Lubbock Lake: Late Quaternary cultural and environmental change on the Southern High Plains, USA

JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE ( 1 989) 4 (2) 145-1 65 @ Longrnan Group UK Ltd 1989

0267-8 1 79/89/04206145/$03.50

Lubbock Lake: Late Quaternary cultural and environmental change on the Southern High Plains, USA EILEEN JOHNSON Museum of Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409-4499, USA VANCE T. HOLLIDAY Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA

Johnson, E and Holliday, V T 1989 Lubbock Lake Late Quaternary cullural and environmental change on the Southern High Plains, USA /ourna/ ot Quaternary Soence, Vol. 4, pp 145-165 ISSN 0267-8179

Received 9 December 1907 Revised 15 November 1988

ABSTRACT: Lubbock Lake (Southern High Plains of Texas) contains a cultural, faunal, and floral record within a virtually complete geological record spanning the past 1 1 loo+ years. More than 88 archaeological occurrences have been excavated from five major stratigraphic units. The Paleoindian record (1 1500-6500yr BP) begins with Clovis-ageoccupation (ca. 1 1 lOOyr BP) found within fluvial deposits (stratum 1 ). Subsequent Paleoindian occupations are found in lake and marsh sediments (stratum 2). Archaic occupations (8500-2000yr BP) are contained within aeolian and marsh deposits (strata 3 and 4). Ceramic occupations (2000-500yr BPI are found on a soil developed in stratum 4, in marsh sediments (strata 4 and 51, and in slopewash and aeolian sediments (stratum 5). The Protohistoric (500-300yr BP) and Historic (300-1 OOyr BPI remains are in slopewash, aeolian, and marsh sediments (stratum 5) and associated soils. The Southern High Plains remained a grasslands throughout the last 1 1 500 years and neither man nor bison abandoned the region. The successive local faunas reflect changing ecosystems under pluvial to arid to more mesic to semiarid conditions. Theoccupation of Lubbock Lake through time appears to have been by small groups of people for both economic and short-term residential uses. These hunter-gatherer peoples underwent adaptive change brought about by climatic stress and alterations to food resources.

Jourml of Quaternary Science

KEYWORDS: occupation.

Hunter-gatherer peoples, stratigraphy, palaeoecology, chronology, long-term human

Introduction

Lubbock Lake National Historic and State Archaeological Landmark i s a ca 120 ha archaeological preserve located on the Southern High Plains of northwest Texas (USA) in Yellowhouse Draw (Figs 1-3). The cultural, faunal, and floral record covering the past 11 100+ years is contained within a variety of sediments and asociated soils which together provide a complementary geological record (Johnson, 1987a). The Southern High Plains of northwest Texas and Eastern New Mexico, also known as the Llano Estacado (’Staked Plains’), is a broad plateau covering about 130000 km’. Climatically, the region i s semiarid and continental and classified as dry, midlatitude, and sernidesert (Strahler and Strahler, 1983:Plate C.2). The average annual precipitation in Lubbock (992m elevation) i s 46cm with considerable interannual variability (NOAA, 1982). The Southern High Plains has a virtually featureless surface formed by deposition of an extensive blanket of Pleistocene aeolian sediment (Blackwater Draw Formation). This surface i s modified locally by a number of northwest- southeast-trending dry valleys or draws (Fig. 1) that are

tributaries of the Colorado, Brazos, and Red rivers (Holliday, 1985a).

Lubbock Lake i s situated in an entrenched meander of Yellowhouse Draw, a dry tributary of the Brazos River (Fig. 1). Thedraw incised as much as 15 m below the High Plains surface in the latest Pleistocene (Stafford, 19771, cutting through the Blackwater Draw Formation and into the Blanco Formation (Pliocene) that i s the local bedrock. Aggradation in the draw began sometime prior to about 1 1 000yr BP and the draw filled with a variety of sediments (up to 8m thick) intermittently throughout the rest of the late Quaternary.

The site was discovered as the result of dredging in 1936 (Holden, 1974). The dredging completely cut through the valley fill and intersected the water table. Shortly after dredging ended, a variety of archaeological materials were found on the spoil piles around the U-shaped cut along the inside of the meander (Fig. 3). Lubbock Lake, originally known as the Lubbock Reservoir site (Green, 19621, took its name from the artificial lake created by the intersection of the water table and not from any prehistoric hydrographic feature.

