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SYNTAX
The purpose of a course in the syntax of the English language is to identify and
present the main patterns and structures of expression in contemporary English. The
educated speaker of English must not only be aware of the complex meaning of the
sentences and structures he comes across while reading or researching, but also be able
to express complex thoughts in a way that can best render the meaning of what he
conveys. Accuracy is a condition that will best be found in the awareness of using the
correct rules governing the structures of a language.
I.Definition and Role of Syntax
Syntax is that branch of linguistics which describes the phenomena of the contemporary
language in point of relations between words and their correct arrangement in units of
expression apt to reflect logical units and patterns.
It actually consists of a whole set of principles and rules which help govern
communication, whether written or oral. That’s why its structure and terms are related to
logics.
Regarded in its most important functions, it describes the situations and contexts
themselves, the relations between words.
Before being expressed in the form of communication, thoughts are described by
logic as sentences or propositions. When they are expressed in speech or writing, these
propositions or sentences are analysed by syntax again as sentences or clauses. The
main part of the sentence will be described as the subject and the predicate in both logic
and linguistics.
Thoughts, therefore, communicated or not, constitute themselves as logical units,
materialized in a written or oral form, having specific rules, and grammar analyses them
as syntactic units.
As basic syntactic units are called sentences, the syntactic subunits are necessarily
called parts of the simple sentence (or clauses in the case of compound or complex
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sentences). The parts of the simple sentence will be divided into main/principal (the
subject and the predicate) and secondary (the attribute – which gravitates around the
subject or, less frequently round the predicate etc. – the direct, indirect and
prepositional objects and the adverbial modifiers – connected with the predicate).
The parts of the sentence can take the form of words or combinations of words,
words + prepositions or other particles, all these being called phrases (=locuţiuni).
According to their role in the sentence, i.e. to the word they substitute for, these phrases
are called attributive, adverbial, predicative etc.
Syntax is concerned with the analysis of the complete logical units mainly,
therefore with syntactic units or sense/semantic units, which can be classified in various
ways.
Thus, the surface structures of the communication may appear in the form of
declarative, an (apparently) interrogative sentence, as an imperative or as an
exclamation.
The attitude of the speaker/writer may also vary in point of modality. The means of
expressing modality are ample and diverse. Morphology studies most forms of modality
– moods and modal verbs, but some of them are studied by syntax – types of sentences
and clauses, modal phrases etc. Intonation too can express modality and so can
punctuation or emphasis.
II.Classification of Sentences
Articulate thoughts find expression in sentences or propositions and take the oral
form of utterances. Language and its component elements (phonemes, morphemes,
words, phrases, grammatical rules, structures, patterns etc.) are the materials and means
employed by human beings in order to embody their thoughts.
Linguistic expressions and thoughts could be differentiated and classified in point
of content and form in the following ways:
1. Classification in point of trend or purpose of communication/ in point of
modality/ manner or the speaker’s attitude (therefore a matter of content);
2. Classification in point of structure (of the communication)/of composition
(therefore a matter of form);
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3. Classification in point of status or grammatical dependence. All types or
subtypes of sentences identified in any of the three classifications can be subdivided
into positive and negative, without special mention being made of it.
1. From the point of view of trend, sentences are normally divided into :
1.1.Declarative sentences
1.2.Interrogative sentences
1.3.Imperative sentences
1.4.Exclamatory sentences
1.1 Declarative sentences (also called statements) – are used to affirm, declare or
state something (positive or negative), usually without emotional
implication, or affective participation. They normally end in a period or full
stop and are uttered in the “Tone of Finality/ Decision”.
e.g. The question you asked has already been answered/ was answered only
a couple of minutes ago, so we can go straight to the next question , if you
all agree.
As such sentences can be either positive or negative, the arrangement of
words will differ accordingly.
1.2 Interrogative sentences – are expressions of the speaker`s/ writer`s curiosity.
There are certain requirements in point of word order and the tones adopted
depend on their subdivision:
1.2.1. general questions ;
1.2.2. special/particular questions;
1.2.3. alternative questions;
1.2.4. disjunctive questions.
All of them normally end in a question mark.
1.2.1. General questions – refer to the truth of the entire sentence, and so the answer
may be just YES or NO, or a corresponding gesture! (They are frequently called
YES/NO questions).
They are the typical reflection of genuine/pure curiosity and are also called
“straightforward questions”. Their tone is generally that of genuine curiosity (high
rise).
e.g. Is it raining?
Must you really go?
Have you finished?
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Word order in general questions involves partial grammatical inversion, in
concrete words, an inversion of place between the subject and the auxiliary/modal
verb.
1.2.2.Special/particular questions – refer only to one/to a specific part of the
sentence/statement, so that they expect a definite answer. The fact that they begin with
an interrogative pronoun or adverb justifies their familiar designation as WH-
questions.
e.g. When did he leave?
Why have they left?
The intonation of these questions usually goes down, so we have “fall tune”, like in all
languages.
1.2.3. Alternative questions – are based on the presence of several possibilities or
alternatives and are subdivided into:
- limited/ finite (which give 2 or more possibilities);
e.g. Do they speak English or Romanian?
- open/ unlimited (when the possibilities are more than those listed);
e.g. What will you have, my dear, coffee, tea or a glass of wine? (or
something else?)
1.2.3.4. Disjunctive questions - are statements followed by a question, the
question having the opposite direction than the statement:
- a positive statement followed by an interrogative – negative
question;
e.g. Sue is your younger sister, isn’t she?
- a negative statement followed by an interrogative question
proper.
e.g. It hasn’t rained, has it?
Most such questions are merely rhetorical, however the intonation differentiates
them in point of modality. When the intonation falls, the speaker expects the
interlocutor to merely confirm what was already known (i.e. what is asserted in the
basic statement).
e.g. It hasn’t rained, has it? (No, it hasn’t – of course.)
When we have rising intonation, either an affirmative or a negative answer can
be expected, i.e. we actually request information.
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e.g. The trip starts on Monday, doesn’t it? (Yes, it does. / No, it doesn’t.)
1.3. Imperative sentences – include commands proper, requests, invitations. They usually
end in an exclamation mark.
e.g. Come!
Bring them tonight (please)!
Don’t forget me!
Speak a little louder, will you?
In English, the most polite invitations, requests or suggestions are formulated as
questions.
e.g. Would you mind turning off your cell-phone?
Shall we discuss it later?
Won’t you wait for me?
1.4. Exclamatory sentences – are more clearly connected with our emotions.
They may denote attitudes – positive or superlative (admiration, joy, surprise,
happiness, etc.) or negative (horror, disgust, regret, disappointment, etc.).
Word order remains the same, but exclamatory sentences usually begin with
adverbs, pronouns, etc., inversion is frequent and sometimes they include the analytic
form of the subjunctive with should. In written form, they end in an exclamation mark.
2. From the point of view of their structure/composition/form, three main types of sentences
can be distinguished :
2.1. The simple sentence - expressing just one thought at a time, by means
of one predicate.
2.2. The compound sentence – a thought which includes more units than
one, placed on an equal footing (= fraza compusă prin coordonare), i.e. a
sentence made up of two or more clauses (= propoziții coordonate), which
discharge the same function and are connected between them with or
without coordinating conjunctions.
2.3. The complex sentence – (= fraza compusă prin subordonare), that is a
unit of thinking made up of one or more main /principal clauses (=
propoziții principale) and one or more subordinate clauses (=propoziții
secundare/subordonate).
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In both speech and writing we sometimes use compound – complex sentences, i.e.
situations in which both coordination and subordination are used in the same syntactic unit, or
complex – compound sentences, accordingly.
3. From the point of view of their status (of dependence or independence) or, in other words,
of grammatical dependence, sentences can be classified into:
3.1. Independent sentences (isolated);
3.2. Independent clauses (as part of a compound sentence);
3.3. Main / principal / head clauses (in complex sentences);
3.4. Regent clauses (as part of a complex sentence, in case there are two
degrees/ three levels of subordination);
3.5. Subordinate/ secondary clauses (again as part of complex sentences).
3.1. Independent sentences – are simple sentences, their name differing only function of
the angle form which they are viewed: in this case not structure/composition, but relative
status/condition/situation .
e.g. It is 8 o’clock.
You will have to rush to school.
If linked by conjunctions, independent sentences become independent clauses.
e.g. It is 8 o’clock and you will have to rush to school.
If they are placed in a hierarchy, they turn into main clauses, subordinate clauses
proper or regent clauses.
e.g. It is 8 o’clock so you will have to rush to school, unless you want to be
late again.
3.2. Independent clauses – are the complete elements or units which are brought
together in a closer connection as part of the speech chain, without being dependent upon
each other or upon anything else (in point of meaning or grammatical relationship). In their
case, commas or conjunctions can be replaced by full-stops, without altering their meaning in
this way.
e.g. The class has ended and now we can leave.
The class has ended. Now we can leave.
3.3 Main clauses (principal/head clauses) – are the elements that rank first in the
hierarchy established as part of a complex sentence, i.e. they have in their subordination both
secondary /subordinate clauses and regent clauses – in case the latter are present. (They are
usually statements, although questions, imperatives or exclamations).
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3.4. Regent clauses – have the intermediate position, i.e. they have
ambivalent/twofold/hybrid nature of governed and governing at the same time. They behave
as subordinates to the main clause(s) while governing the subordinate clause(s) proper.
3.5. Subordinate/secondary clauses - are indispensable elements of complex
sentences.
