Chapter 12

Conclusions and Further Research

Amanda Spink and Jannica Heinstrom

12.1. Introduction

A sign of maturity of a scientific field is its theoretical growth that is basedon an increased depth of understanding and a broadening of the contextsand issues addressed. Information behaviour research has grownsubstantially over the last 10 years, expanding from a focused explorationof utilitarian features such as problem-focused, work-related informationbehaviour to inclusion of aspects such as leisurely information needs andimpact of spiritual information. Exploring new concepts and contextshelps to build an increasingly thorough and holistic understanding ofinformation behaviour, which, in turn, lifts the field to a higher theoreticallevel.

Models and concepts developed within a work-focused tradition, forinstance, may provide an important starting point on which to build ourunderstanding of information behaviour in a leisure context (Chapter 9 byElsweiler, Wilson and Kirkegaard Lunn). By transferring theories acrosscontexts, we are able to tune into fundamental concepts that apply toinformation behaviour regardless of the specific elements that each uniquesituation contains. In Chapter 3, Urquhart presents information behaviourresearch as scattered with numerous studies focusing on specific aspects andwith little integration across studies. Testing theories and concepts invarious contexts may also reveal significant differences, as conceptsdeveloped within one context do not always immediately translate toanother. This enables us to capture and further deepen our appreciation of,

New Directions in Information Behaviour

Library and Information Science, 291–297

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as well commonalities as diversity, both of which are essential buildingblocks for a realistic understanding of information behaviour. Theoreticallybased, and empirically validated, conceptual modelling is an important keyfor scientific development (Chapter 2 by Ellis).

Another sign of maturity of a scientific field is to move away from eitheror conceptions towards an integrated view. As Sin shows in Chapter 8 thequestion needs not to be whether or how much individual or contextualfactors influence information behaviour, but rather how both dimensionsinteract with each other. An intriguing question may, for instance, be howindividual styles (Chapter 6 by Bawden and Robinson; Heinstrom, 2010) ordifferences in metacognitive knowledge (Chapter 5 by Bowler) interact withsurrounding contextual influences such as information worlds (Chapter 7 byBurnett and Jaeger), to form information behaviour. An integrated viewalso invites interdisciplinary collaboration and adaption of methodsdeveloped in other fields. Chapter 4 by O’Brien illustrates this with theexample of how User experience (UX) research could contribute to furtherdevelopment of human information interaction (HII) studies.

In today’s world of social media and constant Internet access, workand leisure contexts and various intellectual, emotional and spiritualneeds become increasingly integrated as we can attend to each respectiveneed through the same channels, even at times simultaneously. Thetheoretical development of the information behaviour field needs toaddress the integration and interaction this creates. By grounding ourunderstanding of information behaviour in fundamental concepts such atthe Evolutionary Foundation level, and its relation to other essentialhuman processes, such as cognition, affective dimensions and socialinteraction, we can move our understanding of information behaviour toa level that is at the same time of substantial theoretical depth. When wedevelop theories and models that allow people to recognise andunderstand their information behaviour in their daily life, we havemoved the field a substantial leap forward.

In the next section, we extend Spink’s information behaviour model withinput from the various chapters of this book.

12.2. Information Behaviour Model

Building on Spink’s (2010) information behaviour model, this section of thebook provides an enhanced information behaviour model based on theresearch directions discussed in the various chapters of this book(Figure 12.1).

Figure 12.1: Enhanced behaviour model.

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12.2.1. Evolutionary Foundation

Spink’s (2010) information behaviour model includes as its base anevolutionary level. Figure 12.1 information behaviour model includes atits base an evolutionary foundation level. Information behaviour only makessense in the framework of an evolutionary and also developmentaltheoretical framework. However, the field of information science andinformation behaviour has normally disregarded the evolutionary, biologi-cal and developmental aspects of information behaviour. There has been amajor disconnect between the study of information behaviour and itsbiological and behavioural bases. However, both biology and environmentshape our information behaviour, and our innate human preferences forinformation are based in our biological heritage. The dynamics of ourinformation behaviour processes were formed during the social andbiological development in Homo sapiens. That humans engage in informa-tion behaviour processes is a physiological reality.

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A foundational tenet of information behaviour is that in the same waythat our various organs have each evolved to solve specific problems ofevolutionary dimensions, our minds are composed of domain-specificalgorithms, each of which has evolved as a solution to a particularevolutionary adaptation (e.g. language, information behaviour, matingbehaviour). This tenet is important for the field of information behaviourand links information behaviour research and theories to such evolutionaryfields as ethology, sociobiology, behavioural ecology, evolutionary psychol-ogy, neuroscience, cognitive archaeology and gene-culture coevolutionmodelling. Human genes play an important role in shaping our behavioursand preferences across information behaviours.

The incorporation of evolutionary principles within information beha-viour has important benefits for epistemological development in informationbehaviour research.

Firstly, it allows the development of a coherent theoretical umbrellabased on evolutionary principles.

Secondly, the field can benefit from an evolutionary approach to promoteand facilitate interdisciplinary research. Information behaviour uses variousadvances in the cognitive and behavioural disciplines (e.g., cognitive andsocial psychology), but further interdisciplinary research is needed. Forexample, a full understanding of information behaviour might involve thecontributions of cognitive archaeologists and evolutionary psychologists.

Thirdly, an evolutionary approach will benefit information behaviourresearch by providing new and novel research questions not widelyapparent. For example, research studies are needed exploring the interplaybetween genes and environment in the origin and development ofinformation behaviour.