The first archaeological investigations were through the West Texas Museum (now the Museum of Texas Tech University) in

146 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

surrounding physiographic regions. -

1939 and 1941 (Wheat, 1974). The Texas Memorial Museum (TMM) carried out work at the site in 1948, 1949, and 1951 (Evans, 1949; Sellards, 1952). The West Texas Museum (WTM) conducted additional work at the site in 1959 and 1960 (Green, 1962; Kelley, 1974; Kaczor, 1978). Theseearlier investigations set the interdisciplinary tone for the research now being conducted. All previous workers recognised the excellent geological record at Lubbock Lake and incorporated sedimen- tological, stratigraphical, and palaeontological data available to them in reconstructing the history of the site. The current Lubbock Lake Project (LLP) began in 1972 under the auspices of the Museum of Texas Tech University with the first field season in 1973. The field methodologiesof various disciplines (such as archaeology, vertebrate and invertebrate palaeontology, palaeobotony, geology, and pedology) were blended to recover a broad data base for a more complete understanding of the

events at the site. This paper presents a summary of the late Quaternary record at Lubbock Lake based on 12 seasons of research into cultural adaptations to ecological change in the region.

Background to research

Cultural continuity and change within primarily a hunter- gatherer economic organisation i s being examined in relationship to changing ecosystems. Stone materials are from local, regional, and exotic sources. Most cultural remains are from animals hunted and used by man. These remains are modified by man either through butchering, marrow processing, or tool

LUBBOCK LAKE: LATE QUATERNARY CULTURAL A N D ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ON THE SOUTHERN HIGH PLAINS, USA 147

manufacture and use. Some faunal remains also are modified or affected by other taphonomic agents, such as large carnivores. Some of the Lubbock Lake faunal material exhibits a complex life history of modification by man and damage done by a carnivore. Criteria have been developed (cf. Johnson, 1985) to distinguish between the type of damage inflicted by various agencies.

Geological investigations, essential because of the extent and thickness of the deposits and their complex nature, have been fully integrated into al l aspects of the research and include stratigraphy, sedirnentology, geochronology and pedology (Holliday, 1985a). The biological and geological records provide data for determining the extinct ecosystems and successive environments. The relationship of stone artifacts and faunal material is a primary one demonstrated by geological data and the types of damage inflicted to the bones by the use of stone tools. The geological data include the sealed nature of the deposits; lack of disturbance through erosion, rodent burrow- ing, and other bioturbation; and rapid deposition (also indicated by minimal bone weathering).

lubbock lake record

Five primary geological strata and five principal soils formed in the deposits have been identified in the late Quaternary valley fill at Lubbock Lake (Figs 4, 5). The major strata are further subdivided into substrata (Fig. 4). Further discussion of the stratigraphy, sedimentation, and soils at Lubbock Lake are

provided by Holliday (1985a, 1985b, 1985~1, Holliday and Allen (19871, and Stafford (1981). The ages of the archaeological occurrences, substrata, and soils are well-controlled by almost 120 radiocarbon determinations each of which are discussed by Holliday et a/. (1983, 1985) and Haas et a/. (1 986). All ages cited are given in radiocarbon years BP (yr BPI.

Identified archaeological occurrences that record subsistence activities include camps, kill/butchering locales, and processing stations (Johnson, 1987b). Camps are habitation areas of short-term residential use. Killlbutchering locales are localised areas where animals were killed and completely butchered and are characterised by a distinctive bone disposal pattern (stacked or grouped), focus on one species of large game animal, and complete carcass disposal. Processing stations are localised areas that represent secondary activities and are characterised by a widespread bone disposal pattern, high degree of bone breakage for marrow and grease production, and the presence of more than one species of large game animal. The number of individual animals represented in these activity areas is low and large-scale kills of animals are unknown (Appendix I). Evidence of systematic processing (butchering, marrow, grease rendering) and other modifications by man is seen on the bones of numerous species through time (cf. Johnson, 1985, 1987b).

Two different technological behaviours coexisted throughout the Lubbock Lake record. The first was characterised by an expedient, non-formalised exploitation that was applicable to bone and stone resources that resulted in the production of simple, ad hoc tools in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and functions. Bone and stone were treated as alternate, inter- changeable raw materials, that could be fashioned by similar

Figure 2 (see Fig. 4).

Overview of basinal section of the Lubbock Lake National and State Historic Landmark; white arrow indicates location of trench 65


Figure 3 Topographic map of a portion of Lubbock Lake National and State Historic Landmark showing the entrenched meander of Yellowhouse Draw, location of the 1936 reservoir cut, extent of the valley fill (contours not shown in the reservoir), location of trench 65 (see Fig. 41, and location of line-of-section (A-A') in Figure 5.

techniques and made to perform similar tasks. Juxtaposed to this generalised technology was the highly formalised technology of stone point production. These more sophisticated tools involved complex activity and subtle technological procedures.

Cultural summaries

The Lubbock Lake cultural record (Fig. 6) spans the last 11 100 years, from Clovis times ( 1 1 100 yr BP) to the establishment of the Singer Store (AD 1881) (Holliday, 1987). The record is stratified with most archaeological occurrences having been sealed fairly quickly by subsequent sedimentation. What little disturbance occurred is caused primarily by carnivore activity. Other means of bioturbation are minimal to non-existent and deposits are seldom churned. Bone weathering generally is minimal although chemical alteration i s noticeable throughout most of the record.

