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Advances in Reading and

Primary Education85% literacy rates in Britain, France,

Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, and

Scandinavia / far lesser rates in Italy, Spain,Russia, Austria-Hungary and the Balkans

liberals and conservatives call for more

primary education and literacy

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Reading Materialnumber of newspapers, books, magazines,mail-order catalogs, and libraries grow

rapidlysometimes the publications were mediocrecatering to sensationalism, scandal, andpornography

still new reading materials led to apopularization of knowledge

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Auguste Comtedeveloped positivism - a philosophy of humanintellectual development based on science

wrote The Positive Philosophy in which he arguedhuman thought has three stages

(1) theological physical nature explained by divinity

(2) metaphysical abstract principles explained byoperative agencies of nature

(3) positive explanations of nature become matters ofexact description of phenomena

considered father of modern sociology

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Charles Darwinin On the Origin of Species formulates principleof natural selection which explained how speciesevolved over time

together with Alfred Russel Wallace comes upwith natural selection principle of survival ofthe fittest

theory undermines deistic argument for the

existence of God

in Descent of Man, applies principle of evolutionto human beings

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Science and EthicsHerbert Spencer British philosopher who

believed in social Darwinism, society progresses

through competition where the strong defeat the

weak

Thomas HenryHuxley strongly supported

Darwin, but opposed Spenser, declared the

physical process of evolution was at odds withhuman ethical development

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Christianity Under Siege /

Intellectual Skepticismhistory writers question the historical accuracyof the Bible, citing no genuine historical evidence

science Darwin and other scientists doubt thestory ofCreation citing that the Earth is mucholder than the Bible

morality

liberal intellectuals question the cruelty and sacrifices

mentioned in the Bible

Friedrich Nietzsche felt Christianity glorifiedweakness, rather than strength

movement towards secularism

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Conflict Between Church and

StateGreat Britain churches opposed improvements ingovernment schools because it raised the costs of churchschools / Education Act of 1902 provided state support

for religious and non-religious schoolsFrance public schools expanded, religious teachingsreplaced by civic training and Napoleonic Concordatterminated separating church and state

Germany

education secularized in 1870-1871 under BismarckMay Laws of 1873 require priests to be educated in Germanschools and pass state examinations

Bismarcks Kulturkampfcultural struggle provokes Catholicresentment against the German state

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Religious Revivalchurch revivals occur in Britain, Ireland and

France

cult of the miracle at Lourdes grows

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Late 19th Century and the Roman

Catholic

Church

Pope Pius IX after Italian unification turns from liberal toconservative issuing Syllabus of Errors setting CatholicChurch against science, philosophy and politics

papal infallibility pope is incapable of error on theissues of faith and morals

Pope Leo XIII Pius successor, moderate who defendedreligious education and religious control of marriage, butalso wanted a corporate society based on moral religious

principles rather than socialist or capitalist idealsPius X rejected modernism and required all priests totake an anti-Modernist oath

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Late 19thC

entury and IslamAnti-Islamic thought

Islam considered to be a religion incapable ofdeveloping scientific ideas

Europeans championed the superiority of the white raceand Christianity

Eventually some Christian missionaries become moresympathetic to Muslims

the Salafi movement along with some Islamicleaders want to modernize Islam, but rejectWestern principles / its effects are still felt today

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Science towards the 20th century

the physics revolutionfew scientists believed they could portray the truth about

physical reality, instead offering hypothesis or symbolicmodels of nature

x-rays and radiation major steps in the study of the atomand radioactive materials

Max Planck quantum theory of energy energy is aseries of discrete quantities rather than a continuous stream

Albert Einstein theory of relativity time and space do

not exist separately, but rather as a combined continuumWernerHeisenberg uncertainty principle behaviorof subatomic particles is a matter of statistical probabilityrather than of exactly determinable cause and effect

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Realist and Naturalist Literature

of Early 20thC

enturyrealist and naturalist writers brought scientificobjectivity and observation to their work portraying thehypocrisy and brutality of the bourgeois life

famous early realist writers included; Charles Dickens,Honore de Balzac, and George Eliot

Gustave Flaubert and Emile Zola

Flaubert in Madame Bovary (1857) describes colorless and haplesssearch of love by a woman

Zola wrote of alcoholism, prostitution, adultery, and labor strifeHenrik Ibsen and George Bernard Shaw

