facts, assertions, rules, laws, and terminology. The correct response is achieved throughstimulation of senses. The focus of intelligence development is visual/spatial, musical/rhythmic, andbodily/ kinesthetic intelligence. The purpose in education is to help a learner build initial schema byadopting knowledge from an instructor through use of the learner’s senses. This learning goal is thelowest order learning: factual knowledge, skill development, and training. The term "behaviorism" wascoined by John Watson (1878 – 1959). Watson believed that theorizing thoughts, intentions or othersubjective experiences was unscientific and insisted that psychology must focus on measurablebehaviors .[3] For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of a new behavior through conditioning.

Condi t ion ing [ edit ] There are two types of conditioning:

Classical conditioning , where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus.

Operant conditioning , where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment.

Classical conditioning was noticed by Ivan Pavlov when he saw that if dogs come to associate thedelivery of food with a white lab coat or with the ringing of a bell, they will produce saliva, even whenthere is no sight or smell of food. Classical conditioning regards this form of learning to be the samewhether in dogs or in humans .[4] Operant conditioning , o r radical behaviorism , reinforces this behavior witha reward or a punishment. A reward increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, a punishment

decreases its likelihood .[5]

Behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, and will arrange the environment to elicitdesired responses through such devices as behavioral objectives ,Competency-based learning , and skilldevelopment and training .[6] Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis , curriculum-basedmeasurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model .[7]

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Cognitivism [edit ] Main article: Cognitivism (learning theory)

Cognitivism, as a learning theory, is the theory that humans generate knowledge and meaning throughsequential development of an individual’s cognitive abilities, such as the mental processes of recognition,

recollection, analysis, reflection, application, creation, understanding, and evaluation. The Cognitivists'learning process is adoptive learning of techniques, procedures, organization, and structure to developinternal cognitive structure that strengthens synapses in the brain. The learner requires assistance todevelop prior knowledge and integrate new knowledge. The purpose in education is to developconceptual knowledge, techniques, procedures, and algorithmic problem solving using Verbal/Linguisticand Logical/Mathematical intelligences. The learner requires scaffolding to develop schema and adoptknowledge from both people and the environment. The educators' role is pedagogical in that the instructormust develop conceptual knowledge by managing the content of learning activities. This theory relates toearly stages of learning where the learner solves well defined problems through a series of stages.

Cognitive theories grew out of Gestalt psychology , developed in Germany in the early 1900s and brought

to America in the 1920s. The German word gestalt is roughly equivalent to theEnglish configuration or pattern and emphasizes the whole of human experience . [8] Over the years, theGestalt psychologists provided demonstrations and described principles to explain the way we organizeour sensations into perceptions .[9]

Gestalt psychologists criticize behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning.They propose looking at the patterns rather than isolated events . [10] Gestalt views of learning have beenincorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories . Two key assumptions underlie thiscognitive approach: that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and that priorknowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to consider howhuman memory works to promote learning, and an understanding of short term memory and long termmemory is important to educators influenced by cognitive theory . [11] They view learning as an internalmental process (including insight , information processing, memory and perception ) where the educatorfocuses on building intelligence and cognitive development . [6] The individual learner is more importantthan the environment.

Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model [12] and Baddeley's workingmemory mode l[13] were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology , new cognitiveframeworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today, researchers areconcentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory. These theories of learningplay a role in influencing instructional design .[14] Cognitive theory is used to explain such topics as socialrole acquisition, intelligence and memory as related to age.

Humanism [edit ] Main article: Humanism (learning theory)

Humanism, as a learning theory, is based on human generation of knowledge, meaning, and ultimatelyexpertise through interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. This self-directed learning is needsmotivated, adaptive learning. Acquisition, development, and integration of knowledge occur throughstrategy, personal interpretation, evaluation, reasoning, and decision-making. The learning goal is tobecome self-actualized with intrinsic motivation toward accomplishment. This learner is able to adapt prior

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kn owledge to new experience. The educator’s role in humanistic learning is to encourage and enable thelearner, andragogically, by providing access to appropriate resources without obtrusive interference. Thelearning goal is high order learning of procedural knowledge, strategy, reasoning, abstract analysis, anddevelopment of expertise. Humanists include Abraham Maslow , Carl Rogers , Marie Montessori , and William Glasser .