More than 88 archaeological occurrences are known at Lubbock Lake; these archaeological occurrences reflect repeated occupation and use of the site both spatially and temporally. Appendix I provides brief information on age and

type of archaeological occurrence, game animals where applicable, and the season of occupation when determined. The season of occupation generally is determined by the ageing of bison dentition. However, the sample size per archaeological occurrence i s so small (no more than five mandibles) that the determinations are very tenuous. The Lubbock Lake local faunas are discussed by Johnson (1986, 1987~). Local faunas are restricted in time and spatial distribution and each Lubbock Lake local fauna is considered typical of the faunal community that existed on the Southern High Plains at that particular time.

Paleoindian (1 1500 to 8500yr BP)

Clovis-age materials are found in stratum 1, the oldest deposit in Yellowhouse Draw (Figs 4-61. The unit is quite complex microstratigraphically, but essentially it consists of a basal sand and gravel unit (substratum 1 A), crossbedded sand (substraturn 1 B) and, locally, an overlying clay drape (substratum 1C). This package of sediments averages 1 m thick. Stratum 1 is interpreted as a meandering stream deposit with point bar sediments (1A) and overbank deposits (1B and 1C). The age of the

LUBBOCK LAKE: LATE QUATERNARY CULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ON THE SOUTHERN HIGH PLAINS, USA 149

beginning stratum 1 deposition is u.iknown, but fluvial activity ceases at about 11 OOOyr BP.

The main Clovis-age occurrence is a late Pleistocene megafaunal bone bed that dates to ca 11 lOOyr BP (Holliday eta/ . , 1983; Johnson and Holliday, 1985; Holliday, 1987). Large game animals include mammoth (Mammuthus columbi), extinct camel (Camelops hesternus), extinct horse (Equus mexicanus and E. francisoil, extinct bison (Bison antiquus), short-faced bear (Arctodus simus), and giant armadillo (Holme- sina septentrionale). Although only pounding stones and anvils were recovered during excavations in the bone bed, this archaeological occurrence i s classified as Clovis-age because

the radiocarbon determinations are well within the known range of Clovis sites (Haynes, 1980). Furthermore, a Clovis point was recovered from the dredge pile above the location of the bone bed during the discovery of the site (Johnson and Holliday, 1987).

Evidence for bone modification by man include: (1) cut lines from butchering (skinning and meat recovery) and periosteal removal; (2) deliberate breakage through percussion on an anvil of intact fresh long bones for marrow processing; and (3) the production of fracture-based utilitarian tools for use in the processing operations (Johnson, 1985). Fracture-based utilitarian tools involves the use of bones of ungulates and bear in the

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Figure 4 in the walls of the reservoir cut. Strata and soils are indicated and the nomenclature is described in the text (note that the Yellowhouse Soil is eroded in this section). Complete descriptions of sediments and soils are in Holliday (1985a). Strata are numbered oldest to youngest. Substrata within each numbered unit are identified by an uppercase letter, oldest to youngest. Principal sedimentary lithofaces within any given stratum or substratum are identified by a lowercase letter ( I = lacustrine, e = eolian, s = slopewash). Rod in lower left is 3m long.

View of an exposure of late Quaternary valley fill (trench 65; cf. Figs 2, 3) typical of that exposed


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Late Quaternary stratigraphy of Lubbock Lake on the west side of Yellowhouse Draw (line-of-section A-A‘ in Figure 3) in the area of the

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Figure 6 Summary of the cultural chronology, geological history, and inferred climatic history of Lubbock Lake. ‘Occupations ID’d’ indicates the age range and cultures for which archaeological occurrences have been identified.


deliberate breakage of elements through percussion on an anvil that then received little to no modification beyond the fracture prior to use. This class of bone tools i s identified on the basis of use-wear characteristics and not fracture morphology (Johnson, 1985). The opening of mammoth limb elements involved deliberate breakage through percussion on an anvil of intact fresh long bones that produced a number of large segments by radial fracture. Two caliche boulders were found surrounded by bone fracturing debris and opened mammoth limb elements (Fig. 7).

The presence of Arctodus simus (giant short-face bear) and Holmesina septentrionale (giant armadillo) mark the first documented occurrence of these animals with man and man’s utilisation of them as a food source as indicated by cut marks, impact scars, and other evidence of deliberate bone breakage (Fig. 8a). The proximal end of a radius of the bear has been used as a fracture-based utilitarian tool (Fig. 8b-c) as indicated by flaking, edge rounding, and striations covered by a localised and restricted polish (Johnson, 1985; Johnson and Shipman, 1986). The 1 1 1 OOyr BP age provides the youngest reliable date on these species (cf. Lundelius et a/., 1983; Anderson, 1984) and supersedes the ages cited for the Lubbock Lake material in Mead and Meltzer (1 984), Meltzer and Mead (1 983, 1985), and Anderson (1 984).

