Lecture 6Lecture 6SyntaxSyntax

The AnalysisThe Analysis

of Sentence Structureof Sentence Structure

SyntaxSyntax

Language use involves a rather complex Language use involves a rather complex system of subconscious grammatical system of subconscious grammatical knowledge.knowledge.

This is revealed most obviously in the study of This is revealed most obviously in the study of how words are combined to form sentences.how words are combined to form sentences.

In this lecture, we will consider the system of In this lecture, we will consider the system of rules and categories underlying sentence rules and categories underlying sentence formation in human language.formation in human language.

This component of grammar is called This component of grammar is called syntaxsyntax..

GrammaticalityGrammaticality

Like other linguistic systems, the syntactic Like other linguistic systems, the syntactic component of the grammar is both component of the grammar is both creativecreative and and systematicsystematic::i.i. Speakers of a language are able to Speakers of a language are able to combine words in novel ways.combine words in novel ways.ii.ii. However, combination is not chaotic .However, combination is not chaotic .

Thus, we accept and comprehend some Thus, we accept and comprehend some sentences but reject others:sentences but reject others:

a.a. The student read a book.The student read a book.b.b. *Book read student the a.*Book read student the a.

CategoriesCategories

Words can be grouped together into a small Words can be grouped together into a small number of classes.number of classes.

These classes are called These classes are called syntactic syntactic categoriescategories..

The classification assumes a number of The classification assumes a number of factors:factors:

i.i. meaningmeaning

ii.ii. inflectioninflection

iii.iii. distributiondistribution

Syntactic CategoriesSyntactic Categories

Lexical categoriesLexical categoriesNoun (N)Noun (N) John, girl, braveryJohn, girl, braveryVerb (V)Verb (V) leave, freeze, remainleave, freeze, remainAdjective (A)Adjective (A) good, tall, oldgood, tall, oldPreposition (P)Preposition (P) on, in, aton, in, atAdverb (Adv)Adverb (Adv) slowly, silently, nowslowly, silently, now Non-lexical categoriesNon-lexical categoriesDeterminer (Det)Determiner (Det) the, a, thisthe, a, thisDegree word (Deg)Degree word (Deg) too, so, verytoo, so, veryQualifier (Qual)Qualifier (Qual) perhaps, never, almostperhaps, never, almostAuxiliary (Aux)Auxiliary (Aux) will, can, maywill, can, mayConjunction (Con)Conjunction (Con) and, or, butand, or, but

Determining a Word’s Determining a Word’s CategoryCategory

Some items can belong to more than one Some items can belong to more than one category:category:

I didn’t get much I didn’t get much sleepsleep (N) last night. (N) last night.I couldn’t I couldn’t sleepsleep (V) because of the noise. (V) because of the noise.

The child stood The child stood nearnear (P) the fence. (P) the fence.The runners will The runners will nearnear (V) the finish line. (V) the finish line.The end is so The end is so near near (A).(A). What determines a word’s category?What determines a word’s category?

MeaningMeaning

One criterion that helps determine a word’s category is the One criterion that helps determine a word’s category is the meaning it denotes.meaning it denotes.

NounsNouns name entities such as individuals (Ali, John) and name entities such as individuals (Ali, John) and objects (pen, book).objects (pen, book).

VerbsVerbs designate actions (run, speak), sensations (feel, hurt), designate actions (run, speak), sensations (feel, hurt), and states (be, remain).and states (be, remain).

AdjectivesAdjectives designate a property or attribute of an entity. designate a property or attribute of an entity.AdverbsAdverbs denote properties and attributes of actions, denote properties and attributes of actions,

sensations, and states.sensations, and states. However, the association between meaning and word However, the association between meaning and word

category is not always clear-cut:category is not always clear-cut:Do abstract nouns (truth, friendship) name entities?Do abstract nouns (truth, friendship) name entities?Are all action-naming words (ride, push) verbs?Are all action-naming words (ride, push) verbs?

InflectionInflection

Compatibility with certain types of inflections is Compatibility with certain types of inflections is another criterion.another criterion.

NounNoun plural –splural –sVerbVerb past tense -edpast tense -ed

progressive -ingprogressive -ingAdjectiveAdjective comparative -ercomparative -er

superlative -estsuperlative -est However, inflection does not always provide the However, inflection does not always provide the

information needed to determine a word’s information needed to determine a word’s category: some adjectives are not inflected with category: some adjectives are not inflected with the -er or -est suffixes and some nouns do not the -er or -est suffixes and some nouns do not take the -s plural suffix.take the -s plural suffix.

DistributionDistribution

A word’s distribution, the type of A word’s distribution, the type of elements with which it can occur, will elements with which it can occur, will help determine its category.help determine its category.

NounNoun determinerdeterminer ((aa car, car, thethe boy) boy)VerbVerb auxiliaryauxiliary ((hashas gone, gone, willwill stay) stay)AdjectiveAdjective degree worddegree word ((veryvery poor, poor, tootoo small) small)

(cf. *the speak, *will speech)(cf. *the speak, *will speech)

PhrasePhrase

Sentences are not strings of words.Sentences are not strings of words. Sentences have a hierarchical design.Sentences have a hierarchical design. In this hierarchy, words are grouped In this hierarchy, words are grouped

together into larger structural unit.together into larger structural unit. These syntactic units, built around These syntactic units, built around

Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, and Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, and Prepositions, are called Prepositions, are called phrasesphrases..

