Lesson 1 - Language and Communication

Characteristics of Communication

As we all know, communication is a process through which we transmit and interchange our

ideas, facts, feelings and courses of action. This is two-way, cumulative, creative and functional.

The parties - the sender and the receiver - keep changing their roles, and the entire process takes

place within a context or their communication environment.

Communication is two-way, in that there are always two parties communicating with

each other, that is, the sender and the receiver. Without either or involvement of either,

communication is rendered meaningless

Communication is inherently creative, as expression of the message by one person is a lot

different from how another person would express it. Creativity becomes most essential when the

sender has to try out different approaches to make the receiver understand.

Communication is not always complete with just one exchange between the sender and

receiver. Rather, it is a continuous process. This is more because communication is

cumulative and facts cannot be exchanged all at once. Hence, communication is not

always momentary.

As there is always a specific purpose with which the sender sends the message,

communication is always functional.

Example: The above characteristics of communication will become clearer with an example.

Consider this e-classroom. When you choose from the alternatives provided on the main menu of

the website for this course, the computer, the sender, immediately displays it on the screen.

Hence, two-way communication is established.

Process of communicationCommunication is a process, the main components of which are:

1. Sender

2. Message

3. Channel

4. Receiver

5. Response

The figure shows these components and their relationships.

Salient Features:

1. In every communication situation, there are two parties, a sender and a receiver, who interact

within a common frame of reference. Without this common background, purpose and interest,

there can be no effective communication.

2. While communicating, if the person being spoken to is totally in his thoughts or if one cannot

understand the language being used, there will be a failure in transmission. To encode a message,

relevant symbols are selected and arranged into a pattern to convey meaning. These symbols are

from a common medium and they stand for certain ideas, feelings and notions.

3. The choice of channel and type of symbols used is determined by the situation. For instance, a

scientist addressing a conference of research workers would use technical jargon, whereas at

home, he would simply communicate in layman language. 4. A sender, after he transmits a

message, expects a response. This may be immediate or deferred, favorable or unfavorable, for

example: rejection of an application for leave; intimation of university results.

5. The sender is naturally interested in knowing how his/her message has been received. The

observation of the receiver's response is called feedback. Immediate feedback is possible in

direct/oral/face-to-face communication.

6. However, all communication situations are not ideal. In many cases, the message fails to

produce the desired response because of a semantic gap between the sender and the receiver.

This failure occurs because the sender is not clear about his objective or he uses ineffective

language. It also occurs if the receiver is not able to understand and interpret the message

properly. Therefore, a great deal of importance is attached to training and skill in the art of

communication in all spheres of life

Flow of Communication

There are essentially three directions in which communication is carried out:

Vertical

Horizontal

Radial

All of the above will be explained with reference to the submission of reports in a company.

Vertical:

Downward flow: This kind of communication is from a person at a level higher than that of the

receiver. The reports in this kind of flow are informational, as they increase their readers' general

know-how about the organization & the work of the company, e.g. information about a

company's employee benefits. This kind of communication is informational & is of transitory

value. Policies, procedures & orders are transmitted to the staff in this way.

Upward flow: This kind of communication is carried out by a subordinate when he is informing

his superiors about a particular issue. Many reports in this mode of communication contain

financial statements or statistics to show the present condition of the business & to be made a

part of its permanent records. Records explaining work done, anticipated problems, progress,

increases & decreases & periods or distances over which they operated all fall under the same

category. Horizontal:

Interchange of reports between departments or among men at the same level represents a

horizontal flow of communication. This kind of communication is aimed to coordinate the work

of various departments or divisions. Such reports are vital to large companies with many

divisions & high degree of decentralization.

Radial: Reports distributed throughout the company to reach everyone & frequently also sent

outside the company.

On the basis of mode, the above classification of communication holds good.

Verbal communication refers to the use of words.

Non-verbal communication refers to the use of signs, symbols & body language.

In this segment, we shall focus on the classification of verbal & non-verbal communication.

Verbal communication: Immediate feedback can be obtained by the sender in face-to-face

interaction or oral communication. Such communication has one distinct advantage, in that the

sender can promptly adjust the tenor of his communication, in order to convey his message to the

receiver properly.

However, oral communication by its very nature, is of limited use.

Written communication gives time, both to the sender & the receiver, to properly encode

their messages & send it.

Non-verbal communication:

Non-verbal communication has an importance of its own.

When we meet a stranger with whom we have to interact, we form our first impressions

about him/her by observing his/her physical characteristics, his/her body movements,

his/her facial expressions & the way he/she is dressed. Though these first impressions

may not be accurate, they are important, as they influence our understanding of what

he/she says, & thus affects our reaction to it.

However, non-verbal communication is no substitute for verbal communication : it

merely supplements & reinforces oral communication.

On the basis of purpose:

General communication is the use of effective language to express a message to achieve a

pre-determined purpose.

Technical communication is the use of formal, specified language to express a

commercial, industrial or scientific message. The two kinds of communication in this mode are dealt with in detail in the following section

Differences between General Purpose and Technical communication

The parameters applied to distinguish between general purpose & technical communication are:

Nature

Structure

Content

Style

Audience

Differences between General Purpose and Technical communication

General purpose communication Technical communication

1. This kind of communication may be subjective & not always objective - in many cases, the personality of the sender is revealed.

This kind of communication is highly objective in nature. It is always conducted with a specific purpose.

2. The reports generated need not necessarily have a conventional structure.

The reports generated are highly conventional in nature - they stick to the rule book & must contain the requisite 19 elements, such as Abstract, Introduction, Summary & so on.