Post-depositional disturbance to the bone bed occurred. Bone orientation data (Kreutzer, 1988) showed that bones were realigned; but the stream velocity and competency data indicated that neither the large caliche boulders nor the megafaunal limb elements could have been transported in by the stream (Kreutzer, 1986; Johnson et a/., 1987). Stream velocity and competency data were based on grain size analysis of sediment samples and demonstrated that the stream was competent to transport particles no larger than 2cm (Kreutzer, 1986). Less than 5% of the total bone assemblage was affected by carnivore modification.

The vertebrate local fauna was a disharmonious one, that is, without a modern analogue (Semken, 1974). Among the extant fauna, three areas of sympatry occurred (Johnson, 1986, 1987~). Extralimital faunal components came from the Northern Plains, Southeast (Louisiana), and the Trans-Pecos area. An equitable, humid, maritime palaeoclimate with a lower mean annual temperature than today is inferred. A winter rainfall pattern, coupled with mild winters that did not maintain freezing conditions and cool summers, more effective moisture regime, lower evaporation rate, and greater humidity than today are also implied. Environmental data from microvertebrates, invertebrates, palaeobotany, and geomorphology (Johnson, 1986, 1987~) suggested that the site and draw environs were a parkland, with isolated or occasional stands of hackberry and other deciduous trees. Wet meadow grasses (pooid and panicoid) and sedge beds along the waterway graded into a dryer mixed-grass prairie on the valley floor.

The excavated post-Clovis Paleoindian occupations occur in stratum 2 along the valley axis of the draw (Holliday, 1985c, 1987). The valley-axis lithofacies of stratum 2 includes two substrata: 2A and 2B. Substratum 2A (0.5-1 .Om thick) conformably overlies stratum 1 and contains beds of pure diatomite that represent periods of standing water with interbedded peaty muds with few diatoms but abundant phytoliths representing marshy conditions with water at or just below the surface. Substratum 28 ( 0 . 6 1 .Om thick) overlies 2A, conformably in some areas, unconformably in others. This substratum consists of a homogeneous deposit of organic-rich silt and clay and represents a slowly aggrading marsh with little to no standing water. Substrata 2s and 2e are lithofaciesof both 2A and 28 (Fig. 5). Substratum 2s is a sandy shore deposit found in a narrow zone along the valley margins. Substratum 2e is a sandy aeolian

deposit with some slopewash and interbedded marsh sediments found along the outer valley margin (to the west and south) (Holliday, 1985a).

The Firstview Soil formed in the upper part of stratum 2. Along the valley axis (in 2B), i t was a marsh soil (probably some variety of Histosol), formed under high organic-matter and high water table (reducing) conditions. Abundant silicified root remains were found in surface horizons. Along the valley margins (in 2e), the soil was calcareous and considerably better drained, reflecting the lithofacies change in the parent material and higher topographic position (Holliday, 1985b).

Deposition of stratum 2 began about 11 OOOyr BP and 2A-2B transition occurred about 1 O000yr BP. Aggradation of 28 ceased about 8500yr BP and the Firstview Soil formed on a stable surface from about 8500 to about 6400yr BP (Holliday, 1985a).

Later Paleoindian occupations are found throughout stratum 2 (Holliday, 1987). The major subsistence pursuit was bison hunting but muskrats and puddle ducks were harvested around the ponds and served as food sources (as evidenced by cut lines on limb elements) throughout the later Paleoindian period. Folsom (1 0500 to 10300yr BP) occupation is represented by a series of bison kills around the marshy edges of the ponds of substratum 2A. Each kill is of a small cow-calf herd (up to 6 animals) and the animals were butchered on the spot using both stone and bone tools of a non-formalised, expedient nature. Stone tools were either retouched or utilised amorphous flakes. Fracture-based utilitarian bone tools were produced in the kill/butchering locale and the debris and tools were discarded at the locale. Bones from an individual bison carcass were stacked in piles representing butchering units (Fig. 9). Folsom points were resharpened for use as butchering tools (Johnson and Holliday, 1987).

Evidence for Plainview (10000yr BP) occupation occurs at the 2A-2B contact and is characterised by the continuation of kills of small herds of bison around the marshy edges of ponds and the clustering of bones in distinct concentrations. Each bone concentration represents an individual bison instead of distinct butchering units. Resharpened Plainview points for use as butchering tools, fracture-based utilitarian bone tools, and amorphous flakes constitute the butchering tool kit (Johnson and Holliday, 1980).

Firstview (8600yr BP) peoples continued to hunt and butcher small herds of bison at the edge of the marshlands in upper stratum 28. Bone concentrations and the stacking of elements continued (Fig. lo), but the amount of carcass processingvaried from complete disarticulation to stages of semiarticulation. Bone fracturing was minimal and fracture-based utilitarian tools were rare. Amorphous stone flake tools were the primary component of the butchering tool kit and projectile points continued to be reused as butchering tools (Johnson and Holliday, 1981).