Here is an equivalence of terms between Romanian and English, which summarizes the
classification dealt with before:
R E
Propoziţie independentă/simplă independent/simple
sentence
propoziţie independentă coordonată coordinated independent
clause
(în cadrul unei fraze compuse prin (as part of a compound
coordonare) sentence)
propoziţie principală main/principal/head clause
(în cadrul unei fraze compuse prin (as part of a complex
subordonare) sentence)
propoziţie secundară/subordonată subordinate/secondary
clause
(idem) (idem)
propoziţie regentă regent clause
(idem) (idem)
frază (compusă) prin coordonare compound sentence
frază (compusă) prin subordonare complex sentence
locuţiune gramaticală grammatical phrase
expresie idiom, idiomatic phrase
Or, vice-versa:
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E R
Sentence:
- Simple /independent - propoziţie
independentă/simplă
- Compound (two or more - frază compusă prin
independent clauses) coordonare
- Complex (one main clause or - frază compusă prin
more + one or more subordinated subordonare
clauses).
Clause:
- independent - propoziţie independentă
(as part of a “frază
compusă prin coordonare”)
- main/principal - propoziţie principală (as part of
a “frază compusă prin subordonare”)
- subordinate - propoziţie
secundară/subordonată (idem)
- regent - propoziţie regentă (idem)
Phrase:
- locuţiune gramaticală (adjectivală, prepoziţională, conjunctivală etc.)
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The Syntax of the Simple Sentence
A simple sentence, although assumed by many people to be made up of a subject and a
predicate only, consists of both main parts (subject and predicate) and, most often, secondary
parts, too. Simple sentences are subdivided into:
1. Simple unextended sentences (= propoziţii simple nedezvoltate) – made up of subject and
predicate.
e.g. He has arrived.
She is asleep.
Mary wouldn’t understand.
Joe was walking.
2. Simple extended sentences (= propoziţii simple dezvoltate) – made up of main parts
(subject and predicate) + the direct/ indirect / prepositional object, adverbial modifier(s) etc.
e.g. Not very long ago he went there almost weekly.
At four o’clock yesterday, the man with his wife went to the doctor’s by car.
3. Elliptical simple sentences (= propoziţii simple eliptice) – which miss a part of the
sentence that is considered otherwise essential (subject or predicate).
e.g. Care for a walk? (= Vrei să ne plimbam? – misses auxiliary do and subject you)
Nice to see you! (missing the subject it and the linking vb. to be).
Such sentences are peculiar to colloquial English, or stage directions (e.g. “Goes to table
L.”).
4. One-member sentences (= propoziţii monomembre) include just one element to convey
the gist of an idea, the essential. Nominal elements usually prevail in such sentences, that’s
why they are also called “nominal sentences” (=propoziţii nominale).
e.g. I went in. Darkness. Silence. Smoke.
In literature, such sentences occur quite frequently in Dickens` works:
e.g. Silence between them. The deadly statistically clock very hollow. The distant smoke
very black and heavy. (Hard Times, Ch XV).
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The Parts of the Sentence
1. The Subject
In grammar, roughly speaking, the subject is the element under discussion, while the
predicate is the element which says something about it. Professor Leon Leviţchi pointed out
the fact that the role of the subject is usually anaphoric, that is limited to reminding one about
the topic of the discussion, while the role of the predicate is more important – bringing new
elements concerning the problem discussed, i.e. epiphoric.
In concrete terms, the subject is the element which is known to the speaker in most cases,
and thus, logically, English sentences begin with it. If it is unknown, we notice that the
English people too leave it to the end of the sentence, where most of the emphasis falls. In
such cases, a temporary substitute is used for introducing it.
The subject is however, always expressed in English, except in the following two
situations.
1.1.In imperative sentences :
e.g. Take it back!
Don’t wait for me!
1.2. In elliptical speech:
e.g. Need some help?
To conclude, it is important not only to take care that the subject is expressed in an
English sentence, but also, when translating from English into Romanian, be careful not to
translate every subject pronoun, because the effects can change the meaning (unwanted
emphasis and a clumsy text in which pronouns are in excess).
DEFINITION: The subject is that principal part of the sentence which shows who/what
performs the action expressed by the predicate or to whom/to what a feature or characteristic
expressed by the predicative is ascribed.
The subject answers the questions: who? or what?
Ways of expressing the subject:
a. by a noun in the nominative case :
e.g. The little boy was ill in bed. (=a noun phrase)
The accused were charged with theft. (=an indefinite participle)
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Martin saw us. (=a proper name)
The Prince and the Pauper is a story by M. Twain. (a group of words indicating a
title/an institution).
b. by a pronoun :
e.g. Do you know her? (=a personal pronoun)
This book is yours, mine is at home. (=a possessive pronoun)
Is this your car? (=a demonstrative pronoun)
Who will come with me? (=an interrogative pronoun)
This is the house which burnt last year. (=a relative pronoun)
What will be will be. (=a conjunctive – relative pronoun)
All is not gold that glitters. (=an indefinite pronoun)
Everybody speaks English here. (=a generic absolute pronoun)
They say he is a poet. (=a generic limited pronoun)
Nothing succeeds like success. (=a negative pronoun)
Five (of them) were present. (=a numeral pronoun)
c. by a numeral :
e.g. Where one is wise, two are happy. (=cardinal)
The second arrived late. (=ordinal)
d. by an infinitive :
e.g. To promise and give nothing is comfort to a fool.
e. by a gerundial construction :
e.g. Reading is easier than writing.
f. a substantivised part of speech :
e.g. Yesterday will not be called again.
g. by a group of words whose nature may differ :
e.g. Not a soul did he meet on his way.
h. by a subordinate subject clause :
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e.g. What is worth doing is worth doing well.
Classification of Subjects
A. From the point of view of their semantic content /value (i.e. the amount of meaning which
they carry):
1. Grammatical subjects (formal/apparent subjects);
- are directly connected with the predicate and determining agreement between the
latter and the subject :
e.g. I know the children don’t like it.
2. Logical/real subjects, pointing to the agent, the real doer of the action;
The logical subject is not identical to the grammatical subject in the following situations:
a. in passive constructions ;
b. in introductory constructions.
a. Passive constructions :
e.g. New prizes have been won by the famous artist.
In this sentence, the grammatical subject does not point to the doer of the action. The
logical subject is what we call in English a prepositional object of agent.
In English it is either the direct or the indirect object that may become subject of the
passive construction.
e.g. He gave me this (brilliant) idea.
Real S. pred . i.o. d.o.
1. This brilliant idea was given to me by him.
gram. subj. passive pred. i.o. optional prep.obj. of agent
+attribute. =real / logical subject
2. I was given this idea by him.
gr.sb. passive retained optional prep.adj. of agent
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pred. adj. = real/logical subject
b. Constructions with introductory elements (it, there, here);
- can be classified as:
1. Anticipatory – have syntactic function, the emphasis being on the predicative, as more
important for the meaning of the sentence :
e.g. It is nice of him to have said that.
The constructions with there lay emphasis on the existence or absence of the real
subject. Verbs other than “to be” can be used with there, to lay emphasis either on the
existence or on the semantic content of these verbs;
e.g. There came nothing out of the sack but what was in it.(prov.)
2. Announcing or exclamatory – which are supposed to emphasize the coming of the real
subject:
e.g. Here/There he is.
Here/There he comes. (=Iată-l că vine.)
3. Emphatic constructions – are used to emphasize various parts of the sentence, as
follows:
a. the real subject :
e.g. It is he who broke the window.
It is I who said it.
b. the direct object :
e.g. It was a book that I brought as a present.
c. the indirect object :
e.g. It is to her that I owe everything.
d. the prepositional object :
e.g. It is about Romania that I was talking, not the U.S.A.
e. the adverbial modifier of manner :
e.g. It is but reluctantly that he answered my questions.
f. the adverbial modifier of manner :
e.g. It was by a frightful storm that they arrived.
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g. the adverbial modifier of place :
e.g. It was at the office that I had found him.
h. the adverbial modifier of time :
e.g. It is a decade ago that he last came here.
4. Impersonal subjects – do not refer to a definite person or thing. They may refer to :
a. time (when they refer to hours, days, parts of the day, etc.)
e.g. It was midnight.
b. lapse of time
e.g. It is a year since we last met.
c. weather
e.g. It is cold.
d. natural phenomena
e.g. It is raining
e. distance
e.g. It’s ten miles to the nearest town.
d. the state of things in general
e.g. It’s wonderful/awful.
B. From the point of view of their form/structure/composition:
1. Simple subjects – expressed by one word (noun /pronoun) sometimes accompanied by
an attribute.
e.g. Susan left the room .
Speaking English is obligatory.
2. Compound subjects – two or three elements representing one person/thing.
e.g. Ham and eggs is very popular with the Americans.
My sister and friend is here to help me.
3. Coordinated subjects – two or more elements referring to several notions joined by
coordinated conjunctions. Agreement is usually in the plural.
e.g. She and her daughter have come back.
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4. Complex subjects – made up of heterogeneous elements, inseparable because only
together they give the meaning of the subject. They may be made up of :
a. a for- to phrase
e.g. For me to understand this is difficult.
b. a nominative + infinitive
e.g. She was heard to unlock the door.
c. a nominative + an indefinite participle
e.g. She was heard unlocking the door.
d. a subordinate subject clause
e.g. That she can manage is beyond hope.
How he succeeded I cannot understand.
5. Double subject – made up of both a (proper) noun and a pronoun often
present in the literary (absolute use);
e.g. “The land it is the landlord’s …” (Ernest Charles Jones)
The Place of the Subject
In declarative, affirmative and negative sentences, the subject usually stays at the
beginning of the sentence. It can be preceded by its adjectival attributes, with which it forms
the subject /group /unit, or by adverbial modifiers of manner, of attendant circumstances, of
definite time and, rarely, of place.