3. The message being conveyed can be general in nature.

Communication of this kind is very objective-oriented, with no flowery language to spice it up. It is of commercial, technical or industrial nature.

4. The message conveyed can be personal & need not obey any rules & regulations.

Technical communication is highly impersonal & follows certain complex techniques, making it highly concise, clear & direct. Jargons, clichés & other deviations from conventional English are not permitted.

5. General purpose communication need not have a specific audience.

Technical communication always has a specific target audience. It is this audience which decides the tone, style & the amount of information to be conveyed.

Role and Importance

Technical communication is a specialized branch in the field of communication. Technical

communication:

deals with various scientific and technical subjects

is characterized by certain formal elements such as scientific and technical vocabulary,

the use of graphic and audio-visual aid and conventional forms

maintains an attitude of impartiality and objectivity

has a comparatively high concentration of certain complex and important writing

techniques, processes and procedures.

While general communication is the use of effective language to express a message with a pre-

determined purpose, technical communication is: "The use of effective language to express a

commercial, industrial or scientific message to achieve a pre-determined purpose". As it can be

seen, technical communication is more than transmitting ideas. It is a controlled use of language

to convey ideas for a certain purpose. Technical communication, like any other type of

communication, has three main elements:

1. Language

2. Message

3. Predetermined Purpose

As a technical writer, one should be able to translate oral thought into written language.

Importance of Communication

Lifeline of business.

Serves as a measure of growth and progress of an organization.

Means of presenting the findings of a committee or commission.

Progress of organization depends on the quality and quantity of information flow through

its personnel's.

Establish and sustain business relationships.

Bridges the gap between various sections of the organization.

Enables the communicator acquire skills of the organization, judgment, discrimination

and communication.

So, if you want your organization to prosper follow this mantra:

"Communicate, Communicate and Communicate"

Lesson 2 - Barriers to Communication

IntroductionCommunication is as much a necessity as food & water for us. Even a new-born baby opens its mouth,

maybe to communicate, though it is widely believed that it does so for inhaling oxygen. Of course, just as

we feel the importance of a person during his absence, we realize the importance of communication only

when it fails or breaks down. Whenever we feel that communication is ineffective we should realize that

the fault could be with the sender or the receiver or with the external factors too! These factors could be

classified as:

Cultural and Linguistic

Psycho-Physical

Organization barriers

Confused Presentations

Cultural and Linguistic Barriers

Differences in culture are likely to affect the communication environment, message and their

perception because in this context culture is nothing but the habits, customs or social institutions

of a particular society or any individual organization.

The working cultures of two companies differ a lot in terms of apparel, communication

patterns, the way of addressing each other, the relationship between a senior officer and a

subordinate and so on.

The way of addressing each other in company 'A' could be by first name while in

company 'B', it could be by surname.

These differences not only occur in business enterprises but also during social intercourse and

they become a matter of serious concern in the international context. To avoid communication

gaps due to cultural differences, we have to familiarize ourselves with the prevalent habits and

customs of the environment within which we wish to communicate

Language is nothing but expression of thoughts and experiences of people in terms of their

cultural environment. It is ambiguous in nature. Words are merely symbols understood

differently by different people.

Even though all three words in each group mean the same, because of the difference in

nomenclature, miscommunications are likely to occur if we do not use them appropriately in

their respective cultural contexts. This is true not only with words but also idioms which are

peculiar to a language. Such a usage may lead to communication failures. For example, for the

Americans, to table a proposal is to postpone it, whereas for the English it is to act on it. The

only way to avoid miscommunication due to inappropriate use of words, phrases or idioms, is by

making sure that the intended meaning has been received by the recipient. The receiver should

also ask questions to determine the sender's intended meaning and be clear with the message

before acting on it.

Psycho-physical Factors

The psychology of the sender or the receiver may, at times, interfere with the message to be

encoded or decoded. The sender and the receiver, if affected by intense emotions, whether

positive (joy, excitement, surprise, etc.) or negative (anger, frustration, jealousy, etc.) are likely

to fault in the process of encoding or decoding. However, it is said that positive emotions

interfere less with the message than negative emotions. This is because when the receiver of the

message is threatened by a real or imagined danger, he becomes defensive or hostile. In such a

situation, he is likely to misinterpret, ignore or overact to messages. The clue to this barrier is a

significant change in vocal modulation. Sometimes, the communication effectiveness is also

influenced by the attitudes, values and opinions that the communicators have in their mental

filters. Similarly, the receiver's views of the information presented will affect his response which

could be what the sender desires or just the opposite. Certain people hold rigid views on certain

subjects - they are the category of "KNOW-IT All's". It is not possible to communicate with such

close-minded people. This might lead to the receiver being selective in receiving the message or

sometimes might develop a negative attitude towards the message or the sender.

Organizational barriers

The administrative hierarchy of an organization also indicates the route of flow of horizontal and

vertical communication. The system of having too many transfer stations also distorts and delays

the message. The processing of information by several hands before it reaches the destination

certainly causes loss of meaning and impairs the original message. To solve this problem, some

organizations have modified this communication network to permit direct access from bottom to

top and vice versa on the ladder of communication. In this traditional system of communication,

especially in a large organization, sometimes employees feel lost and frustrated and turn to an

informal system {the grapevine} for information. This channel often becomes a vehicle for

rumors and inaccurate information.