An accelerated warming trend, greater seasonality, increased annual temperature fluctuation, and widespread extinctions marked the biotic and ecosystemic end of late Pleistocene and the beginning of early Holocene conditions (Johnson, 1986, 1987~) . Higher mean annual temperatures and warmer summers prevailed with winter temperatures experiencing sustained below-freezing periods. These conditions reflected a less equitable climate than in the late Pleistocene but one st i l l more ameliorated than today. The vertebrate local fauna remained a disharmonious one primarily of extant fauna and the areas of sympatry shifted closer to the Southern High Plains (Johnson, 1986). The Northern Plains component was split into two areas, northwest out of the mountain-plains ecotonal area of Colorado and northeast off the open plains. This split reflected a greater Plains faunal constituency than in the

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LUBBOCK LAKE: LATE QUATERNARY CULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE O N THE SOUTHERN HIGH PLAINS, USA 153

Figure 8 removal; arrow (b) indicates location of closeup. B: closeup of fractured edge interpreted as the tool bit of a fracture-based utilitarian tool; note the utilisation flaking and the differential polish covering the flaking; arrow (c) indicates the location of the scanning electron microscopy (SEMI photomicrograph in C. C: SEM photomicrograph of tool bit showing polishing, rounding, and striae of microsurface.

Radius (proximal end) of Arcrodus simus (short-faced bear). A: arrow (a) indicates deep cut lines from butchering process or periosteal

previous period. Around 10500yr BP, the southeastern area of sympatry was Coastal Texas whereas by 1 OOOOyr BP, it shifted to Northcentral Texas.

By 9000yr BP, an increase in aeolian deposition occurred, thought to be due to a reduction in vegetation cover brought about by drying (Holliday, 1985a, 1989). While the vertebrate local fauna continued to be disharmonious, by 8600yr BP, the modern ranges of most extant fauna were established in the area. By this time, the southeastern area of sympatry en- compassed Lubbock and reflected the end of pluvial conditions and initiation of the modern faunal community (Johnson, 1986, 1987~) .

Environmental data from microvertebrates, invertebrates, palaeobotany, and geomorphology suggested that the site and draw environs were a savannah (open grasslands) during the later Paleoindian period at the expense of the previous parkland ecotone (Johnson, 1986, 1987~) . Wet meadow grasses (pani- wid) and sedge beds around the axial ponds at 10500yr BP graded into dryer mixed grasslands along the valley floor. Scattered deciduous trees grew on the draw slopes and around the ponds. The local fauna at l000Oyr BP reflected an extension of the Rolling Plains (Fig. 1) biota into the eastern draws. Wet meadow grasses (pooid and panicoid) and sedge beds continued around the ponds, grading into the mixed grasslands. The valley floor by 8600yr BP was a wet-meadow

marshland (pooid, panicoid, and chloricoid grasses and sedge beds) that graded into a mixed-grass prairie. Temperate (C4) grasses were well established (Stafford, 1984). Trees were rare but some brushland existed. Yearly precipitation or effective moisture was decreasing with a shift away from the previously established rainfall pattern and maximum summer temperatures were rising. Periodic summer droughts and shallow surface-water resources marked the end of the pluvial period and the beginning of the trend toward modern climatic conditions (Johnson, 1986, 1987~) .

Archaic (850S2000yr BP)

Archaic cultural remains at Lubbock Lake were found in substratum 2eand throughout strata 3 and 4 (Fig. 5). Substratum 2e, a sandy aeolian deposit, began accumulating in Paleo- indian times. Deposition of aeolian sands covered an increas- ingly larger area of the site but ceased shortly before about 6400yr BP allowing formation ofa weak varient of the Firstview Soil.

Early Archaic (8500 to 6400yr BP) material was recovered from substratum 2e (Johnson and Holliday, 1986; Holliday, 1987). Only one archaeological occurrence, that o f a kill/ butchering locale, was tested for this time period. The practice of huntingand butchering small herdsof bison appeared to have

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Piece-point plotted map of an Early Archaic (ca. 8000yr BPI bison kill/butchering locale; note the concentration of elements from

continued near the axial marsh. At the locale (Fig. 11 1, a bone concentration representing several individual bison consisted of articulated to semiarticulated segments that indicated butchering units. Neither stone nor bone butchering tools were recovered, although numerous resharpening flakes indicated the use of several stone tools.

During this time, the continued decrease in available moisture and humidity levels reflected the intensification of the warming and drying trend, the probable shift in rainfall pattern, and more marked seasonality. Accumulating aeolian sediments suggested a reduction in vegetation cover, periods of blowing dust, and dryer conditions (Holliday, 1985a). A freshwater marsh persisted in the valley axis surrounded by a treeless mixed-grass prairie. Sedge beds and wet meadows were absent (Johnson, 1987~).