In interrogative and interrogative – negative sentences the subject is preceded by the
auxiliary/modal verb.
Peculiarities of English Use
Unlike Romanian, English requires an expressed subject. The omission of the subject is,
however, possible with coordinated predicates and in set phrases.
The subject is not repeated in an enumeration of predicates:
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e.g. He came, saw and conquered.
The subject is generally omitted in constructions beginning with as:
e.g. As is usual/As is normal/As is but natural/As was to be expected /As was shown
elsewhere, ...
The Agreement between the Predicate and the Subject
In English, the problem of concordance is limited only to the agreement in person and
especially in number.
1. Agreement in Person
The person of the finite verb corresponds to that indicated by the subject. There are, however,
cases of difficulty: one of the them is related to the subjects denoting different persons and
coordinated by either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also, as well as, no less than, like, without:
1.1 The rule of proximity (=acordul prin atracţie) can be applied here, the predicate
agrees with the subject that is closest to it:
e.g. Either you or I am to do it.
Neither you nor I was at home.
Most grammars recommend avoiding such clumsy constructions and advise us either
to repeat the verb:
e.g. Either you are to do it or I am.
Neither you were at home nor I was.
Or to use a verbal form without person distinction:
e.g. Either you or I have to do it.
Neither you nor I happened to be at home.
1.2. Subjects denoting different persons and coordinated by the conjunction and take a
plural verb but are held to apply a rule of precedence of the first person over the second and the
latter over the third.
e.g. Helen and I (=we) have known each other for years.
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Helen and you (=you two) are very much alike.
Helen and Mary (=they) have grown up together.
2. Agreement in Number
The problem of agreement in number is more complicated in English than in Romanian.
There are many rules and exceptions, several types of agreement in number between the
predicate and the subject, either for whole categories of subjects or for isolated cases.
Some of the difficulties arise from the great difference between English and Romanian in point
of the idea of number in nouns.
Others derive from the usage of pronouns (especially indefinite) and the various categories of
subjects (simple, compound, co–ordinated and complex).
Sometimes different speakers/writers use them in different ways and even grammar books
have different points of view.
A couple of situations, however, could have been established:
I. the subject takes a singular verb;
II. a singular or a plural verb is employed, in keeping with the meaning of the subject;
III. a singular or a plural verb is employed, in keeping with the speaker‘s/writer’s desire
(optional agreement);
IV. the subject takes only a plural verb;
V. the verb agrees with one of the several subjects in the sentence.
Here is a detailed presentation of each of each of them, in turns:
I. A predicate in the singular follows:
a. An individual noun in the singular:
e.g. The boy was playing in the garden.
b. A proper noun/name in the singular:
e.g. Ben Nevis is Britain’s highest mountain.
c. A proper noun equivalent in the singular:
e.g. The moon is the satellite of the earth.
d. A noun of material singular in form:
e.g. Cotton has various uses.
e. Abstractions (and abstract nouns seen as unique):
e.g. Thinking was difficult.
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Economics is studied in all schools.
The news is good.
Your advice is welcome.
The information was necessary.
As we remember, when focus is laid on the plural meaning of these nouns, a quantifier
must be used: a piece of/several pieces of news, information, etc., which allows either a singular
or a plural verb to be used, according to meaning.
f. A singularia tantum:
e.g. The furniture looks new and modern.
The luggage was left on the floor.
g. Singular nouns co-coordinated by and not, but, like, no less than, as
well as:
e.g. Emily, no less than her sister, was a great writer. Anne Brontë,
as well as her sisters, is known to have used a pen name.
h. A singular verb follows the nouns gallows and money:
e.g. The gallows is a sinister presence in this book.
The money is in his pocket.
i. Substantivised adjectives (and participles) denoting abstractions take a
singular predicate:
e.g. The evil that men do lives after them.
The good is often interred with their bones. (Shakespeare)
j. The verb following after it is always singular:
e.g. It is I who did it.
k. The interrogative pronoun what (used as a subject) is followed by a
singular verb:
e.g. What is going on here?
l. Most indefinite pronouns (another, each, less, little, a little, much,
one) as well as the pronominal compounds of some, any, no and every
are followed by a singular verb; the word none is an exception:
e.g. Little is left to say about it.
Somebody is to help him with this project.
m. A singular predicate agrees with compound subjects:
e.g. Here comes my good sister and friend.
n. Certain types of coordinated subjects (coordinated infinitives) are
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followed by a singular predicate:
e.g. To promise and to give nothing is to comfort a fool. (proverb)
o. Singular subjects coordinated by either…or, neither…nor.
e.g. Either the child or his mother is to be present.
Neither advice nor experience is enough.
p. Coordinated subjects introduced by there and here follow the same
rule, if the first is in the singular:
e.g. There is a bottle and a glass on the sideboard.
Here comes my friend and his sons.
q. Coordinated nouns accompanied by each and every are followed by
a singular verb too:
e.g. Every man and woman is given a questionnaire.
II. This situation concerns subjects whose meaning entails the use of a singular or plural
predicate:
1. Collective nouns such as people (= “popor”), nation, the peasantry, parliament,
government, mankind, crew, family, group, crew, faculty, (teaching) staff, party,
union, federation, leadership, professoriate, majority, minority, army take a singular
verb when their abstract meaning is used and a plural verb when they refer to a
number of human beings whose actions, thoughts, gestures are indicated.
e.g. My family has always been called Smith.
But:
My family have gone on a holiday.
As a most general rule, collective nouns are considered singular and therefore take a singular
verb when they are seen as a whole, or when they are considered as abstractions. The same
nouns can take a plural verb when the idea of collectiveness or group is implied (especially
for people).
2. Individual nouns of multitude (which have the same form in the singular and plural) take a
singular or plural predicate function of the singular or plural meaning of the noun they denote.
e.g. The fish are/is swimming.
Most nouns in this category belong to zoology: deer, sheep, bison, grouse,
moose, fish, carp, trout, cod, salmon, etc.
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Others refer to measures and numbers: one/two brace (of partridges), one/two
gross (of stockings), couple, dozen, score, head, ton, stone.
2. Some nouns can get either a singular or a plural verb, but with a different meaning.
e.g. Sg. Pl.
BRAINS creier minte
COUPLE, PAIR soţi doi, pereche
MEANS instrument mijloace, posibilităţi
STATISTICS ştiinţa statisticii operaţia în sine,
documente de statistică
3. Agreement of the predicate is in the singular or the plural when the nouns bulk,
majority, number, part, plenty, proportions, range, series, succession, variety are
followed by a plural noun accompanied by the preposition of:
e.g. A variety of answers are possible.
The variety of alternatives was too great.
It is also to be noted that in the former case the stress falls on answers, rather than their
variety, while in the latter, variety is the main focus of the sentence.
4. Certain indefinite pronouns are followed by a singular or a plural verb: that, which,
who, all, any, either, some, more:
e.g. It is the boy that won. vs. It is the parents that pay for it.
Which is/are yours?
Who is/are the next?
III. A few subjects may be followed by a singular or a plural predicate, according with the
speaker’s/writer’s wish.
In such cases there are no restrictions imposed.
1. The first case is that of plural titles of books, newspapers and
magazines.
e.g. Sketches by Boz are/is known to be Dickens’s first book.
The singular, however, is preferred.
2. Plural names of diseases and games are usually followed by a singular
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verb (which is actually predominant), but some speakers prefer the plural.
Some such examples are: measles, mumps, rickets, hysterics and
billiards, draughts, forfeits, marbles, skittles, musical chairs, etc.
3. Plural names of buildings, establishments, offices, etc: works, headquarters.
e.g. The UNO headquarters is/are in NY.
4. Plural nouns preceded by plural measures, weights, numeratives or
quantifiers may be followed by a singular verb if they are taken to be
units:
e.g. Three fifths of this is/are enough.
Three pounds are/is too much.
5. A difficult case is provided by the noun wages. It is used in the plural with the plural
meaning of “salarii” but in connection with the singular meaning of “salariu” there is some
fluctuation in use. Modern tendencies prefer a singular predicate, for the less complicated
form of wage.
e.g. And what are its wages?
In collocations like minimum wage, average wage, living wage,
starvation wage a singular predicate follows.
6. This is also illustrated by the situation of the noun contents. In most
cases it is used with a singular verb, but occasionally it takes a plural
verb, especially when it means table of contents.
e.g. The content(s) of the book is not very interesting.
The contents (= cuprinsul) are usually placed at the beginning of the book.
7. The phrase more than … followed by a noun may take a singular or a plural verb.
e.g. More than half the students is/are present.
8. Among indefinite pronouns which are used with a singular verb, the
word none has a fluctuating usage.
e.g. None is/are in favour of my proposal.
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9. Arithmetical operations are expressed either with the singular or the
plural:
e.g. Three and five is/are eight.
IV. This situation refers to certain subjects which admit only a plural predicate.
1. Defective individual nouns (pluralia tantum):
e.g. trousers, slacks, bermudas, panties, slips, drawers, pyjamas;
pincers, tongs, pliers, tweezers; whiskers, bowels; thanks,
auspicies, doings, earnings.
Clothes do not make the man.
Most of these nouns can be quantified with a pair of, two pairs of (trousers, tongs, etc.) and so
become countable.
2. Nouns of multitude, most of them denoting groups of people, take a plural predicate.
e.g. - people, folk, militia, police, clergy, the military, etc.