Other Factors

The other factors which may act as barriers could be:

Distracters from the external environment, like noise, failure in acoustics or other

electronic systems

Lack of a common frame of reference

Wrong timing of message

Lesson 3 - Non Verbal Communication

IntroductionEarlier, we had seen the various classifications of communication, one of the main classification

being that of verbal and 'Non-Verbal' communication. What is Non-verbal communication?

Non-verbal communication refers to all external stimuli other than spoken or written words and

including body motion, characteristics of appearance, characteristics of voice and use of space

and distancing

Though verbal and non-verbal communication are closely interlinked, certain studies have tried

to separate their relative importance in terms of the impact of the message. According to

statistics, it is believed that 35% of a message is carried out verbally, while 65% of the message

is conveyed non-verbally. It is also believed that the impact of the message is as follows:

7%verbal, 38%vocal and 55% non-verbal

An attempt has been made to make a systematic study of the elements of body language that

define non-verbal communication. These are also termed as visible codes, as they are visually

perceived and play an important role in effective communication. These various codes can be

categorized as follows:

Body Language:

Personal Appearance

Posture

Gestures

Facial Expressions

Eye contact

Space Distancing

Body Language:

In a face-to-face communication, a person does not communicate only through words but his

whole personality, or in other words, his body language is involved in the process. It is believed

that a charming person who is neatly dressed and wears a pleasant expression, a dynamic person

with a vibrant voice or a confident person with an assured voice is able to secure the attention of

the audience much more than an ordinarily-dressed and diffident person. With this, more than

half of the battle is won. We shall now look at each of the code in detail.

Posture

Posture also conveys a wealth of meaning in an economical way. It is an important part of the

body language and generally refers to the way one stands, sits and walks. The movement of the

body, the position of hands and legs and other parts of the body reveal an individual's personality

as to whether he is vibrant, alive and dynamic, or nervous and jittery, confident and self-assured

etc. A good speaker stands tall, walks sprightly and stands at ease. Standing in this posture

before a group is in fact one of the essentials for success in speaking. The ability to walk across

the dais with ease and grace contributes to a great deal of impression the speaker makes upon the

audience. The walking posture may convey whether the speaker is confident, energetic and vital

or withdrawn, diffident and nervous. Even while speaking, naturally there would be shifts in

posture. Even these have to cultivated. One must learn where to place one's hands and how to

shift the weight of the body on the legs while speaking.

The following clip illustrates the basic qualities of an appealing speaker:

1) Immaculate Dressing

2) Upright Stance

3) Confidence Exuding Smile

Gestures

Gestures too play a significant role in making communication effective. A well-timed gesture

can drive home a point just as effectively as a hundred words. A few gestures like playing with a

ring, twisting a key-chain or clasping one's hand tightly rob a speaker of the effectiveness of his

communication. All oral communication is accompanied by gestures such as shrugging of the

shoulders, flourish of hands, movement of the head, etc. As a matter of fact, it would be quite

difficult to speak without these gestures. All these gestures enhance the value of what is being

said besides exercising a more powerful impact upon the listener.

A few gestures have been shown below:

Facial Expressions

Of all parts of the body, the face is the most expressive. A smile (friendliness), a frown

(discontent), raising the eyebrows (disbelief), or tightening the jaw muscles (antagonism) can

add to the meaning being conveyed through verbal means. Exuding zeal when one is making a

point or smiling while explaining an intricate problem makes the job of the speaker easy.

However, a wooden expression on the face, biting the lip, raising the eyebrows at regular

intervals may prejudice the listener and may mar the smooth flow of communication.

In the picture below, a number of facial expressions have been illustrated to enable a better

understanding of this topic

Eye Contact

Eye contact is one of the most immediate and effective means of establishing a rapport with the

audience. No wonder, then, that it is said that the eye is an extension of the brain and a window

of the soul. Stress is laid on continuous eye contact between the speaker and the listener because

it tells the listener whether the speaker is sincere and also whether the listener is interested. Eye

contact is also a means of obtaining feedback.

A good speaker should always maintain eye contact with all sections of the audience. To look at

the ceiling or outside the room through the window or just at one section of the audience will be

considered to be sign of rudeness

Space Distancing

Each communicator maintains a personal territory around himself. He normally does not allow it

to be invaded at the time of communication. This distance that is maintained between the speaker

and the listener is called space distancing. This term also includes standing-seated position. The

person who is in a superior or a commanding position usually stands while the others remain

seated.

In formal situations, the distance that is to be maintained is 4-1/2 feet, while in public gatherings,

it varies from 12-30 feet.

An example of how a speaker can exploit the above said visible codes to make communication

most effective is very evident from the picture below...The speaker's facial expression, posture

and gestures are to be noted.

Lesson 4 - Regulating Speech

Pitch and Volume of SpeechRegulation of speech forms a part of oral communication. Just like body language the regulation

of speech also plays a very important role in communication.

The three most mobile speech organs are the lips, jaws and the tongue. Like other parts of the

body, speech organs need exercise. Lazy lip movements cause unintelligibility, a rigid jaw

muffles the voice and an inactive tongue chokes it. The elements that constitute the regulation of

speech, called "Vocal elements" are :

Pitch Volume Rate Quality

A good voice is a gift of nature, but quality can be improved with proper training. Pitch: Pitch is

the tone of sounds depending upon the rate of vibration of vocal chords. When one speaks, there

is a continual variation in the levels at which the voice is pitched. The variation ranges from the

soprano level to the bass level. The pitch of the voice should be able to match the thought, idea

or feeling to be conveyed. Volume: Volume refers to the power of the sound. It ranges from very

loud to soft. One should speak very loudly so that he is very audible to the audience.