Stratum 3 (0.3-1 .Om) is conformable on stratum 2 and is composed of a moderately calcareous, sandy aeolian deposit along the western valley margin (3e) and a highly calcareous, silty lacustrine unit found along the valley axis (31) (Fig. 5). Stratum 3 represents an alkaline lake or marsh along the valley floor (31) with considerable aeolian sedimentation along the valley margin (3e) (Holliday, 1985a). The Yellowhouse Soil has formed in stratum 3 under marshy, high water table conditions along the valley axis and better drained conditions along the valley margin (Holliday, 1985b). Stratum 3 deposition and

formation of the Yellowhouse Soil occurs between about 6400 to as late as 5000yr BP. The beginning age of soil formation is unknown.

Stratum 4 is composed of alluvial and marsh deposits (4A) found only along the valley axis and a sandy aeolian deposit (48) with a clayey marsh lithofacies (41) found along the valley axis (Holliday, 1985b). The Lubbock Lake Soil has formed in substratum 46 under well-drained conditions and is well- developed with prominent A and B horizons and often multiple calcic horizons (Holliday, 1985~) .

Deposition of 4A occurred between 5500 and 5000yr BP and 4B between 5000 and 4500yr BP. Substratum 4lwas deposited during this time and throughout formation of the Lubbock Lake Soil. The soil began formingaround 4500yr BP. Where stratum 4 was buried by stratum 5, pedogenesis ceased a little less than lOOOyr BP. Where stratum 4 was not buried, formation of the Lubbock Lake Soil continues today (Holliday, 1985a, 1985~).

Middle Archaic (6400 to 4500yr BP) remains are found in substrata 3e, 4A and 48. Despite harsh conditions, relatively intensive occupation continued at Lubbock Lake. At least 28 archaeological occurrences were tested that include camps, bison kilVbutchering locales, and a large pit interpreted as an oven probably used for vegetal processing (Johnson and Holliday, 1986). The oven (Fig. 12) is a largeoval basin (ca. 1 m across and 40cm deep) filled with ash and capped by a layer of


burned caliche cobbles. A broken, worn sandstone metate has been found in the rock covering.

Middle Holocene climatic change is derived from geological and palaeobiological data. Massive aeolian sedimentation during this time (substrata 3e and 48) suggests a reduction in vegetative cover probably due to a decrease in effective moisture (Holliday, 1985a, 1989). Changes in the geochemistry from stratum 2 to stratum 3 also suggest a warming trend (Holliday, 1985b). Two episodes of aridity are represented by substratum 3e (6400-5500yr BP) and 4B (50004500yr BP).

These episodes are separated by a brief 500-year respite of landscape stability (Yellowhouse Soil) and reactivated springs (Holliday, 1985a; Johnson and Holliday, 1986).

Bison dental anomalies from 6400 to 4500yr BP denote poor range conditions due to excess grit on the vegetation. This grit probably is due to large amounts of dust in the air during this time. The vertebrate local fauna basically is a modern one adapted to an open grasslands with some brush. The character of the open grasslands is speculative but probably changed during the Middle Holocene under climatic stress. The Early

I r e d s a n d

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Archaic mixed-grass prairie probably gave way to a desert plains grasslands (first drought) then reverted to a mixed prairie or combination mixed prairie-desert plains grasslands (respite period) followed by another desert plains grasslands (second drought) (Johnson and Holliday, 1986; Johnson, 1987~).

The Mexican pocket gopher (Crafogeornys castenops) i s the most arid-adapted of the pocket gophers, and only recently has been extending its range back onto the Southern High Plains (Johnson, 1987~). Its presence from 6400 to 4500yr BP denotes arid conditions and, coupled with the extensive, thick, aeolian deposits, signifies a marked regional drying period during that time. This period is known as the Altithermal (Antevs, 1955; Holliday, 1985a, 1989).

Late Archaic (4500 to 2000yr BP) materials are found within the A horizon of the Lubbock Lake Soil. Because this A horizon represents a stable land surface that existed well into the Ceramic period, Late Archaic and later materials may be mixed (Johnson and Holliday, 1986; Holliday 1987). Occupation surfaces are denoted by scattered burned caliche from disturbed hearths, broken stone tools, and stone flakingdebris that appear to represent camping events.

After about 4500yr BP, the climate ameliorated and returned to cooler and more moist conditions. A stable vegetation cover returned, little wind erosion occurred, and aeolian sedimentation ceased. The landscape stability indicated by the formation of the Lubbock Lake Soil heralded the establishment of essentially modern conditions. The vertebrate local fauna was a modern one adapted to an open grasslands, that of a mixed- grass prairie. Range conditions improved and extensive, freshwater marshlands returned to the valley axis with occasional hardwood trees found in the draws.