- poultry, vermin, cattle – denote groups of other living beings.
e.g. The police were chasing the thieves.
3. Plural names of sciences take a plural verb when they are determined:
e.g. The acoustics of this room are very good.
4. The nouns athletics and gymnastics require plural predicates.
e.g. Gymnastics are important for our health.
5. A plural verb follows a singular noun if the latter is accompanied by two or several
adjectives that differentiate it.
e.g. Lyrical and epical poetry were both flourishing.
6. Abstractions or names of material in the singular may take a plural predicate if they
are modified by two coordinated attributes.
e.g. Hot and cold water run at the tap.
7. As to other parts of speech used as subject, substantivized adjectives and participles
with a collective meaning (referring to people) get a plural verb.
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e.g. The wounded were taken to the hospital.
8. A small number of pronouns require this type of agreement, namely both and none of
them:
e.g. There are two solutions, but both are unacceptable.
9. The phrase one or two requires a plural predicate.
e.g. Out of these books, only one or two are interesting.
10. Coordinated gerunds take a plural verb.
e.g. Reading and writing are important skills.
11. The rule says that coordinated subjects are followed by a plural verb, but we must take
care that they are not included among exceptions:
e.g. A fool and his money are soon parted.
V. Situation 5:
1. Generally speaking, agreement is with the first subject. In case the two subjects differ in
person, agreement is made with the subject which is closest to the predicate (the rule of
proximity= acordul prin atracție).
e.g. Not only I, but also he sings awfully.
He is angry and so are we.
2. Nouns connected by with or together with are followed by a verb which agrees with the
first of them.
e.g. The father, together with his children, is expected today.
The children, together with their father, are expected today.
3. Subjects connected by the conjunction as well as will get a predicate in agreement with
the first of them.
e.g. The luggage, as well as some of the tickets, was lost.
The tickets, as well as the luggage, were lost.
Some grammarians, however, recommend using and and the repetition of the verb. In
this way, an apparent clumsiness of subject-verb agreement can be avoided.
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e.g. Both the luggage and the tickets were lost.
Or:
The luggage was lost and so were the tickets.
The Predicate
As it has already been stated, although both the subject and the predicate are considered to be
the main parts of the sentence, it is the predicate whose role prevails in a sentence, being actually
more important than the subject. It actually carries the essential information about the subject and
attracts more attention in the sentence than the subject does.
Definition: A predicate is the principal part of a sentence which shows a) what the subject
does, b) what the subject is or c) what the subject is like.
e.g. He remembered the nurse’s name and face but it was clear that she couldn’t have been
the same person who was now talking to him.
A predicate should necessarily include a verb in a personal mood, either expressed or implied.
When the verb is expressed it may belong to one of the following categories:
a. Auxiliary,
b. Modal or semi-auxiliary of modality,
c. Semi-auxiliary of aspect,
d. Linking verb,
e. Notional verb,
f. One in a category difficult to define (e.g. the verb to have in to have a shower or to have
lunch).
In cases a, b, and c the predicate also needs a notional verb in a non-finite/non-personal form.
Normally, parts of the sentence which do not include a verb in a personal mood, but only a
non-finite/non-personal form (infinitive, gerund or participle) are not considered to be a predicate.
Classification of Predicates:
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The classification of predicates is made from the point of view of content and structure at the
same time (unlike the subject). We can thus identify:
I. Verbal predicates: - Simple verbal predicates: -simple proper
- phraseological predicates
- Compound verbal predicates:
- compound modal verbal predicates
- compound aspect verbal predicates
II. Nominal predicates: -Nominal predicates proper
-Double nominal predicates.
III. Mixed types of predicates (joining elements from the first type to others from the
second type).
I. Verbal predicatesVerbal predicates necessarily include at least one personal form of a notional or auxiliary
verb - generating simple predicates – or a non-personal/non-finite form of a notional verb
preceded by a semi-auxiliary of modality (modal verb) or of aspect-generating compound
verbal predicates.
They can be sub-divided into two main types:
1. Simple predicates - which express just one verbal idea and merely state the action, and
sometimes the time when it is performed.
2. Compound verbal predicates (in contrast with compound nominal predicates) which
do not state, show or indicate the action pure and simple, but accompanied by certain special
features, either of modality or aspect.
1. Simple Predicates
1.1 The Simple Predicate Proper - merely states an action and the time when it is affected.
It is expressed by a verb in a personal mood, in a certain tense, either simple/ synthetic (e.g.
the present or past indicative or the imperative) or compound/analytic (e.g. continuous and
perfect tenses, the future, the conditional, all the tenses in the passive voice, etc).
e.g. I said that I must have been walking for an hour already.
I had been shown the way to the station and yet I didn’t find it.
Have you made up your mind?
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1.2 The Phraseological Predicate - consists of two phrases which form a whole, indivisible
from semantic point of view, sometimes being apt to be replaced by one verb and depending
for their meaning on other words in the phrase.
e.g. They often take a shower before they have dinner.
2. Compound Verbal Predicates – indicate both the action and the way in which it is
performed.
e.g. He would often begin to tell a story and then forget it.
II. Nominal PredicatesNominal predicates are subdivided into the following categories:
1. Nominal predicate proper - shows the state or quality of the subject or the evolution of
that state or quality. It is made up of a linking verb (= verb copulativ) and a predicative (=
nume predicativ).
e.g. He was ready to start.
The linking verbs or copulas (sometimes called semi-auxiliaries) are all intransitive verbs.
They indicate the morphological categories of the verb, therefore the formal elements of the
predicate (aspect, voice, tense, mood, person and number). The predicate depends on its
meaning on the predicative.
There are several categories of (semi-auxiliary) verbs which can be used as linking verbs:
a. Verbs of being or state: to be, to stand, to feel.
e.g. She was a very timid girl.
b. Verbs of remaining or continuing, like: to continue, to keep,
to remain, to hold, to stay.
e.g. This rule holds good for everybody.
c. Verbs of becoming or of transition from one state to another,
like: to become, to get, to grow, to turn, to fall, to run, to go, to
prove, to turn out, etc.
e.g. The boy fell asleep soon.
This river runs dry in summer.
The mountain grew visible in the distance.
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d. Verbs of seeming or appearing: to seem, to appear, to look.
e.g. He appeared sad.
The predicative may be expressed by various parts of speech in the sphere of the
nomina:
a. a noun in the nominative or genitive:
e.g. She is an actress.
The book is my sister’s.
b. a predicative adjective:
e.g. It’s nice of you to have come.
c. a personal, possessive, indefinite or interrogative pronoun:
e.g. Who’s there? It’s I/It’s me.
This house is mine.
d. a noun, a gerund or pronoun with a preposition:
e.g. You look like him.
e. a cardinal or an ordinal numeral:
e.g. We are twenty.
f. an infinitive or infinitival phrase:
e.g.” To be or not to be, that is the question.”
g. a gerundial phrase:
e.g. His hobby is traveling by ship.
h. a predicative clause:
e.g. The truth is I don’t like it.
2. Double/Complex Predicate - is a form which doesn’t really find proper equivalents in
other languages. In the sentence “The moon rose red”, in a double predicative we have to do
with the contraction of two sentences or clauses reconstituted as “The moon was red when it
rose.” or “The moon rose. It was red.”
In other interpretations, the adjectives following the verb are described either as subject
complements (=elemente suplimentare pe lângă subiect) or as predicative adjuncts
(=elemente predicative suplimentare).Other examples:
E.g. The house has long stood empty.
The tents lay silent in the moonlight.
The sun came out hot.
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III. Mixed Types of PredicatesCertain types of predicates may combine together, giving rise to mixed forms, such as
phraseological and nominal predicates, or compound modal and phraseological predicates,
compound modal plus aspect verbal predicates ( He cannot stop doing it.), compound verbal
and nominal (I can’t help feeling proud.), or verbal aspect plus compound nominal predicates
( I started being angry with him.), etc.
Here are some examples of mixed predicates:
e.g. Rainy days can be unpleasant. (compound modal verbal plus nominal
predicate)
To be sure I will give you a call as I pass. (compound modal
verb + phraseological predicate)
I began to feel hungry. (compound aspect verb + nominal predicate)
Synoptic classification of predicates
Simple predicates proper
Simple verbal predicates
Phraseological predicates
I. Verbal predicates Compound modal verbal predicates
Compound verbal predicates
Compound aspect verbal
predicates
Nominal predicates proper
II. (Compound) Nominal Predicates
Double/complex nominal predicates
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III. Mixed predicates
e.g. :
Compound modal verbal + nominal predicate
Compound modal verbal + phraseological predicate
Compound aspect verbal + nominal predicate
Compound aspect verbal + phraseological predicate
Simple verbal + nominal predicate
Secondary Parts of the Sentence
Objects: Direct, Indirect and Prepositional
Objects are secondary parts of the sentence completing the meaning of a verb or an
adjective or noun. They are nominal parts of the sentence and can be expressed by the same
means as the subject. There are verbs in English which cannot form a meaningful predicate if
they are not followed by an object (e.g. to wish, to allow).
Other objects are used to round off the meaning of adjectives and nouns.
e.g. We are all confident of his success.
I am sorry for her.
In English, we distinguish the following kinds of objects:
1. Direct objects (in the accusative or object case), most of them corresponding to the
Romanian “complemente directe”. An exception is the complex ones, which are rendered by
phrases or other means.
e.g. I saw him in the street.
2. Indirect objects (in the dative or object case), restricted to utilization after transitive
verbs denoting transmission especially of some object or abstract notion and usually
expressed by a (+human) noun or pronoun.
e.g. She wrote me a letter and asked me to send some money to her.