Rate of Speech Rate is the degree of speed at which the speaker speaks. Fast delivery betrays a lack of

confidence. A good speaker should speak at the rate at which his/her audience can understand. The

average speed or rate is 125 -150 words per minute. A well-prepared presentation can be lost if it is delivered in a monotone, that is, when one

uses a constant pitch, volume and rate. Variation in pitch and tempo of the voice is essential to convey your message. A fast

speech delivered in a monotone will only bore and send the audience to sleep.

Quality of Speech The characteristic tone of the voice is termed as quality. Sometimes, it is termed as

jarring or creaking to the ears or it may be labeled as pleasant. The liveliness of speech is known as animation. A lively speech with jokes, appropriate

quotations, analogies with personal incidents as examples can capture the audience's attention. Lack of animation can cause a communication breakdown.

Proper pronunciations with pauses at the right places enhances the quality of a speech. Pause refers to the junctures in speech.

Frequent and slight pauses help the speaker divide his idea into small units and give the listeners necessary time-gaps to absorb one idea before moving onto another.

Words should be pronounced properly, putting stresses at the right places. Nasalization and vocalized pauses such as 'er', 'ah', 'unh', 'um', etc. should be avoided.

Phrases like 'You see...', 'I mean...', 'What I mean...', 'Do you understand...', 'Is it clear...' should not be repeated very often.

To clear doubts in pronunciations, it is best to refer to a dictionary.

Hence, to become an effective speaker, one should be able to use his voice properly, exploiting

the potential of his vocal elements. For self-improvement, one should tape-record his speech and

critically analyze it. In his subsequent efforts, he should amend his delivery in the light of his self

analysis. Through systematic and persistent efforts, one can certainly become a good speaker.

Lesson 5 - Audio Visual Aids

Introduction to AV Aids

Audio-visual aids also supplement oral communication. There are many occasions

when one has to make an oral presentation. The use of audio-visual aids can greatly

enhance its value. The term 'Audio-Visual aids' refers to the equipment available to us

for amplifying or supplementing our message. An aid thus makes the communication

lucid, vivid, stimulating and interesting. It helps the speaker arrest the attention of the

audience and enables him to enliven even a dull topic. With the technology of

communication becoming more advanced and sophisticated, the speaker must exploit it

to his advantage. However, we will be dealing only with the following audio-visual aids

here :

Blackboard

Overhead projector

Filmstrip

Slide projector

Movie film projector

Video tape recorder

Audio tape recorder

Models

Even graphic aids like graphs, charts, diagrams, maps, etc are referred to as visual

aids. These are discussed in later part of the course as these constitute a significant

part of written communication. Guidelines in the use of A-V aids: The content to be supported with the A-V aids should be decided upon.

The appropriate A-V aid is then selected.

The aid is then integrated with the presentation.

A suitable place for the equipment to be kept is decided upon, for it should be

visible or audible to all audience.

The basic technical knowledge of the equipment is obtained and the speaker

should become familiar with the equipment.

The material for the A-V aid is to be prepared with great care, emphasizing on

aspects which are considered to be significant or important. The aspects of clear

presentation, like underlining, colour, arrows, heavy lettering, etc. should be

taken into consideration when preparing the material.

BlackboardThe blackboard is the most commonly available visual aid equipment. It is the cheapest

and the most useful aid, requiring a minimum of expertise. But you will be ill-advised to

use it without planning and practice. Advantages: It offers plenty of space to the user to present simple drawings, diagrams, maps,

graphs and, of course, words and phrases.

A feeling of spontaneity can be given to the audience. With a new idea, it is easy

to modify the presented material. Modifications can also be done on receiving

suggestions and comments from the audience.

The listeners can be involved - this can be done by the speaker demanding

inputs from them for incorporation on the board.

The board permits the progressive development of a design, process or idea

which keeps the interest of the audience sustained.

For a nervous speaker, it acts as a pressure reliever.

Overhead ProjectorAn Overhead Projector (OHP) is a clean, often superior substitute for the blackboard.

As it is quite versatile and relatively inexpensive, it is becoming increasingly popular.

Written material, diagrams, charts, maps, etc. can be transferred to transparencies for

projections. The material to be displayed can either be photocopied or can be written or

drawn on the transparencies.

Advantages: The OHP can be used to project clear images of prepared transparencies of

many kinds on the screen or even a light coloured wall.

The projection of diagrams, maps, charts, etc. increases clarity and ensures that

the audience has a better understanding of the projected material.

The speaker can still maintain eye-contact while using an overhead projector,

which is a great advantage.

Certain relevant information on the transparency can be masked until a relevant

point has been reached.

Moreover, the OHP can be put off when not necessary. Hence, it doesn't serve

as a distraction.

Filmstrip and Slide Projector

Projectors that can show both filmstrips and slides are now easily available in the

market. Filmstrips are a sequence of transparencies of 8mm or 16mm films. They are

commercially produced but can also be got ready by professionals to meet the special

needs of one's organization. The sequence of projection cannot be changed but the

advantage is that they can be handled easily. However, in a slide projector, the

sequence of projection of slides can be varied. They are commercially available or can

be specially prepared. When a projector of such a kind is used, the lights of the room

would have to be dimmed, for the images can lose their sharpness

Movie Film Projector

The tremendous impact that any film has on people is well known. This medium is not

only used for entertainment but also for teaching, training and advertising.

Film is available in four sizes - 4mm, 16mm, 35mm and 70mm with sound. The

last two are used for commercial cinema projection as they have the largest

image potential.