Ceramic (2000 to 500yr BP)

Ceramic-age material i s found in upper substratum 4Iand latest ceramic artifacts come from lower substratum 5A (Holliday, 1987). Substratum 5A (up to 75cm thick) is composed of slopewash sand and gravel and aeolian sand. It i s found only to the west and south of the reservoir cut. Substratum SAI is a lowland lacustrine lithofacies of 5A and is identical litho- logically to 4land of wider areal extent. Deposition of 5A began around 750 to 600yr BP (AD 1200 to AD 1350) and continues into the Protohistoric period. Archaeological material from the Ceramic period also i s found in the A horizon of the Lubbock Lake Soil. Cultural debris left during this time would have been deposited on the surface of the soil, and except for diagnostic artifacts, would be inseparable and indistinguishable from Archaic remains left on the surface.

The earlier Ceramic period (2000 to lOOOyr BP) at Lubbock Lake i s represented by a camping area in substratum 51 consisting of scattered stone tools and debris and modern bison remains around a hearth (Kelley, 1974, p.77). The later Ceramic Period in the region is characterised by a mixture of Plains stone tools (from the northeastern Plains) and Puebloan pottery (from the desert southwest) and dates about 750 to 500yr BP (AD 1200 to 1450) (Spielman, 1982, 1983). Later Ceramic-age occupation levels at Lubbock Lake lack pottery but radiocarbon ages, stratigraphic position, and lithic tool types place them in this time period.

Game animal (modern bison, pronghorn antelope, wolf, coyote) processing stations located along the edge of the marsh (in substratum 5AI) in serial stratigraphic position are the main archaeological occurrence during this period. A low number of individuals per species (from 1 to 3) were processed in each station exposed. The most common bison elements recovered are vertebrae, carpals, tarsals, ribs, and phalanges. Bison bones are involved with marrow and grease production and long

bones are present in the form of proximal and distal ends or broken diaphyseal sections. Fracture-based utilitarian bone tools and amorphous stone flake tools constitute the tool kit.

Climatically, ameliorated conditions of the Late Archaic period continued into the Ceramic period until about lOOOyr BP. A pattern of episodic drought began about 1000yr BP that continues today. Although the basic modern continental climate was established about 4500yr BP, the pattern of episodic drought indicates minor departures towards some aridity through increased temperatures and decreased effective moisture. The vertebrate local fauna is a modern one, primarily reflecting the semiarid environment of the later Ceramic period, and i s indicative of a short-grass prairie that dominated the draw. Bullrush (Scirpus sp.) grows along the wet meadow- marshland complex in the valley axis (Johnson, 1987~).

Protohistoric (500 to 300 BP)

Protohistoric material is found in substrata 5A and 5A/ (Hol- liday, 1987). Deposition of substratum 5A began in Ceramic times and ended by about 450yr BP. The Apache Soil, a well-drained, weakly to moderately developed soil, formed subsequently in 5A. Locally, 5A was buried beginning about 300yr BP. Where not buried, the Apache Soil is still developing today. Substratum 5A/ probably continued to be deposited throughout Protohistoric times (Holliday, 1985a, 1985~).

Multiple, stratified Protohistoric period archaeological occurrences are found in middle to upper substratum 5A (valley margin camping areas) and in 5AI (valley axis processing stations) and are characterised by a particular point type known as Garza. The camps generally contain unlined or caliche cobble-lined hearths, stylised stone and bone tools, small animal food refuse, and marrow and grease-processed bison bones. Large-game processing stations (Fig. 13) contain the butchered and marrow-processed remains of bison, pronghorn antelope, wolf, and coyote; amorphous stone flake tools and fracture-based utilitarian bone tools; and stylised lithic tools such as keeled scrapers and projectile points. Pottery is found only in the A horizon of the Apache Soil. One type is a thick-walled, grog-and-grit tempered, brushed or corncob- impressed, utility ware; the other is a thin-walled, mica- tempered, plain body, utility ware (Johnson eta/., 1977).

The vertebrate local fauna continued to be a modern one indicative of short-grass prairie. The marshland complex was extensive and bullrush stands were widespread. Hackberry, native walnut, and mesquite grew along the valley floor and slopes. The local environs were those of a mesquite savannah surrounding a riparian marshlands. Periods of aeolian sedimentation followed by periods of landscape stability (represented by substrata 5A and 5B and their associated soils) are indicative of the episodic drought pattern that continues today (Holliday, 1985a). Although these droughts appear not to have been severe enough to alter the modern faunal communities, they were severe enough to cause vegetation denuding and surface erosion leading to deposition and alteration of the landscape (Holliday, 1985a). The continued presence of extensive surface water, however, probably tempered the effects of the drought on humans and animals.