HeadsHeads

Phrases are built around a two-level Phrases are built around a two-level skeleton.skeleton.

The lowest level is reserved for the word The lowest level is reserved for the word around which the phrase is built.around which the phrase is built.

This element is called the This element is called the headhead..NPNP VPVP APAP PPPP|| || || ||NN VV AA PP|| || || ||

booksbooks eat eat certain certain inin

Specifiers Specifiers

Phrases can contain other elements Phrases can contain other elements besides the head.besides the head.

These elements, called These elements, called specifiersspecifiers, have , have special semantic and syntactic roles.special semantic and syntactic roles.

[[NPNP thethe books] books]

[[VPVP nevernever eat] eat]

[[APAP quitequite certain] certain]

[[PPPP almostalmost in] in]

SpecifiersSpecifiers

Semantically, specifiers help make more precise Semantically, specifiers help make more precise the meaning of the head:the meaning of the head:

[[NPNP thethe book] book]specific entity (specific entity (bookbook))

[[VPVP nevernever eat] eat]non-occurring event (non-occurring event (eatingeating))

[[APAP quitequite certain] certain]to which extent a property (to which extent a property (certaincertain) is manifested) is manifested

[[PPPP almostalmost in] in]to which extent a relation (to which extent a relation (inin) is manifested) is manifested

SpecifiersSpecifiers

Syntactically, specifiers mark a Syntactically, specifiers mark a phrase boundary (the left boundary phrase boundary (the left boundary in English):in English):

NPNP VPVP APAP PP PP

//\\ /\/\ /\/\ /\ /\

Det NDet N Qual V Qual V Deg A Deg A Deg P Deg P

| || | | | | | | | | | | | | |

the bookthe book never eat never eat quite certain almost in quite certain almost in

SpecifiersSpecifiers

The syntactic category of a specifier The syntactic category of a specifier differs depending on the syntactic differs depending on the syntactic category of the head:category of the head:

CategoryCategory Typical functionTypical function

Determiner (Det)Determiner (Det) specifier of Nspecifier of N

Qualifier (Qual)Qualifier (Qual) specifier of Vspecifier of V

Degree word (Deg)Degree word (Deg) specifier of A or specifier of A or PP

ComplementsComplements

Phrases can be more complex.Phrases can be more complex. In addition to specifier and head, phrases In addition to specifier and head, phrases

may contain a may contain a complementcomplement.. Complements are phrases themselves.Complements are phrases themselves. The existence of their heads is implied by The existence of their heads is implied by

the meaning of the head in the main phrase:the meaning of the head in the main phrase:[[NPNP thethe books books about about somethingsomething]][[VPVP nevernever eat eat somethingsomething]][[APAP quitequite certain certain about about somethingsomething]][[PPPP almostalmost in in somethingsomething]]

ComplementsComplements

Complements are attached to the right of Complements are attached to the right of the head in English:the head in English:

VPVP

NPNP

QualQual V V DetDet NN || | | | | ||nevernever eateat a a

hamburgerhamburger

Tests for Phrase StructureTests for Phrase Structure

How do linguists determine which How do linguists determine which words should be grouped together in words should be grouped together in phrases?phrases?

The existence of phrases as The existence of phrases as constituents can be independently constituents can be independently verified with the help of special tests:verified with the help of special tests:

the substitution testthe substitution testthe movement testthe movement testthe coordination testthe coordination test

Substitution TestSubstitution Test

Phrases are considered to be syntactic units as they can Phrases are considered to be syntactic units as they can often be replaced by an element:often be replaced by an element:

[[NPNP The students] decided to take the course when The students] decided to take the course when theythey read read the syllabus.the syllabus.(they = the students)(they = the students)

The students will [The students will [VPVP wear ties] if the teachers will wear ties] if the teachers will do sodo so..(do so = wear ties)(do so = wear ties)

They stopped [They stopped [PPPP at the corner] and we stopped at the corner] and we stopped therethere too. too.(there = at the corner)(there = at the corner)

Movement TestMovement Test

A phrase forms a constituent because it A phrase forms a constituent because it can be moved as a single unit to a can be moved as a single unit to a different position within the sentence:different position within the sentence:

They stopped [They stopped [PPPP at the cornerat the corner]]

[[PPPP At the cornerAt the corner], they stopped.], they stopped.

**AtAt they stopped they stopped the cornerthe corner..

Coordination TestCoordination Test

A group of words form a constituent A group of words form a constituent if it can be joined to another group of if it can be joined to another group of words by a conjunction:words by a conjunction:

The childrenThe children [[VPVP read the story] read the story]

andand

[[VPVP learned a lesson] learned a lesson]

Phrase Structure RulesPhrase Structure Rules

The grammar must ensure that specifiers, heads, and The grammar must ensure that specifiers, heads, and complements occupy the appropriate positions in phrase complements occupy the appropriate positions in phrase structure.structure.