3. Prepositional objects in the accusative including items that correspond to the
Romanian complements of agent, relation, means, the sociative and instrumental ones, as well
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as any other complement formed of a noun or noun substitute preceded by the preposition -
e.g. of relation - apart from the indirect objects.
1. The Direct Object
Definition: The direct object is a secondary part of the sentence indicating the person,
thing or abstract notion that directly receives, suffers or attracts the action of a transitive
verb (simple or complex) as well as of a transitive phrase. The direct object always stays in
the accusative case and it answers the question whom? or what?
e.g. Have you had tea yet?
I saw her yesterday.
Of the three pounds you gave her, she has only two left.
They wanted to go to a show.
She began talking loudly.
Ways of expressing the direct object:
1.1 a noun (common or verbal), a proper name:
e.g. I don’t see the joke.
I’ve met Peter.
It saves working.
1.2 a pronoun:
e.g. They use it every day.
He didn’t do anything.
1.3 a substantivized adjective or past participle:
e.g. He helped the blind and the wounded.
1.4. a numeral:
e.g. I offered him four, but he only took two.
1.5 an infinitive or an infinitival phrase:
e.g. I want to see the house.
He’ll show you how to do it.
1.6. a gerundial phrase:
e.g. I like driving a car.
1.7. any part of speech:
e.g. Say when.
Say half-and-half.
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1.8. a group of words(including such constructions as the accusative+ infinitive, etc.)
e.g. Try some whisky and soda.
I thought he would come and say how do you do?
1.9. a subordinate object clause:
e.g. What will I do if he leaves, I don’t know.
I’d like to know what he has against me.
Place of the direct object:
The direct object should stay, as a rule, right after its verb, and can only be separated from
it in exceptional situations:
e.g. He made his speech on the spot.
VB DO
Syntactic units which can stay between the DO and its VB are:
a. an indirect object:
e.g. Give her (IO) my regards (DO).
b. a prepositional object or an adverbial or a “predicate of result”, when the direct object is
a long phrase or has an attribute or a relative clause, or when it is an infinitive:
e.g. I know he wrote(VB) to everyone in his office (prepositional object) a postcard
(DO) with a few words (attribute).
I put down (VB) on the table (predicative of result) the box (DO) taken
from the boy (attribute).
This interference is permitted so as to avoid confusion.
c. adverbial particles which are part of complex verbs:
e.g. He knocked out (adverb) the ashes (DO) from his pipe.
The Cognate Object or Accusative
Some intransitive verbs can have a direct object of the same root with their verb
(sometimes of a different root) and this object repeats the idea of the verb. This is called a
cognate object or accusative (=”complement intern”) and in this case the verb is considered to
be transitive.
e.g. I dreamed a lovely dream.
She sang a nice song.
He always goes his own way.
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Verbs with two Direct Objects
Some verbs can get two direct objects: to answer, to entreat, to envy, to forgive, to hear, to
request, to save, to strike, to teach, etc.
e.g. She answered me (DO) many questions (DO).
She taught us (DO) the alphabet (DO).
The difficulty of these verbs for Romanian students consists in their often being taken for
IO and DO respectively.
Classification of Direct Objects in point of structure/composition
1. Simple objects - expressed by a single word, possibly determined and modified by
attributes or an attributive clause:
e.g. Read it to me.
I received the letter he had sent.
2. Coordinated objects - two or several nouns or noun-equivalents in the accusative
discharging an identical syntactic function in relation to a transitive verb or verbal phrase.
e.g. He may bring many arguments, objections or disbeliefs.
3. Compound objects - similar in structure and function to coordinated objects but
dissimilar in that the two or several nouns refer to only one person, object or abstract notion:
e.g. I sometimes hate my friend and adviser for being so frank.
4. Double objects - designate the direct objects connected with the same transitive
verb, but answering different questions – whom? and what?.They usually follow a limited
number of verbs: to ask, to answer, to forgive, to envy.
e.g. Ask me no questions.
5. Complex objects - are objective constructions which complete the meaning of a
very long range of transitive verbs. They include two inseparable parts: a nominal part, an
object proper and another part with which it is linked and which completes it.
e.g. As the sentence fell from my lips I could see the relief come, I
could see the drawn muscles relax, and the anxiety go out of the
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face, and rest and peace steal over the features…
I heard a man say : “Look at his eye”.
I thought I would call and make the things perfectly certain.
(Mark Twain: How I Edited an Agricultural Paper)
Many authors consider it as a predicative adjunct (=”element predicativ suplimentar”).
Complex objects are formed by means of various constructions, the most frequent of
which being the accusative with the infinitive and the accusative with the participle.
a. out of all the constructions through which the complex object may be expressed
the accusative with the infinitive is the most important.
e.g. I heard him stop.
Do you want me to drive?
Most verbs taking a complex object can be accompanied by an accusative with the long
infinitive, the exceptions being some verbs of perception, the verbs to make, to have and to
let.
b. the accusative with the indefinite / present participle is common after verbs
denoting perception, mental or emotional activities.
e.g. I saw him running.
c. the accusative with the past participle is used with a resultative meaning after
verbs expressing casual or causative relations, coercion, desire, order. Most of
them follow the verbs to have or to get with the meaning of making, asking,
causing somebody to do something.
e.g. I had a new pair of shoes made.
d. the accusative with an adjective
e.g. They think me stupid, I assume.
e. the accusative with a noun
e.g. They elected him president.
f. gerundial constructions:
-the genitive with the gerund
e.g. I appreciate your helping us.
-the accusative with the gerund
e.g. I appreciate you coming over.
2. The Indirect Object
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Definition: The indirect object is that secondary part of the sentence which completes the
meaning of a verb, indicating the person (or sometimes the thing or abstract notion) whom
(or which) the action of the verb affects/influences/ reaches indirectly. Therefore it shows the
person/ (more rarely) the thing/ the concept indirectly receiving the action of the verb
benefiting by that action or being destined to receive the object of the action.
It stays in the dative and answers the questions (to) whom? for whom? of whom? to
what?
The indirect object is usually employed together with the direct one:
e.g. I gave Sandy a present.
Why doesn’t she speak to me?
The indirect object can be expressed by a noun or a substitute of a noun (pronoun,
substantivized adjective, numeral, substantivized past participle etc.)
Form and use:
Basically, there are two types of indirect object in English:
a. the long/ prepositional indirect object, preceded by the preposition to or for;
b. the short/ non-prepositional indirect object, extensively used in conversation.
a. the long indirect object is used:
- when it determines a noun, an adjective or a pronoun;
-when there is no direct object in the sentence:
e.g. She wrote to me every day.
- when the indirect object is at the beginning of the sentence:
e.g. For her are all the flowers
To whom did you speak?
- when the indirect object is preceded by the direct object:
e.g. She gave it to me.
- with some verbs such as: to announce, to appear, to belong, to communicate, to
deliver, to explain, to introduce, to leave, to listen, to mention, to reply, to speak, to suggest
etc.
e.g. She revealed to us the whole story.
b. the short indirect object is the most frequently used form and it is used when the object
is placed immediately after the verb:
e.g. I will send him a message.
Verbs with two objects - direct and indirect
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Transitive verbs usually take two objects - a direct and an indirect one.
e.g. He told her/Jane the truth.
2. The Prepositional Object
Prof. Andrei Bantaş points out that the English prepositional object roughly
corresponds to some of the Romanian complemente: complement de agent, complement
circumstanţial instrumental, complement circumstanţial sociativ, complement circumstanţial
de relaţie, complement circumstanţial opoziţional, complement circumstanţial cumulativ,
complement circumstanţial de excepţie etc.
Definition: The prepositional object is the secondary part of the sentence completing the
meaning of the verb in the sentence (not necessarily the predicate), of a noun or of an
adjective and consisting of a noun or of a noun-equivalent preceded by a preposition.
It is identified only by means of a non-specific question (unlike those for other parts of
a sentence), namely a question made up of a preposition plus an interrogative pronoun: “By
whom?”, “Through what?”, “In what?”, “To which?”, “About what?”, “With whom?”,
“Against what?”, “In whose favour?” etc.
In the sentence: “He drank his tea with lemon and with satisfaction.” (Dickens) the first
object is a prepositional object (“With what?”), but the other is rather an adverbial modifier of
manner, because it refers to the way/manner in which he drank his tea.
The prepositional object is closely connected with verbs taking an obligatory
preposition: to wait for, to dream of, to aim at, to boast of etc.
Generally speaking, a prepositional object may follow both transitive and intransitive verbs.
It may also follow complex verbs (verb + adverb combination):
e.g. I was looking forward to meeting you. = I was eagerly expecting
you (Q: To what?).
Prepositional objects may follow adjectives and nouns, particularly those which through
their nature are connected with verbs (verbal adjectives, adjectivized past participles, verbal
nouns).
Examples of adjectives usually accompanied by prepositional object: surprised,
satisfied, content, troubled, angry, concerned.
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Examples of nouns taking prepositional object: surprise, reaction, response, attitude,
anger, satisfaction, concern, preoccupation
e.g. I was surprised/angry/revolted/amused/astonished/(dis-)
satisfied/shocked/outraged/concerned at his behaviour.
There was no end of concern/revolt/surprise/…/ at her
abandoning her mother.
Since it may follow a noun, an adjective, adjectivised participle (which may be used as a
predicative) the prepositional object is connected with nominal predicates too.
e.g. Try not to be cross with her.
He did not look much interested in the matter.