Transformative learning [ edit ]

Main article: Transformative learning

Transformative learning focuses upon the often-necessary change that is required in a learner'spreconceptions and world view. Transformative learning seeks to explain how humans revise andreinterpret meaning .[15] Transformative learning is the cognitive process of effecting change in a frame ofreference .[16] A frame of reference defines our view of the world. The emotions are ofteninvolved .[17] Adults have a tendency to reject any ideas that do not correspond to their particular values,associations and concepts .[16]

Constructivism [edit ] Main article: Constructivism (learning theory)

Constructivism is a theory to explain how knowledge is constructed in the human being when informationcomes into contact with existing knowledge that had been developed by experiences. It has its roots incognitive psychology and biology and an approach to education that lays emphasis on the waysknowledge is created in order to adapt to the world. Constructs are the different types of filters we chooseto place over our realities to change our reality from chaos to order. Von Glasersfeld describesconstructivism as ―a theory of knowledge with roots in philosophy, psychology, and cybernetics‖.[1]Constructivism has implications for the theory of instruction. Discovery, hands-on, experiential,collaborative, project-based, and task-based learning are a number of applications that base teaching andlearning on constructivism.

Built on the work of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner , constructivism emphasizes the importance of theactive involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves, and building new ideas orconcepts based upon current knowledge and past experience. It asks why students do not learn deeplyby listening to a teacher, or reading from a textbook. To design effective teaching environments, itbelieves, one needs a good understanding of what children already know when they come into theclassroom. The curriculum should be designed in a way that builds on what the pupil already knows andis allowed to develop with them .[18] Begin with complex problems and teach basic skills while solvingthese problems .[19] This requires an understanding of children's cognitive development, andconstructivism draws heavily on psychological studies of cognitive development.

The learning theories of John Dewey , Marie Montessori , and David Kolb serve as the foundation ofconstructivist learning theory . [20] Constructivism has many varieties: Active learning , discovery learning , and knowledge building are three, but all versions promote a student's free exploration within a givenframework or structure .[21] The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discoverprinciples for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems.

Our frames of reference are composed of two dimensions: habits of mind and points of view . [16] Habits ofmind, such as ethnocentrism , are harder to change than points of view. Habits of mind influence our point

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of view and the resulting thoughts or feelings associated with them, but points of view may change overtime as a result of influences such as reflection, appropriation and feedback . [16] Transformative learningtakes place by discussing with others the ―reasons presente d in support of competing interpretations, bycritically examining evidence, arguments, and alternative points of view. ‖

[16] When circumstances permit,transformative learners move toward a frame of reference that is more inclusive, discriminating, self-

reflective, and integrative of experience .[16]

Learning Style Theory vs Instructional Theory [edit ] Main article: Learning styles

Learning style theory proposes that individuals learn in different ways, that there are four distinct learningstyles – feeling, watching, thinking and doing – and that knowledge of a learner's preferred learning stylewill lead to faster and more satisfactory improvement . [28] Other learning theories have also beendeveloped for more specific purposes .Connectivism is a recent theory of networked learning whichfocuses on learning as making connections.

Terms for Instructional theory are diaskagogy, pedagogy, andragogy, and heutagogy which relate to the

maturity (age) of the learner.

Informal and post-modern theories [edit ] In theories that make use of cognitive restructuring , an informal curriculum promotes the use of priorknowledge to help students gain a broad understanding of concepts . [29] New knowledge cannot be told tostudents, it believes, but rather the students' current knowledge must be challenged. In this way, studentswill adjust their ideas to more closely resemble actual theories or concepts . [29] By using this methodstudents gain the broad understanding they're taught and later are more willing to learn and keep thespecifics of the concept or theory. This theory further aligns with the idea that teaching the concepts andthe language of a subject should be split into multiple steps . [30]

Other informal learning theories look at the sources of motivation for learning. Intrinsic motivation maycreate a more self-regulated learner ,[31] yet schools undermine intrinsic motivation. Critics argue that theaverage student learning in isolation performs significantly less well than those learning with collaborationand mediation .[32] Students learn through talk, discussion, and argumentation .[33][34]

See also [edit ]

Behaviorism (learning theory)

Cognitivism (learning theory)

Constructivism (learning theory)

Cultural-historical psychology

Instructional theory

Humanism (learning theory)

Instructional design

Kinesthetic learning

Learning by teaching

Science, technology, society and environment education

Connectivism (learning theory)

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Evidence-based education

About accelerating the learning process

cognitive acceleration

spaced repetition

incremental reading About the mechanisms of memory and learning

neural networks in the brain

sleep and learning

latent learning

memory consolidation

short-term memory versus working memory

long-term memory

declarative memory versus procedural memory

the cerebellum and motor learning

About learning theories related to classroom learning

Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 2: The Learning Process http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/index.html -- List of learning Theories

Mastering Learning Styles One of the first principles of instructional design is to know your audience. Understandingthe various learning styles is critical in getting to know your audience. While there are manyfactors that impact how a person learns, there are basically three major categories ofacquiring knowledge. These include auditory, visual, and kinesthetic.