12.2.2. Human Cognitive, Affective and Social Behaviour

Building upon the evolutionary level, the next level of Figure 12.1 is thehuman cognitive, affective and social behaviour level. This level appeared inSpink’s (2010) information behaviour model that described informationbehaviour as having various dimensions at the human cognitive, affectiveand social behaviour level, including the following:

� Information behaviour is a form of human intelligence or ‘‘informationintelligence’’;� Information behaviour is a biologically secondary ability;� Information behaviour has multitasking and coordinating dimensions;� Information behaviour is a sociocognitive ability;

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� Information behaviour is affected by social and environmental dimen-sions;� Information behaviour has affective dimensions;� Information behaviour is underpinned by information processing andmetacognition;� Information behaviour includes information styles.

Spink’s (2010) information behaviour model is revised in Figure 12.1 toinclude two new dimensions, metacognition (from Chapter 5) andinformation style (from Chapter 6). Both areas are prime topics for furtherresearch by information behaviourists.

12.2.3. Information Behaviour Sub-Processes

Building upon the evolutionary foundation level and the human cognitive,affective and social behaviour level, the next level is sub-processes. Spink’s(2010) information behaviour model included a sub-processes level. InFigure 12.1, the sub-processes level is unmodified from Spink’s (2010)model. Figure 12.1 does portray information behaviour as made-up of aninterplay of different sub-processes over time that includes informationseeking, everyday life information seeking (ELIS) (including sense making),information foraging, information searching, information organising andinformation using behaviour.

12.2.4. Lifetime Development

Building upon the evolutionary level, the human cognitive, affective and socialbehaviour level, and the sub-processes level, the next level of Figure 12.1 is thelifetime development level. Spink’s (2010) information behaviour modelprovided a lifetime framework for understanding informationbehaviour basedin the latest thinking on human development, developmental psychology andevolutionary life history theory (ELHT).Humans undergo a lifetime process ofphysical and cognitive development or human growth and development.Figure 12.1 shows information behaviour over various stages, infancy,early childhood, later childhood, juvenility, adolescence and adulthood.

Spink’s (2010) model is revised in Figure 12.1 to include insights fromChapter 10 by Spink and Heinstrom which highlights new aspects ofinformation behaviour in early childhood. Developmental aspects ofinformation behaviour constitute an important area for further research.Understanding how and why information behaviour develops in youngchildren will deepen our understanding of the fundamental processes that

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underlie information behaviour. This research field may also provideimportant insights into the interplay between genetic and contextualinfluences on the development of information behaviour.

12.2.5. Context

Figure 12.1 builds upon the evolutionary foundation, human cognitive,affective and social behaviour, information behavior sub-processes, andlifetime development levels in Spink’s (2010) information behaviour model.Figure 12.1 shows that context is a new level within the informationbehaviour framework, including work related, spiritual (from Chapter 11),leisure (from Chapter 9) and general everyday life contexts. This is animportant research area that needs further exploration for a holisticconception of information behaviour.

12.2.6. Information Grounds and Worlds

Building upon the evolutionary level; the human cognitive, affective andsocial behaviour level; the information behavior sub-processes level,thelifetime development and the context level, the next level is the informationgrounds and worlds level. Spink’s (2010) information behaviour modelincluded an information grounds level. The concept of information groundsincludes consideration of information behaviour as including a physicallocation, a physiological location that would include cognitive behavioursand potentially a virtual location.

Figure 12.1 is a revised version of Spink’s (2010) information behaviourmodel with the addition of information worlds in relation to informationgrounds. Information ground represents the physical, sociocognitive andvirtual locations or places where information behaviour exchange occurs.Information behaviour includes an exchange process that takes placebetween people in their information world (Chapter 7). Informationgrounds are smaller than peoples’ small worlds. For example, aninformation ground could be a doctor’s waiting room, a tea shop, Internetcafe, etc. where people communicate. These issues need to be explored infurther research. For instance, the interaction between information groundsand information worlds is a rich area for further research.

12.2.7. Interplay of Levels

A key area of information behaviour research is to study the interplaybetween the various information behaviour levels and that research can be

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mapped onto the model. For example, studying the information behaviourof young children can use the evolutionary development frameworkincluding the cognitive, affective and social dimensions to interpret thefindings. However, an important aspect of such a study is the lifetimedevelopment level, and for that study, we would need to look at whatcognitive affective and social dimensions map to the early childhood level inthe model. Obviously a young child will be at a different level in cognitive,affective and social dimensions compared to an older child. In addition,there is also an interplay with the sub-processes level as all humans havecapabilities for each information behaviour sub-process. Research can movebetween the different levels to obtain a comprehensive insight into thatparticular information behaviour dimension.

12.3. Conclusion

This book provides an enhanced theoretical framework for understandinginformation behaviour within an evolutionary and developmental frame-work. There is a need to further develop this theoretical framework within amore overarching understanding of information behaviour within aninterdisciplinary environment. This book contributes to the process ofwidening and deepening the information behaviour perspective to includenew approaches within the broader framework of social science theories andmodels. In line with evolutionary psychology, we place informationbehaviour at the centre of human adaptation and evolution.

The status of a scientific discipline is determined by its epistemologicalimpact to create foundational knowledge and unified theoretical frame-works. Information behaviour has largely imported theoretical frameworksfrom the social sciences and had limited impact on the social, cognitive orbehavioural sciences. Information behaviour research has been relativelyisolated from the evolutionary and developmental sciences. This poses animportant challenge to researchers in the field to broaden the scope ofstudies to include these dimensions.

References

Heinstrom, J. (2010). From fear to flow. Personality and information interaction.

Oxford, UK: Chandos.

Spink, A. (2010). Information Behaviour: An evolutionary instinct. Dordrecht, The

Netherlands: Springer.