The films which are professionally produced for teaching and training purposes

are usually in 16mm format.

To use this medium, films on technical and educational subjects such as science,

technology, business, management, culture etc. are produced mostly by

government departments and agencies and foreign embassies. They are

available free of cost and on easy terms.

However, to produce own films, there are film-producing companies that

undertake such jobs. The speaker should give a short introduction before the

show and after the show it should end with a summary

Video Tape Recorder

The use of video equipment is becoming almost as commonplace as that of the audio

tape recorder. Any display material requiring visual motion and sound can be recorded

on video cassette and used for presentation. The above needs can be met with the

professionally produced video cassettes. However, nowadays, the lectures by eminent

technocrats, scientists, management specialists etc. are being recorded.

Advantages: 1. It is easier to handle a video recorder set and to monitor a television set.

2. The use of this aid requires almost no technical knowledge and can be used without

the aid of a blackboard.

3. The material recorded can be replayed instantly

4. The equipment is easily portable.

However, even though a recorded material might lack the professional quality of motion

picture, this aid is quite popular as it most suitable for a small audience.

Audio Tape Recorder

This aid is perhaps the most cheapest and the most practical aid. The are pre-recorded

tapes and cassettes available to suit varying professional needs. However, if original

material is to be used, the recording has to be done with precautions like recording in a

sound proof room, ensuring that sound level is in the proper range and ensuring that no

other sound is recorded.

This aid is used for the following purposes:

to provide a running commentary or to provide 'sound support' to what is being

presented on the screen through, say, slides.

for dictation

for training professionals in the art of speaking. A tape recorder can play a

significant role for instant playback can help a trainee improve his performance

through self-effort.

Models

A model is a miniature representation of something. It is the closest alternative to the

real object such as a bridge, car, plane etc. During a presentation, if some detail of a

particular object is to be referred to, then it can be done using a model. A model would

evoke considerable interest and attract close attention of the audience, making the

explanation more meaningful and easily assailable.

A model can be made by using conventional materials like cardboard, balsa,

wood, soap, string, polystyrene etc.

While using a model, it is to be ensured that every member of the audience can

view it.

Lesson 7 - Effectiveness in Oral Communication

Introduction

Effective oral communication helps a person to enhance his prestige, influence decisions and

come to occupy more important positions in any organization. Body language and signs and

symbols play a vital role in oral communication. Oral communication may be defined as

anything other than the words themselves, that communicates or affects the message contained in

the words. It can also be defined as all external stimuli other than the spoken or written words

and which includes body motion, characteristics of appearance, characteristics of voice and use

of space distancing

Important Aspects of Oral Communication

1. Pronunciation: Individual sounds, primary and secondary stress

2. Connected Speech: Voice quality, volume, modulation, sentence stress, intonation, pause,

rhythm, (modulation, stress).

3. Delivery: Proper volume and rate, animated and vibrant.

4. Organization of matter: Introduction, logical ordering of ideas, conclusion.

5. Quality of interaction: Cool, mature, brief, to the point.

6. Use of body language: Personal appearance, posture, gestures facial expression, eye

contact, space distancing.

7. Use of audio-Visual aids: Blackboard, overhead projector, tape recorder.

8. Audience awareness

1. Pronunciation: Uses: 1.Easy perception 2. Correct comprehension 3. Effective

communication.

In Pronunciation we have to give importance to individual sounds. In English we have 44 IPA

sounds. In that we have 20 sounds for vowels and 24 sounds for consonants. Among the 20

sounds for vowels we have 12 different sounds for pure vowels and 8 for diphthongs. Word

stress is also an important aspect of pronunciation. It is defined as the relative greater emphasis

given to one or more syllables in a word. We have 2 types of stress here namely primary accent

and secondary accent. Accent enables us to bring in automatic modulation in voice that enables a

communicator to be more effective.

2. Connected Speech: In connected speech we have 5 aspects. 1.Sentence Stress 2.Voice

modulation 3.Intonation 4.Juncture 5.Rhythm.

Sentence Stress: The relative greater emphasis a word gets in a sentence is termed as sentence

stress. This sentence stress adds value to our oral presentation.

Voice modulation: Here we have 4 aspects of voice namely: 1. Voice quality 2.Pitch 3. Volume

4. Rate.

1. Voice quality: The quality of voice should be good and it should be adapted according to the

audience.

2. Pitch: Highness or lowness of voice. Always it is better to follow a moderate pitch.

3. Volume: Amplitude of vibration in voice is volume (loudness or softness). Volume should

be adjusted according to the size of the audience.

4. Rate: It is the speed at which we speak. 130-170 words/minute is good for any oral

presentation.

Intonation: Intonation is nothing but rise and fall in pitch. We have two types of intonations in

English. 1.Rising tone and 2. Falling tone. Falling tone is generally used for statements, orders

etc. Rising tone is used when we use question tag, request etc. Juncture: Pauses that we use in

our speech. It creates an interest and attracts the attention of the audience and they lead to better

communication. They are sometimes called as oral punctuation, which would add beauty to our

presentation. Rhythm: Speaking in a monotone without any variation in pitch. Helpful in some

speeches and not fit for all types of speeches. Example: Religious ceremonies, religious lectures,

oath etc.

3. Delivery: Our delivery should be at a proper volume and rate. There are basically 4 modes

of delivery: 1.Extemporaneous 2. Impromptu 3. Reading from Manuscript 4. Reciting from

memory. Any kind of a delivery should be animated and vibrant and should be lively.