Ibsen in his works strips away the illusory mask of middle-classmorality

Shaw defended Ibsen and wrote against romanticism and false

respectability

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Modernism Literature of Early

20thC

enturymodernism critical of middle class society, butmore concerned with beauty than social issues

Keynesian economics John Maynard Keynesclaimed governments spent their way out ofdepressions by running deficits to encourageemployment and the production of goods

famous modernist writersVirginia Woolf portrayed individuals seeking to maketheir way in a world with most 19th century social and moralcertainties removed

Thomas Mann explored social experience of middle-classGermans

James Joyce wrote famous novel, Ulysses (1922)

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Modern ArtImpressionism

concentrated on modern life, using light, color, and themomentary, largely unfocused visual experience of the sociallandscape

famous impressionists included; Edward Manet, Claude Monet,Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Edgar Degas

Post-Impressionism

form and structure, rather than the impression of the movementmarked these works

famous post-impressionists included; Georges Seurat, PaulCezanne, Vincent Van Gogh, and Paul Gauguin

Cubism

instead of painting as a window to the real world, painting was anautonomous realm of art itself with no purpose beyond itself

famous cubists were Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso

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F

riedrich Nietzschequestioned rational thinking, Christianity,democracy, nationalism, science and progress

in The Birth of Tragedy (1872) urged the non-rational aspects of human nature are as noble asrational characteristics

declared the death of God

critical of racism and anti-Semitism

sought the heroism he saw in the Greek Homericage

appealed to feelings and emotions in questioningrationalism

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Psychoanalysis Freud and

JungSigmund Freuds early theories

early studies were on psychic disorders

theorized that human beings are sexual from birth through adulthood

sexuality as one of the bases of mental order and disorder

Freud and dreams argued that unconscious drives and desirescontribute to conscious behavior

Freuds later thought internal mind is based on the struggle of threeentities

id amoral, irrational, driving instincts of sexual gratification

superego the external moral imperatives and expectations imposed onthe personality put on by society and culture

ego mediates the impulses of the id with the morals of the superego

Carl Jung Freuds student who goes away from his teacherstheories and believes collective memories along with personalexperience constitute a human beings soul / saw value in religion

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Retreat from Rationalism in

PoliticsMax Weber

saw bureaucratization as the basic feature of modernsocial life

people develop their own self-worth from largeorganizations

non-economic factors might account for developmentsin human history

Collective Behavior the belief in the necessityof collectively shared ideals in society /proponents of this theory differed from Weber

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Racism the pseudoscientific theory that

biological features of race determine human

character and worthCount Arthur de Gobineau in his four volumeInequality of the Human Races (1853-1854)argued the white Aryan race was being weakened

by inferior yellow and black racesHouston Stuart Chamberlain anti-Semite whobelieved through genetics a superior race could bedeveloped

late-century nationalism new nationality defineditself through race and blood opposed the ideas ofliberalism and socialism and led to racismthroughout Europe and North America against

African and Native-Americans

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Anti-Semitism and Zionismanti-Semitism seen in Vienna with the

Christian Socialist Party, in Germany with

the ultraconservative chaplain AdolfStoecker, and the Dreyfus affair in France

Zionist movement the movement to found

a separate Jewish state led by TheodorHerzl / Herzls ideas eventually lead to the

birth of the state of Israel

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Antifeminism in Late-Century

ThoughtFamous intellectuals; Charles Darwin, T.H.

Huxley, Karl Vogt, Sigmund Freud, Auguste

Comte, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, Herbert

Spencer all believed women were born inferior to

men

distinguished woman psychoanalysts; Karen

Horney and Melanie Klein challenged, especially

Freuds view on women that they would be

mothers destined to lead unhappy mental lives

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New Feminism Sexual

Moralityfeminists were outraged by Contagious DiseasesAct (1864), which in Britain gave the policepermission to force women to undergo

examinations for venereal diseases (Act wasrepealed in 1886)

Austrian feminists combated the governmentregulation of prostitution

in Germany, feminists form Mothers ProtectionLeague, which contended that both married andunmarried mothers required the help of the statefor pregnancy and child care

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New Feminism Women

Defining Their Own Livessome women became active in socialistcircles

Virginia Woolf wrote A Room of OnesOwn (1929) argued that women shouldhave separate intellectual and psychologicalphilosophies then men

World War I feminism becomes groupedwith sexual immorality, and extremepolitical radicalism leading to repression bysuch leaders as Lenin and Stalin