When active sentences containing a prepositional object are turned into the passive, the
prepositional object may generate a subject.
e.g. They are looking into the matter.→ The matter is being looked
into.
Everybody looks up to him.→ He is looked up to by everybody.
Usually the preposition remains at the end of the sentence or clause.
Classification of Prepositional Objects
1.1. Prepositional object of agent: denotes the person performing the action. The performer
of the action appears as a logical subject in a passive sentence.
e.g. He was interviewed by a reporter.
1.2. Prepositional object of instrument/instrumentality - denotes the instrument/tool/
utensil, the machine/apparatus through which an action is performed.
e.g. He always writes with a black pen.
1.3. Prepositional object of means - referring to the means of transportation.
e.g. He travels by train or by ship but never by plane.
He came riding on his bike.
1.4. Prepositional object of association (Sociative prepositional object) - denotes the person
participating in an action with the speaker/writer.
e.g. We live with the Russell family.
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I went there with my friends.
1.5. Prepositional object of relation - includes various kinds of relations, attitudes, feelings
etc.
e.g. He was in favour of my idea.
Her response to the proposal is the same.
Means of expressing the Prepositional Object
Practically, any of the nomina preceded by a preposition can be used as a prepositional
object:
1. A noun:
e.g. The woman thought of her daughter.
2. A pronoun, of any kind:
e.g. The boys were fighting with each other.
3. A gerundial phrase:
e.g. He insisted on doing it himself.
4. An infinitival phrase:
e.g. He seems inclined to agree with everybody.
5. A prepositional object clause:
e.g. I am very much concerned by what has happened.
The Place of the Prepositional Object
1. When both a direct and a prepositional object are present, the direct object follows he
predicate immediately.
e.g. He informed me of his decision.
2. When all three types of objects are present, the order is: direct object (with or without
attributes), indirect object (if followed by attributes), (if it is short, it comes before the direct
object), prepositional object (with or without attributes).
e.g. My mother sent that wonderful present to my sister through a
common friend.
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(also: Mother sent my sister that beautiful present by post.)
3. The prepositional object may be placed at the beginning of a sentence, for special
emphasis.
e.g. With such friends, I will never get on well.
4. If the adverbial modifier is much more closely connected with the predicate (or another
verb), the prepositional object may be moved after the adverbial modifier.
e.g. You are walking too fast for me.
The same happens when adverbial modifiers of place are closely bound up with the verb that
they form syntagms: to go to school/ to church/ to the cinema/ to the theatre/ to go home etc.
e.g. I went to school with my friend.
The Adverbial Modifiers
Definition: An adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies or
renders more precise a verb (either predicative or not), an adjective or another verb.
Its usual function is connected with the main verb in the sentence, i.e. the predicate, the
other cases being less frequent.
In terms of structure, an adverbial modifier is either an adverb or an adverbial modifier (=
“locuţiune circumstanţială”).
Distinction can be made between:
A. Modifiers of an adverbial nature – i.e. elements which determine a more or less change
in the meaning of the predicate or of another verb in the sentence (e.g. the adverbial modifier
of manner, of attending circumstances).
B. Determinative adverbials - whose function is to render the verb more precise, e.g., the
adjectivised adverbial phrase (expressing a quality in a certain degree) or the adverbial
modifiers of degree, intensity, etc.
The Classification of Adverbial Modifiers
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In keeping the function they discharge in the sentence, adverbial modifiers can be
classified as follows:
a. adverbial modifier of place and movement;
b. adverbial modifier of time;
c. adverbial modifier of manner and comparison;
d. adverbial modifier of cause;
e. adverbial modifier of purpose;
f. adverbial modifier of condition or supposition;
g. adverbial modifier of concession;
h. adverbial modifier of result/consequence.
a. The Adverbial Modifier of Place and Movement - shows the place where the action
takes place, its starting point, the direction and limits of an action or state. It answers the
questions: Where? , From where? , How far?
e.g. He was in the country.
They are going to London.
We could walk as far as the University.
b. The Adverbial of Time - shows the time when an action takes place or when a state
exists. It answers the questions: When?, Since when?, Till when?, (for) How long?
e.g. He arrived yesterday.
They have been here since Monday.
I worked till late last night.
c. The Adverbial of Manner and Comparison - shows the way in which an action is
done, a state exists or a characteristic appears. It answers the questions: How? , How much? ,
How many times?
e.g. She was smiling happily .
He speaks English like an Englishman.
Jim escaped uninjured by the skin of his teeth.
They thanked him very much.
He came here many times.
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d. The Adverbial of Cause - shows the cause of an action or a state and it answers the
question From what cause?
e.g. She could hardly speak for tears.
I was stiff with cold.
He said nothing because of you.
e. The Adverbial of Purpose - shows the purpose of an action or state and answers the
questions: What for? , For what purpose?
e.g. He wrote for fame.
I am here to help you.
In order to make a good impression, he smiled.
f. The Adverbial of Condition or Supposition - shows the condition under which an
action is done or a state is possible. It answers the question: On what condition?
e.g. I can’t go there without asking for permission.
She never writes letters unless compelled by circumstances.
With luck, I will get there in time.
g. The Adverbial of Concession - shows an object or a situation which didn’t manage
to prevent the accomplishment of the action of the predicate. It answers the question: In spite
of what person (or circumstances)?
e.g. He went into the house in spite of his reluctance.
Though tired, she insisted in finishing the project.
Whatever his faults, he is quite helpful.
h. The Adverbial of Result/ Consequence - shows the consequence/effect/result of an
action.
e.g. It’s too much for me to do it at once.
As regards the normal word-order in declarative sentences, the most frequent combination
being Manner, Place and Time, they occur precisely in this order.
The Attribute
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The attribute may be defined as the secondary part of a sentence which determines
or modifies the subject of the sentence or any other noun or noun equivalent, irrespective of
the syntactical role it discharges.
It can therefore modify or determine the subject, the predicate, the direct/indirect/
prepositional object as well as a noun which is part of a phrase used as an adverbial
modifier, etc. That is any nominal part of the sentence may have its attribute.
As attributes differ in their nature - denoting qualities, age, material, colour,
nationality, etc, as well as determinative details such as: time, place, etc,- the question
answered by attributes are numerous and diverse: What? What kind of?, Whose?, Which?,
How much?, How many?, Belonging to whom? etc.
In English the discrimination is sometimes difficult or fairly relative between attributes
and other parts of the sentence, especially the prepositional object and some adverbial
modifiers. In this case, if it is more closely connected with the action, state or description in
the sentence, it must be part of the predicate group - probably an adverbial modifier. If it is
linked to the subject or to another noun in the sentence, it should be an attribute.
Specific Ways of Expressing the Attribute
1. The typical attribute in any language is the adjective. Adjectives are of several kinds:
a. A modifying adjective:
e.g. beautiful, kind, long etc.
b. Relative adjectives (referring to material, colour, nature, type, size
etc.)
e.g. a stone wall, brown eyes, etc.
c. Adjectives derived from the indefinite/present participles (verbal adjectives):
e.g. interesting, amusing etc.
e.g. The interesting fact is that the book is most amusing.
d. Adjectives derived from the past participle, which seem to originate in an
abbreviated clause:
e.g. The book written by him← The book which was written by
him.
Unlike most of the other attributes, this category takes mainly post-position.
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e. Possessive adjectives are frequent:
e.g. My father is younger than his brother.
f. Demonstrative adjectives:
e.g. That book is more interesting than this one.
g. Indefinite adjectives (any, either, neither, many, few, several, some etc.)
e.g. Will you have some more coffee?
There are trees on either side of the street.
h. Interrogative adjectives (what, which, whose?) and other combinations with nouns
(what kind of?)
e.g. What book are you reading?
What kind of flowers do you prefer?
Which book did you read?
2. Numerals can be used as attributes:
a. ordinal numbers:
e.g. From the first moment I liked him.
b. cardinal numbers:
e.g. I can’t type more than 30 words a minute.
3. Nouns can be used as attributes in the following situations:
a. In the genitive either expressed/explicit - synthetic, or analytic, or implicit/
unmarked:
- Common nouns:
e.g. the woman’s dress
the edge of the table
the student hostel
- Proper names:
e.g. Jim’s brother is my friend.
Uncle Tom’s cabin
- In the nominative (by juxtaposition):
e.g. This is a solid gold watch.
She takes English lessons twice a week.
- Nouns preceded by prepositions
e.g. Give me a glass of water.
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He is a man of substance. (= om cu stare)
4. A pronoun preceded by a preposition can be an attribute:
e.g. A friend of mine said he would
Buy some of them.
5. An infinitive and especially an infinitival phrase:
e.g. Theirs is a friendly desire to help (us in our work).
6. A gerundial phrase:
e.g. The idea came to me of taking a nap right there.
7. Adverbs:
e.g. The flat downstairs is flooded.
The conditions here are good.
The now Government is influenced by the agreements
signed by the then President.
He was taking the up train (=trenul de Londra), while I
was taking the down train (=trenul care merge în
provincie).
8. Any word or group of words
e.g. Word for word translations should be avoided.
If clauses should be learnt by all students.
9. Attributes may be stressed by attributive clauses, introduced in various ways: which, that,
who, whom, whose, when, where, why, how, etc.
e.g. The day will come when you will regret it!
The place where he went is not known.
The man who is at the gate is a policeman.
The Apposition
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Definition. The apposition is an element which renders the main noun more precise or
definite or serves for identification, while standing in the same nominative case as the latter.
In terms of their structure and punctuation they require, appositions are subdivided into
simple and loose, irrespective of their function.