Extemporaneous: This is the best kind of delivery. Here the speaker has previously prepared

points and speaks them with the words of his choice. Here a thorough preparation and

organization of matter is necessary. Good command over the language is also necessary. The

speaker here has a lot of freedom.

Impromptu: This is a type of delivery given on an occasion, during which the speaker has not

got any prior preparation. This kind of speech should be as short as possible. Good

communication over language and quick thinking is necessary.

Reading from manuscript: Here the speaker generally reads a text word by word. Example:

Newsreaders, presidential address, PM’s address. Here the speaker should be professionally

trained in RI English. Eye contact with audience is very important here.

Reciting from memory: This type of delivery is used on very few occasions where quotations

are to be recited. But here, we should never quote if we don’t know the quotation properly.

4. Organization of Matter In any presentation, organization of matter is extremely important. All presentations should have

3 parts namely:

1.Introduction 2. Main Body 3. Conclusion.

Introduction: Introduction should generally have quotations, stories etc. so as to create a good

first impression among the audience. The introduction should not be too long. “Well begun is

half done”. So, an impressive introduction is extremely important for an oral presentation.

Main body: This part actually has the original matter organized in the following patterns:

1.Chronological 2. Spatial 3. Logical 4. Cause and Effect 5.Psychological 6.Comparative

7.Topical or Categorical.

Chronological: Sequencing or arranging matter on the way in which the events occurred or

appeared before. Example: History and growth of any organization.

Spatial: Here organization depends on the location or direction. Events can be described here in

any direction as per the speaker’s wish. Example: description of a machine, structure of a

building etc.

Logical: Ideas or events here are described according to their importance. For example, in an

informational speech, matter is arranged from the most important to least important one. But in

an explanative speech matter is organized from the least important to the most important one.

Cause and Effect: Here the matter may have a structure in which a cause leads to an effect or

sometimes an effect may be supported by some causes. Examples: Report given by a policeman

on the eve of an accident, to stop strikes where we first describe problems and then give

solutions.

Psychological patterns: Here the matter for oral communication is arranged according to the

psychology of the audience. Example: To boost morale of a worker.

Comparative: Matters are organized by comparing one event with other. Example: New product

introduction, sales comparison etc.

Topical or Categorical: Matter is categorized under various topics. It is the most commonly

used pattern for almost all presentations.

Conclusion: In conclusion, we can highlight the important points of our speech. We can also

relate the conclusion with the introduction. No new points should be added in conclusion. We

should avoid a very long conclusion

5. Quality of Interaction: In order to have a good scope for interaction the speaker should

be cool, matured and brief to the point.

6. Use of Body Language: Body language has 6 aspects or visible codes. 1.Personal

appearance 2. Posture 3. Gestures 4.Facial Expressions 5. Eye contact 6. Space distancing.

A. Personal appearance: It reflects attitudes, behavioral approach, and discipline of the speaker.

Here we in turn have 3 aspects: A. Person B. Attire C.Accessories.

Person: Explains about the physical appearance of a person like how he looks, the color of his

skin, cleanliness physical deformity etc.

Attire: Here, dresses communicate the status, behavioral preferences etc. of a speaker.

Accessories: Other types of ornaments worn by a person reveal his status.

B. Posture: The way in which you conduct yourself in front of the audience is termed as

posture. It generally reveals the confidence level of the speaker and also helps the audience to

judge the speaker. Generally, we move in front of the audience to hold attention, to get rid of

nervousness, to suggest transitions or to increase emphasis. Different situations warrant different

posture.

C. Gestures: It may be defined as any observed action that sends a visual signal to an onlooker.

Well-timed and appropriate gestures should be used. Routine and excessive gesture can act as a

lockage for communication.

1. Enumerative: To Show numerals (fingers);

2. Locative: To show the specific location of an object (thumb);

3. Symbolic: To explain an abstract concept (Ex: Cooperation, unity);

5. Emphatic: To emphasis on a particular point submission of assignment);

6. Descriptive: To describe the size of an object by moving our hands away from our body.

Gestures are culture-specific. Therefore, it is necessary for us to use gestures according to the

cultural context.

D. Facial Expression: Face is the index of mind. Inner moves are reflected through our facial

expressions. Some types of facial expressions: 1. Inhibited 2.Uninhibited 3.Blank 4. Substitute

5.Frozen. Different situations warrant different facial expressions. So, they have to be used

intelligibly.

E. Eye Contact: Eye contact is extremely necessary to establish a rapport with the audience, to

get feedback from the audience. It also tells something about the curiosity of the speaker towards

the speech.

F. Space Distancing: The process of maintaining a distance with the audience is termed as space

distancing. There are basically 4 zones of maintenance of distance: 1. Intimate zone (15-45 cm)

(6-18 inches) 2. Personal zone(46cm-1.22m; 18-48 inches) 3.Social zone (1.22-3.6m; 4-12 feet)

4. Public zone (over 3.6m or 12 feet).

1. Intimate zone: To persons with whom we are emotionally attached to. Generally,

ignored in Business or Technical Communications.

2. Personal Zone: Distance we maintain from people during office parties, friendly

gathering etc. Here we move with people familiar to us.

3. Social Zone: Distance that we maintain from strangers like Electrician, plumber etc.

4. Public zone: Distance maintained during a public gathering (politicians, leaders etc.).

Here for security reasons, the distance is important.

7. Use of AV Aids , Audience Awareness Use of AV Aids: It makes our presentation more vivid, eye-catching and attractive. It is useful in

both oral and written communication. Here, first of all we have to think if the AV aid is

necessary and then select one.