It is important to note that most people will gravitate to a mixture of these components inlearning something new. Many will find a dominant learning style as they progress in life,but their preferences may change. For example, most children are more prone to thekinesthetic learning style. As they grow older, they tend to gravitate to the other two stylesas well.

As an instructional designer, it is extremely important to understand your audience and howthey learn. A safe place to navigate in designing a course is to find balance among thethree styles for your audience. Let's explore these three styles to help you better

understand how people learn.

Auditory

Some studies have stated that approximately 30% of individuals are auditory learners. Anauditory learner can retain information better when listening to instructions, hearing dialog,or conversing with another person. The auditory learner provides the following opportunitiesfor the instructional designer.

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The Auditory Learner:

Excels in learning through the use of music, jingles, or other auditory activities ormethods

Prefers discussions over written exercises Requires more time to digest visual aids such as graphs, maps, and diagrams Gravitates to scenario or story-based exercises (They love to hear a good story or

joke) Finds it difficult to stay quiet in class Benefits more from reading out loud Displays excellent memorization skills Reads slowly Prefers to study in groups Likes to role-play or act out situations Displays excellent skills in speaking Enjoys interacting with others Reacts well to media that includes narration or similar audio presentations Displays a lack of interest in text-related instructions and often skims over the text Displays excellent grammar skills and good command of language (They can learn

foreign languages more quickly than other learners.) Is more sensitive to the tone of voice by the person speaking Talks out loud and often talks to him/herself Requires to hear it in order to learn it

Visual

Approximately 65% of the population are visual learners. These learners depend onpictures, graphs, or other imagery to help them understand concepts or topics. Anotherattribute of this type of learner is their ability to picture a concept in their mind first in orderto explore a concept or to understand a principle or concept. They will often look up to theright or left to attempt to visualize a concept. The visual learner offers the followingopportunities for instructional designers.

The Visual Learner:

Relates well to written instructions and can quickly understand graphs, maps, anddiagrams

Displays the potential for photographic memory Prefers written instructions over oral instructions Enjoys taking notes Focuses more on body language and facial expressions Finds it difficult to remember names Enjoys a quiet environment for studying

Gravitates to structure and organization Avoids long lectures and discussions Enjoys reading Relates well to observation exercises and similar visual activities Tends to be more detail oriented Finds it difficult to remember names or lists of items Responds well to visual aids such as blackboards and flip charts Prefers independent learning versus group learning activities Requires constant visual stimulation

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Learns better when activities involve writing and drawing Requires to see it in order to learn it

Kinesthetic.

Approximately 5% of the population are kinesthetic learners. These learners require hands-on learning and often struggle in paying attention to lectures or long presentations. Thislearner enjoys to solve things on his or her own. They also have a sense of instinct for whatthey want or need to know and attempt to be independent in solving a problem. This type oflearner offers the following opportunities.

The Kinesthetic. Learner:

Gravitates to the feeling, touching, and exploring aspects of learning Enjoys imitating demonstrations or hypothetical concepts Remembers more about what happened versus what was said or seen Displays a possible lack of grammar and spelling skills Excels when abstract concepts are applied to practical experiences

Enjoys background music when studying or working on a problem Tends to be very active in sports Reacts well to simulations or role-playing Avoids sitting for long periods of time Uses hand gestures more often to communicate ideas Depends more on the environment of learning, including comfortable chairs, ability

to move around, and the freedom to stand and walk Requires the opportunity to take breaks when studying Enjoys field trips and excursions Gravitates to constructive games, creating physical objects, and experiments Requires to do it in order to learn

Understanding these three components of learning will help you in finding the solutions totraining issues or to create a successful course. As mentioned earlier, no one gravitates toonly one of the three styles. Therefore, as you begin to know your audience, keep theselearning styles in mind. You should always be asking yourself and your subject matterexpert on how your audience likes to learn. This one simple question will open the doors tomany opportunities to build a very successful course. Mastering the Learning Styles of howpeople learn is one of the first principles of the ADDIE process.