This is regulated by a grammatical mechanism called a This is regulated by a grammatical mechanism called a phrase phrase structure rulestructure rule..

General format:General format: XP XP (Specifier)(Specifier) XX (Complement) …(Complement) …

Examples:Examples: NP NP (Det)(Det) NN (PP) …(PP) …VP VP (Qual)(Qual) VV (NP) …(NP) …AP AP (Deg)(Deg) AA (PP) …(PP) …PP PP (Deg)(Deg) PP (NP) …(NP) …

Dots indicate that other complement options are available.Dots indicate that other complement options are available.Parentheses indicate that specifiers and complements are optional.Parentheses indicate that specifiers and complements are optional.

Phrase PatternsPhrase Patterns

XX XX XX XX

/|\/|\ /\/\ /\/\ || S H CS H C H C H C S H S H HH

| | || | | | | | | | | | | || always drink water on campus the man arrivedalways drink water on campus the man arrived

X’ CategoriesX’ Categories

ComplementsComplements and and HeadsHeads are attached to are attached to a level between the word and the phrase.a level between the word and the phrase.

This intermediate level of structure is This intermediate level of structure is represented by the symbol X’ (X-bar).represented by the symbol X’ (X-bar).

Thus, all phrases have a tri-level structure:Thus, all phrases have a tri-level structure:

head + complement form X’-level constituenthead + complement form X’-level constituent

specifier + X’ constituent form XPspecifier + X’ constituent form XP

X’ CategoriesX’ Categories

XPXP

X’X’

SpecifierSpecifier XX ComplementComplement

HeadHead Why X’ Categories ?Why X’ Categories ?

The Existence of X’The Existence of X’

The same phrase structure tests can verify the The same phrase structure tests can verify the existence of X’ categories.existence of X’ categories.

That [That [N’N’ book about linguisticsbook about linguistics] is more informative ] is more informative than the one you’re reading.than the one you’re reading.

That That oneone is more informative than the one you’re is more informative than the one you’re reading.reading.

Thus,Thus,a.a. XPXP (Specifier) X’(Specifier) X’

b.b. X’X’ X (Complement)X (Complement)

SentencesSentences

The sentence (S) is the largest unit of syntactic analysis.The sentence (S) is the largest unit of syntactic analysis. Sentences are the product of the rule:Sentences are the product of the rule:

SS NP VPNP VPSS

NPNP VPVP

NPNP

DetDet NN VV DetDet NN || || || | | ||

AA scientist scientist discovered discovered thethe answeranswer

Sentences and XP RulesSentences and XP Rules

A sentence is not special.A sentence is not special. It has internal structure, with a head, a It has internal structure, with a head, a

complement, and a specifier.complement, and a specifier. The The headhead is an abstract category called is an abstract category called InflInfl, short , short

for inflection, which indicates the sentence tense for inflection, which indicates the sentence tense (past or non-past).(past or non-past).

Infl, like other constituent heads, is obligatory.Infl, like other constituent heads, is obligatory. This accounts for the fact that, in English, all This accounts for the fact that, in English, all

sentences have tense.sentences have tense. Infl takes a Infl takes a VPVP as its as its complementcomplement.. Infl takes an Infl takes an NPNP as its as its specifierspecifier.. Therefore, sentences are consistent with the XP Therefore, sentences are consistent with the XP

rules.rules.

Sentences and XP RulesSentences and XP Rules

InflP (=S)InflP (=S)

NPNP VPVP

InflInfl NPNP

DetDet NN PstPst VV DetDet NN

AA scientist scientist discovered discovered thethe answeranswer

Sentences and XP RulesSentences and XP Rules

Auxiliary verbs are inherently associated Auxiliary verbs are inherently associated with a particular tense.with a particular tense.

Examples like Examples like willwill, , cancan, and , and maymay are are necessarily non-past:necessarily non-past:

*He will/can/may work yesterday.*He will/can/may work yesterday. Therefore, auxiliary verbs should be Therefore, auxiliary verbs should be

treated as instances of the Infl category.treated as instances of the Infl category.

Sentences and XP RulesSentences and XP Rules

InflP (=S)InflP (=S)

NPNP VPVP

InflInfl NPNP

DetDet NN VV DetDet NN

AA scientist scientist will discoverwill discover thethe answeranswer

Summing upSumming up

Syntax is concerned with the study of sentence Syntax is concerned with the study of sentence structure.structure.

Words can be grouped together into a small Words can be grouped together into a small number of number of syntactic categoriessyntactic categories..

There are some criteria to help determine There are some criteria to help determine a word’s a word’s category.category.

Sentences have a hierarchical design of Sentences have a hierarchical design of phrasesphrases.. The existence of phrases as constituents can be The existence of phrases as constituents can be

independently verified with the help of special independently verified with the help of special tests.tests.

Phrases and sentences have internal structure, with Phrases and sentences have internal structure, with a head, a complement, and a specifier.a head, a complement, and a specifier.

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