The Aids should not be overcrowded.

Only relevant information should be given in the aid.

The aid should be legible.

Always we have to match our explanation with that aid.

Size of the AV aid should be according to the size of the audience.

Audience Awareness: The speaker should know about the size of the audience before starting

his talk. He should know about the audience’s age, sex, background, interest etc. before his

presentation. Often it is necessary to have a friendly or congenial atmosphere with the audience.

The speaker should be pragmatic. He should concentrate well on his ideas. He should be

optimistic and should not get disturbed by the activities of some audience. He should adjust the

volume according to the size of the audience.

Lesson 8 - Style

IntroductionStyle in writing is much easier to recognize – whether good style or bad style – than to explain!

Have something to say, and say it as clearly as you can. That is the only secret of style, (Matthew

Arnold). Arnold identifies clarity and having a worthwhile message to communicate as the

essence of good style. So style essentially may be regarded as the overall impact that a piece of

writing has upon its reader and is made up of:

The particular aims and objectives of the piece of writing.

The way in which the piece is structured and the sequence into which its ideas are put.

The choice of vocabulary employed to express the meaning of the piece.

The context or situation in which the piece of writing occurs.

The personality, status and background of the intended reader of the piece of writing.

The relationship that the writer has or seeks to establish with the reader.

Elements of Style: 1. Choice of Words and Phrases

2. Sentence Structure

3. Paragraph Structure

4. Check whether your text is readable using Readability Formula

1. Choice of Words and Phrases

(a) Prefer concrete and specific words to abstract and general words

(b) Prefer plain and familiar words to long and unfamiliar words. (Avoid pomposity)

(c) Prefer verbs to nouns (Avoid excessive noun clustering; change heavy nouns back to verbs;

Avoid overuse of ‘to be’ form of verbs)

(d) Avoid clichés

(e) Avoid excessive use of jargons

(f) Avoid redundancy (wordiness/verbosity)

(g) Avoid circumlocution

(h) Avoid foreign words and phrases

(i) Change active to passive voice to avoid wordiness

2. Sentence Structure

(a) Use of emphatic word order

(b) Use parallel constructions

(c) Use of variety in sentence structure

3. Paragraph Structure

(a) Maintain unity in paragraphs

(b) Provide coherence in the paragraph and develop the topic adequately.

4. Check whether your text is readable using readability formula

Elaboration

a) Prefer concrete and specific words to abstract and general words: Concrete and specific

words make the writing clear and creates an image in the minds of the reader. They are more

forceful, direct and exact. A general statement does help in introducing broad subjects or

when in certain circumstances you deliberately want to be vague. A precise statement will

commit you to a specific thing or an idea. The following examples illustrate this;

1. He has been with the company for many years. Suggested revision: He has been the CEO of

TCS for 5 years.

2. This requires a medium sized hole. Suggested revision: This requires a 2cm diameter hole.

3. The tests indicate that the equipment is good. Suggested revision: The performance tests

indicate that the X235-coupling will withstand 75% loads.

b) Prefer plain and familiar words to long and unfamiliar words: The language should be

simple and clear. It is necessary to avoid pomposity. Plain words are usually short and

familiar. You can catch the readers’ attention more easily by using such words. Certain

words can be used in more simple terms as follows:

1. Accentuate – stress

2. 2. Accommodate – fit

3. 3. Implement – carry out

4. Facilitate – ease

Examples of sentences:

1. The reason for the popularity of the slides is the simplicity of their preparation. Slides are

popular because they are easy to prepare. 2. Mr. Richard has taken great pain to design a

multi-level building that can be considered to use the property to an optimum extent. Mr.

Richard has designed a multi-level building, which fully develops the property.

(c) Prefer verbs to nouns: Avoid excessive noun clustering. Change heavy nouns back to

verbs. Avoid overuse of “to be” form of verbs. It is important to ensure that every word used

contributes something to the meaning conveyed. Special attention should be given to modifiers,

prepositions and conjunctions while introducing a new idea.

Examples of sentences: 1) It is difficult to make an approximation of how much money it would

cost. (14) It is difficult to estimate its cost. (7) 2) The first step in the extraction of chromium

from chromites is its conversion into dichromate, then dichromate is converted into chromic

oxide which then is reduced by Aluminothermic process. (32)

To extract chromium, chromium is first converted into dichromate then into chromic oxide and

finally reduced by the Aluminothermic process or carbon. (22)

(d) Avoid clichés: A cliché is defined as a phrase whose aptness in a particular context when it

was first invented has won it such a popularity that it has become hackneyed and is used without

thought in context where it is no longer apt. Clichés are often used to save the writer the trouble

of inventing new phrases. They are not used for the sake of meaning but because they are

prefabricated and ready for use. A cliché should not be used indiscriminately. However if a

cliché best expresses a situation, it can be used without hesitation.

Examples of clichés: 1) Hit the nail on the head. 2) Wear and tear.

(e) Avoid excessive use of jargons: A jargon is defined as a language full of technical or special

words. Jargons should never be used to say what could be said in plain language, to show

superiority or out of sheer inability to convey complex thoughts in plain words. Such use can

create a semantic gap not only between the professional man and the layman but also among

professionals themselves.

Examples of sentences:

1) The decision to eschew an immediate price increase has been taken by the firm in the interests

of facilitating agreementation within the industry as a whole on a standardizationalized policy of

simultaneous action of prices, which will, it is hoped, be agreed on within the next few months.