1. The simple apposition - is closely connected with the respective noun. It is generally used
as one noun without commas, to determine or explain or define names of persons, titles,
professions, geographical names etc.
e.g. Queen Elizabeth is the monarch of U.K.
The English novelist Charles Dickens is the author of Great
Expectations.
The river Thames is not very long, but it is navigable.
2. The Loose Apposition (=apoziţie dezvoltată) is separated by commas, even if it does not
include more than one word, the reason being that it is considered parenthetical, less
important/essential.
e.g. Mr. Cameron, the Prime Minister, visited the camp.
Mrs. Halls, the rector’s wife, is a professor herself.
Loose appositions may follow and determine also a whole clause:
e.g. His grandparents asked him to spend his holidays with them
in the country, which he readily accepted.
They asked me to have dinner with them, an invitation which I
gladly jumped at.
Homogeneous and Independent Elements in the Sentence/Clause
1. Homogeneous parts of the sentence. A sentence may include several elements of the
same kind (e.g. subjects, attributes) which are connected by co-ordination (both by means of
coordinating conjunctions - copulative or otherwise - and by juxtapositions, with or without
commas).
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These elements which discharge the same role in the sentence are called either
“homogeneous parts of the sentence/clause” or coordinated subjects, attributes, direct
object, etc.
e.g. He and his brother are my best friends.
(coordinated subjects)
He wrote novels, short stories and poems.
(coordinated direct objects)
She is fond of swimming, dancing and skiing.
(coordinated prepositional objects)
He usually comes here on Thursdays and Saturdays.
(coordinated adverbial modifiers of definite time)
Definition. Several words discharging the same syntactic function and holding the same
relations as to the other parts of the sentence, while appearing in identical or very similar
syntagms are called homogeneous parts of the sentence.
In order to be identified as such, they must answer identical or very similar questions.
If two or several parts of the sentence seem to fill the same place and to discharge the
same roles in the sentence but do not answer the same questions, they are not homogeneous
in spite of their appearance.
e.g. He came by train and by surprise.
↓ ↓
by what? how?
(prepositional object of means (adverbial modifier of manner)
of transportation)
He drank his tea with lemon and with satisfaction.
↓ ↓
(prepositional object) (adverbial modifier of
manner)
2. Independent elements in the sentence. Besides the parts of the sentence which discharge a
definite syntactic function, utterance may also include words or groups of words which are
classifiable morphologically as adverbs, interjections, etc. but are not classifiable
syntactically, i.e. they do not have a definite syntactic function.
They are called independent elements, both because their role is parenthetical, i.e.
inessential or even irrelevant for the gist or the principal meaning of the sentence, and
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because they are arranged parenthetically in the sentence, i.e. separated from its body by a
comma.
A. They usually have the role of qualifying the meaning of the sentence as a whole.
Independent elements are of various types, the first being provided by interjections and
exclamations, subdivided as follows:
a. Onomatopoeic interjections, imitating sounds in nature;
b. Exclamations proper, expressing feelings, that is modality or the speaker’s attitude.
e.g. Out!(= Go out!)
Never! (= I will never do such a thing!)
Some exclamations are integrated within the framework of a sentence, though not
sufficiently merged or linked with its meaning.
e.g. Well, I can’t give you the answer on the spot.
Good, than we can go on.
All right, we shall drop the water for the moment.
O.K., let’s start.
B. Direct address (= formule de adresare) are words used especially at the beginning, in the
middle or at the end of the English sentence in order to call the listener’s attention.
Through their very nature they are bound up with the vocative case.
e.g. Ladies and gentlemen, we are resuming the debates.
Sir, I’d like to see you at your office however.
My answer, Sir, is in the affirmative.
Or:
My answer is in the affirmative, Sir.
C. Parenthetical words are not closely connected to the sentence, although their role may be
fairly similar either to adverbial modifiers of various kinds or to anaphorical elements.
The way in which they condition the sentence is weak and they are sometimes considered
as mere expletives (= cuvinte de umplutură).
e.g. Well, you see, as a matter of fact, I am afraid I am not very sure I
really understood what you were driving at.
Parenthetical words are of various kinds:
a. Words which affirm or deny something : indeed, of course.
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b. Modal words , more closely connected with the meaning of the sentence, especially
with its main part - the predicate. They refer to probability, condition, concession:
perhaps, maybe, allegedly (=chipurile), presumably, possibly.
c. Anaphoric words are elements which establish a connection with what was said
before.
e.g. nevertheless, however, yet, still(mostly adversative),
though (concessive), therefore, thus, so, then (conclusive). They are isolated
by commas and uttered in a flat tone.
d. Explanatory words are used with a non-syntactical function, by way of
supplementary addition to the sentence, clarifying one or several minor points in it.
They refer to the speaker’s attitude or appeal to the interlocutor’s understanding or
sympathy.
e.g. Personally, I agree with you.
You see, I did not really want to do it.
My friend and I, you know, have had an argument.
The show, I’m afraid, has been cancelled.
The Order of Words in the Sentence
Word order in English seems to play a much more important role than in Romanian, given
its synthetic character.
Some of the rules are quite strict and unshakable, such as the one stating that the direct
object should not, inasmuch as possible, be separated from its governing verb.
Other rules state that the nomina gravitate around the subject and should not be removed
from its proximity and the verba around the predicate, while the adverbial modifiers must, as
a rule, be found at the end of the sentence.
The type of sentence (i.e. declarative, interrogative, imperative or exclamatory) may alter
the order of words but only those in initial position.
In the following, we will see what the right word order is for each type of sentence.
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A. Declarative Sentences
1. Place O - named so because it precedes the subject and is optional. It can be
held by:
a. Adverbial modifiers of time, either definite or indefinite:
e.g. Yesterday it was much warmer. (definite)
Usually, he is in a hurry. (indefinite)
b. Adverbial modifiers of manner :
e.g. Actually/Personally/Incidentally, I do not know much about it.
In this way, he got home in time.
Of course I will try to help you.
c. Adverbial modifiers of attending/attendant circumstances :
e.g. With nothing to do that evening, we stayed at home.
In the sunlight, she looked even more beautiful.
d. Adverbial modifiers of place :
e.g. In Sibiu, the weather is sometimes cooler.
2. Place I – is normally held in English by the subject, which is explicit or expressed in
the majority of cases.
The attributes of the subject accompany it on place I.
3. Place II - is taken by the predicate. Short elements, may, however, occur between it and
the subject:
-short adverbial modifiers of manner, time or frequency:
-when there is one verbal form in the verbal predicate, it is placed between the subject and
the verb:
e.g. He usually goes there at weekends.
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He recently took a degree in languages.
-when the predicate includes two verbal forms or when it is a nominal predicate, the
adverb comes after the first verb (auxiliary, modal or linking):
e.g. They have never come here.
I will always remember that.
-when there are several verbal elements in the predicate, the adverb comes after the first
element:
e.g. I would (most) gladly have accepted your invitation.
4. Place III - is usually taken by the indirect object when short, or, otherwise, the direct
object, which may be accompanied by its attributes.
Thus, there are two types of arrangement:
e.g. I sent him/the boy a message (continuation: describing to him/in
which I have described all the details of the problems that is…)
and: I sent a message (+attributes) to my friend who (+attributes).
5. Place IV – is the reverse situation of place III: if place III is taken by the direct object,
place IV will be taken by the indirect object and vice-versa.
6. Place V –is usually filled by the prepositional object.
As a rule the human prevails over the non-human, but there are exceptions here too. For
example, we say:
e.g. I usually go to school with Jane.(and not: I usually go with Jane to school.)
(assuming that phrases like to go to school should not, as a rule, be separated by other
semantic units)
7. Place VI –inaugurates the sequence of adverbial modifiers. The ordinary order in
English is: manner, place, time (alphabetical).
8. Place VII –adverbial modifiers of other types take a final position in the sentence, after
all its other parts. If we refer to a complete/an ideal sentence, which includes all possible
parts, it would look like this:
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He (actually) sent me a letter through a friend unexpectedly to my home
address
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
yesterday ( in order) to express his worry because of my illness.
IX IX (purpose) X (cause)
Attributes accompany the nouns in the sentence, which they modify.
a. Interrogative Sentences
Changes affect word order in interrogative sentences mainly in places O and I.
1. In general questions the inversion affects only place O. The formula suggested by Dr.
Andrei Bantaș is: ASN, i.e.: Anomalous finite+ Subject+ Non-finite form of the verb. Places
O, I and II may be affected, but the others remain untouched:
e.g. Can you tell me her name?
Is he watching the film?
Have they finished?
Did she ring you yesterday?
2. In special/particular questions an interrogative word is required, which is put at the
head of the sentence.
e.g. Why did you come late yesterday?
Oa Ob I II IV
Interrogative-negative sentences follow either of these two patterns, but include the
negation not, between the subject and the notional verb.
3. Alternative questions, questions asking for repetition, interrogative repetitions follow
the patterns for general questions or particular questions.
4. Disjunctive questions proper, i.e. what follows the comma after the declarative
sentence, take the pattern of general questions. The pattern can be summarized in the formula:
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Declarative clause / Disjunctive question
+ , / - ?
- ,/ ?
e.g. He didn’t like it, did he?
She looks wonderful, doesn’t she?
NOTE: All restrictive adverbs should be treated as negatives.
e.g. There is hardly any hope, is there?
b. Imperative Sentences
In Standard English, imperative sentences proper (2nd person singular and plural) are
formed without a subject. They are, however, sometimes, preceded by a vocative, for reason
of stress or to call attention.
e.g. Madam, excuse me.
Tom, come here.
As a rule, word order in imperative sentences is changed only through the ellipsis of the
subject which naturally affects merely place I in the sentence.
e.g. Try to do better next time.
Read a bit louder, please.
The imperative for the first and third person singular and plural (“imperative equivalents”)
has the following pattern:
LET+ ACCUSATIVE+ SHORT INFINITIVE
(The subject in this case is not in the nominative, but in the accusative).
e.g. Let me tell you something.
Let Mary come here.
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c. Exclamatory Sentences
More substantial changes in word order can be found in emphatic inversions:
e.g. Never have I seen such an interesting play!
INVERSION
Although word order in contemporary English follows more disciplined rules than in other
languages, there are a number of sentences in which it is altered, and inversion is needed for
either stylistic or idiomatic usage.
In general, inversion is what we understand by a deviation from the set rules included in
the notion of word order. Whenever a part of the sentence is placed in a different position in
the sentence, we could speak of inversion. However, not all such fluctuations and variations
are given this name.
Most changes in the word order which are labelled as inversions, refer to the position of
the subject and the predicate or a part of the latter.
To put it briefly, we could say that what is governed by rules - i.e. cases of obligatory or
recommended inversion - should be named grammatical inversion. What is subject to
variations - justified either by some general factors, possibly objective, or, more frequently,
by individual, subjective desires or intentions (therefore covered by the comprehensive notion
of modality) is usually called stylistic inversion.
Changes affecting merely relatively the position of the subject and of the anomalous finite
are considered cases of partial inversion, whereas more substantial changes, affecting other
parts of the sentence as well are called total inversions.
By and large, partial inversion corresponds to grammatical inversion, while total inversion
covers the cases of stylistic inversion (which are connected with modality).
As the cases are quite varied, it’s difficult to make an eloquent distinction between
grammatical and stylistic inversion.
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The inversion, which affects just the beginning of a sentence, is usually called partial.
A. Grammatical Inversion
I. In declarative sentences, grammatical inversion appears in the following situations:
1. Sentences or clauses resuming an antecedent either in the affirmative (with the help of
so) or in the negative (with the help of neither or nor):
e.g. “I am exhausted!” “So am I.”
“He hasn’t left yet.” “Nor have his parents.”
“You didn’t say hello to her.” “Neither did you.”
As to answers, here is a model of systematization:
a. answers confirming the parallelism of subjects in doing similar actions or the same
action, or being in a similar, or the same state, follow the pattern with inversion: “so
+ verb (nowadays only an anomalous finite) + subject”:
e.g. “She will graduate in July.” “So will I/So did I last year.”
“I can drive well.” “So can I.”
b. answers confirming the same kind of parallelism in the negative usually follow the
pattern with inversion: “neither + verb (only an anomalous finite) + subject”:
e.g. “I don’t smoke.” “Neither did I in my youth/ Neither do I/ Neither
does my daughter.”
c. when the parallelism does not refer to the subject but to some other element in the
sentence, the usual pattern is: “ nor +anomalous finite + subject +notional verb”:
e.g. “He doesn’t like dancing.” “Nor does he like parties.”
“She can’t sing.” “Nor can she speak a foreign language.”
NOTE: nor alternates with neither and neither is often decomposed to “not…+ either”:
e.g. “He doesn’t like her.” “Nor /Neither do I.”
“The weather is not very cold.” “But it is not warm either.”
d. On the other hand, there is a different type of confirmation, - of the action or state itself,
which does not imply any opposition or contrast, but merely reasserts something contested by
the first speaker”
e.g. “You said you’d bring the book.” “So I did, but I forgot to.”
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In such cases, the same words are employed, yet without inversion, and the pattern is:
“so + subject + anomalous finite”:
When the statement is negative, the confirmation follows a different pattern (still without
inversion): “no + subject+ negative predicate”:
e.g. “You shouldn’t speak to her like that.” “No, of course I shouldn’t, but she upset
me.”
2. The constructions of there is/are type.
Some grammarians do not admit the subject function of the word there, while others
consider it a “false subject” or “half subject”. Any construction of this type in declarative
sentences is considered a case of inversion.
e.g. One day, there came a rumour that they would surrender.
In stage directions there may be omitted:
e.g. On a sofa lies an open book.
3. The same principles apply to sentences starting with the introductory subject here.
e.g. Here comes the king!
However, when the subject is a pronoun, the inversion no longer takes place:
e.g. Here he is! There he goes!
4. In conditional clauses, formal language, when if is omitted, after the verbs should,
were, had, could, only as anomalous verbs:
e.g. Should he drop by, tell him to wait.
Were I taller, I could play basketball.
Had I seen it, I would have told you.
Were I to have the time, I’d read the book.
II. In interrogative and interrogative-negative sentences - both general and special
questions:
e.g. Is/ Isn’t it late?
What would/wouldn’t you do?
1.General questions
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a. The anomalous finite takes place O, in front of the subject”
e.g. Will/Does/Can /May/Did/Would/Should he do it?
b. The same applies to interrogative-negative sentences, but the general question is
interrogative-negative, the contracted negative form of the finite precedes the subject:
e.g. Won’t you join us?
Aren’t you going to do it?
Haven’t you already finished?
c. In interrogative-negative sentences employed a little more formally the negative
particle not remains after the subject:
e.g. Why has she not arrived yet?
d. Interrogative sentences including the construction “there is” / “there are”
e.g. Is there nobody in?
(Was there any mistake in the text?)
2. Special /Particular Questions: when the interrogative word is different from the subject
of the sentence:
e.g. When is he supposed to arrive?
What can I do for you?
Why should I remember your name?
Special questions whose subject is expressed by the interrogative pronoun who, what and
which (in which of them, which of you, etc.) do not require an inversion:
e.g. What is happening here?
Who is coming with me?
Which of them is younger?
III. Imperative sentences in the first and third persons singular and plural:
e.g. Let us go!
Let them come too.
IV. Exclamatory sentences expressing wishes (=urări, dorințe), urges, slogans, therefore
those using a subjunctive:
e.g. Long may you live!
May he enjoy a ripe and old age!
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B. STYLISTIC INVERSION
It is one of the modalities which can create inversion.
Here are the main situations of stylistic inversion:
1.An adverbial modifier placed in initial position:
e.g. In front of me lay a beautiful valley, with many flowers.
Up on the backs of sturdy porters went the luggage.
In such cases, which occur mainly with verbs of position or movement, the inversion is
direct, without an anomalous verb. They are only used in the present simple and past simple.
2. The direct object at the beginning of a sentence:
e.g. “Talent, Mr. Micawber has; money, Mr. Micawber has not.” (Ch. Dickens:
David Copperfield).
Or in conversational English:
e.g. “ A horse, my kingdom for a horse!” (W. Shakespeare: Richard III)
3. The direct object in front position, when it is expressed by a group of words including
“many a…” or “not a…”.
e.g. Many a city have I seen, but none so beautiful.
Not a penny would he give away to anyone.
4. Adverbial modifiers expressed in the same way:
e.g. Many a time have I told him this.
Not a bit did she care about what I said.
5. The predicative is placed at the head of a sentence:
e.g. Pretty she was, and pettier her sister.
Such was the pressure, that I gave in.
So difficult was the question, that no one could answer correctly.
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6. Other adverbial modifiers (e.g. of place):
e.g. In so many places had he looked for the book, that he eventually gave it up.
7.Adverbial modifiers of place - in fact they show direction - put at the head of a sentence,
for emphasis, when its subject is a noun.
e.g. In came the boy and out I went.
8. Negative, half-negative, restrictive adverbial modifiers at the head of the sentence:
e.g. Little did he know what was in store for him.
Not only was she upset, but she also cried bitterly.
9. The negative adverb of frequency never at the head of the sentence , especially to mark
indignation or impatience:
e.g. Never shall I speak to him again!
10. The restrictive adverbs hardly, scarcely, barely, correlated with when, when they
introduce temporal clauses to indicate priority:
e.g. Hardly/Scarcely/Barely had they left, when the phone rang.
The adverbial phrase no sooner, correlated with the conjunction than, alternates in similar
constructions:
e.g. No sooner had the train arrived, than they got on it.
When it comes to formal aspects, inversion can be of two main types: with or without an
anomalous verb.
There are a couple of phrases which, when used in initial position, should be followed by
an inversion with an anomalous verb. Here are some of them:
in no circumstances not a single word
least of all by no means
hardly ever at no time
not infrequently in no country/town
in no way little
not otherwise in vain
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not only on no account
scarcely ever such
very rarely so
very seldom so great
still less to such extremes
much less to such lengths
even less to such a degree
only in/to such a plight
not a word in such a desperate situation
not a soul to such a point
not till/until well/with good reason/with every
justification
neither/nor (separately)
e.g. Not a single word did he say for a whole hour.
Not often do you see snakes in England.
In no way am I responsible for it.
To such straits was he reduced by his extravagance that he took to
begging.
Well may you say that it is too late to do anything now.
He doesn’t like her; still less is it his intention to marry her.
The cases in which the anomalous verb is not needed are more rare and literary and should
not be used indiscriminately by foreigners.
e.g. Best of all were my mother’s cakes.
After the war came the problem of rehabilitation.
Off you go!
Round he went.
In you get!
58
![Common Syntax Errors. syntax = [rules for] sentence building Word Choice Sentence Structure Paragraph Structure](https://img.pdfslide.net/doc/110x75/56649e405503460f94b32524/common-syntax-errors-syntax-rules-for-sentence-building-word-choice-sentence.jpg)