Suggested revision: The firm has decided to postpone an immediate price increase by a few

months. It is hoped that within this period the industry as a whole will arrive at an agreement

about simultaneous action on prices.

2) Of prime importance in any attempt at amelioration of employer-employee relations in the

docks is the question of decasualization of labor. As long as casual labor is considered the norm,

stability will inevitably be in severe jeopardy, with all the consequent side effects on the industry

as a whole that an unstable situation in the docks inevitably implies. Suggested revision: To

improve the employer-employee relations in the docks it is necessary to abolish the practice of

hiring casual labor. It creates an instability and an instable situation in the docks will have side

effects on the industry as a whole.

(f) Avoid redundancy (wordiness/verbosity): It is necessary that one communicates clearly and

concisely what one wishes to say, so that it will arrest the attention of the listener and focus it on

the message. Often phrases and clauses are used in communication without thought. Few such

expressions and their suitable substitutes are given below:

Verbose Direct and Concise

1. In case of If

2. In early course Soon

3. For the month of July For July

4. Make necessary adjustment Adjust

(g) Avoid circumlocution: This is the part of message that can be omitted without loss of

information. It may be the use of unnecessary words or repetition of data. Supefluity should

always be avoided in order to make sure that the message reaches the reader. Some examples are

given below.

1) Located at the top of the transformer are the line terminals.

2) During the month of July there has been no complaint.

(h) Avoid foreign words and phrases: Some individuals use foreign words/phrases to impress

the listener by giving what they call ‘air of culture and elegance’. The listener is more interested

in what you say rather than in how you say it. So, to keep your writing within easy reach of your

reader, avoid using such words and phrases. The following are some of the words that should be

avoided.

1) et alibi – and others

2) et cetera – and so on

3) id est. – that is

4) ibidem – in the same place

(i) Change passive to active voice to avoid wordiness: Whenever possible use active voice

instead of passive. Their usage makes the writing crisp and easily understandable. It also reduces

the number of words and improves the sentences.

Examples: 1) The decision was made by the supervisor to call in the workers for overtime

(Passive). The supervisors decided to call in the workers for overtime.

2) The satellites of Mars were discovered by Hall (Passive). Hall discovered Mars satellites

Sentence Structure

(a) Use of emphatic word order (Avoid Ambiguity): It has been found that short, simple

sentences are effective. They promote easy reading. Long sentences are hard to construct

and harder to understand. The sentence should depend on the complexity of thought

being expressed and the reader's ability to grasp and concentrate. The following 2 points

are important in the construction of sentences.

Do not use a word which does not perform any function.

Provide the emphasis by placing words / phrases in proper order.

Examples of sentences:

1) Overtime went up as a result of the recent strike.

Revised: As a result of the recent strike, overtime went up.

2) Ramesh did not do well with the Company at first. Later he managed o succeed very well.

Finally he became the Managing Director of the Company.

Revised: Although Ramesh did not do well at first, he was later very successful, finally

becoming the Managing Director of the Company.

(b) Use of parallel constructions: Sentences which are formed should have connectivity with

each other. They should be related such that the writing as a whole is easily understandable by

the reader. In other words, parallel construction of sentences must be used.

(c) Use of variety in sentence structure: Avoid monotony by varying the structure and length

of your sentences. Variety lends freshness to writing and keeps the interest of the reader alive.

One thought can be expressed in a number of ways.

Example of variety in sentences:

After collecting the data he wrote the report.

Having collected the data he wrote the report.

He collected the data and wrote the report.

Paragraph Structure

(a) Maintain unity in paragraphs: A paragraph is a group of closely related sentences that deal

with a thought or a division of thought. The thought is usually expressed in a sentence called

topic sentence. The other sentences Explain the thought, compare and contrast it with other

thoughts, providing details, illustrations or additional information. Unity in paragraphs is often

maintained by:

1) Introducers: They establish the topic focus of the paragraph and often provide smooth

transition from the preceding paragraph.

2) Developers: They support, develop and clarify the central thought.

3) Modulators: They provide smooth transition between the sentences of a paragraph whenever

there is a shift or change in the tone or viewpoint.

4) Terminators: They conclude the discussions or summarize the contents of the paragraph,

signaling the completion of one aspect or stage of the presentation.

b) Provide coherence in the paragraph and develop the topic adequately: The following

steps ensure the coherence in paragraphs.

1) Ensure that the location of the topic sentence gives proper emphasis to the thought.

2) Examine the transitional devices, if any, to see whether they smoothly lead on to the new

thought.

3) Check whether all the sentences deal with the topic under discussion.

4) Ensure that all the sentences are properly linked and logically arranged

Readability Formula

Check whether your text is readable using readability formula. Readability formulas are

those by which a piece of writing can be graded and its difficulty level stated by an index. They

can serve as a rough guide to test whether the writing is likely to be understood by the reader or

is difficult and needs revision. One of the methods to check readability is by calculating the fog

index of writing. The word ‘fog’ refers to the level of difficulty of a piece of writing. So, the

higher the fog index of writing, the more difficult it is considered to be from the reader’s point of

view. To calculate the fog index of writing, the following steps can be taken:

1) Divide the total number of words by the number of sentences to get the average sentence

length. 2) Count the number of difficult words, namely, words that have three or more syllables.

While doing so, do not count a) capitalized words unless they begin the sentence, b)

combinations of short, easy words (e.g., gentleman), and c) verb forms of three syllables,

including – es or – ed.

3) Work out the percentage of difficult words.

4) Add the average sentence length and the number of difficult words as worked out at 3) and

multiply the total by 0.4 to get the fog index.