Historic (300 to 50yr BP)

Historic material i s found in substra 58 and SBI. These deposits are directly above and identical in lithology and mode of origin to 5A and 5A/. Substratum 5B is separated from 5A by the Apache Soil. The principal difference between the units is that 5B i s thinner (up to 25 cm) and found over a more restricted area than 5A. Substratum 581 is difficult to differentiate from 5AI in

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the absence of diagnostic artifacts or radiometric age control. Deposition of 58 and 581 began as the Historic period began about 300yr BP (AD 1650). Deposition of 58 ceased and the Singersoil, a weaklydeveloped soil, began to form about lOOyr BP (AD 1850) and continues information today. Deposition of 5BI continued into the 20th century (Holliday, 1985a, 1985~).

The Lubbock Lake Historic period i s divided into an earlier Aboriginal Historic and later Anglo-European Historic, reflecting the different major occupations of the region. Aboriginal Historic archaeological occurrences (AD 1650 to 1876) are found in substratum 58 and 581. Anglo-European Historic archaeological occurrences (AD 1876 to 1900) are found in the A horizon of the Singer Soil and uppermost 581 (Holliday, 1987).

The Historic period is marked by theappearance of European trade goods and remains of modern horse (fquus caballus). Multiple, stratified aboriginal archaeological occurrences include both camping areas (valley margin) and large-game processing stations (valley axis) characterised by the same types of materials and patterns as in the Protohistoric period. However, Garza points were replaced by Washita points and modern horse was added as a food resource (Johnson, 1987b). Although marrow processing occurs during the later Ceramic, this practice increased through time and intensified during the Historic Aboriginal period. Bone fragmentation and com- minution indicative of grease processing also increased in extent over that seen in the Ceramic and Protohistoric stations. A much more complete to exhaustive use of bone nutritional resources indicates an orientation toward increasing dietary fat production. This need appears tied to the episodic drought pattern (Holliday, 1985a; johnson, 1987b). Tool kits in the processing stations included amorphous stone flake tools, fracture-based utilitarian bone tools from elements of both bison and modern horse, and stylised stone tools such as keeled scrapers and projectile points.

European occupation of the area by the late 1800’s was by buffalo hunters and US military units, followed by traders and settlers. Singer Store (AD 1881 to 18861, the first commercial establishment in Lubbock County, traditionally i s placed at Lubbock Lake (Holden, 1974) but its exact location and the locations of its refuse dumps are unknown. Materials relating to the various Anglo-European occupations (square nails, tin cans, buttons, heavy calibre rifle shell casing, ginger beer bottles) appear randomly dispersed and discrete occupation surfaces are unknown.

The vertebrate local fauna reflects the modern faunal community prior to major European impact from settlement and urbanisation. It represents a continued short grass prairie with some brushlands in the draw. Hackberry, native walnut, and cottonwood or willow grew along the valley axis. The mesquite savannah surrounding the riparian marshlands continued as did the widespread axial stands of bullrush. The episodic drought pattern persisted with drought intervals of less duration (but not necessarily of less intensity) than previously.

Summary discussion

The Southern High Plains remained a grasslands throughout the last 11 100 years (albeit its character and faunal communities changed) and neither man nor bison abandoned the region. The late Pleistocene and early Holocene faunas are characterised by exotic and extralimital species that underscore the concept that modern analogies for these communities are not available. No one place-environment-climatic regime today duplicates con-

ditions on the Southern High Plains at this time (ca. 12000 to 8500yr BP) and the communites existing under these conditions, including those of people, are extinct ones.

At Lubbock Lake, the Clovis-age (1 1 1OOyr BP) occupation was limited to economic pursuits along point bars of a meandering stream. Economic activities involved the use of a variety of game animals and were focused on secondary butchering and deliberate bone breakage for marrow and tool use. The post-Clovis Paleoindian occupants continued economic pursuits in a riparian setting, concentrating on bison as the major game animal. Economic activities were focused on acquiring meat and the deliberate breakage of bone for tool use.

Fracture-based utilitarian tools are a major bone technological tradition throughout the record at Lubbock Lake. The exploitation of bone as a raw material for this type of tool (minimal modification beyond the fractured-edge prior to use) focuses primarily on large ungulates. Bone appears as an alternate tool material resource to stone for utilitarian tools used in butchery. Its continued use at the site appears coincident with the lack of fine-quality stone resources in the area (Johnson, 1985). This lack of stone resources is further underscored, particularly in the Paleoindian period, by the practice of resharpening and reusing of projectile points as butchering tools and the general conservancy of stone tools (Johnson and Holliday, 1981, 1987). The strategy of having two inter- changeable tool materials would allow greater flexibility in coping with a tool resource shortage.

The Paleoindian period generally i s characterised by a major climatic change at the end of the Pleistocene. Another climatic shift around 8500yr BP heralded the end of pluvial conditions, increased warming and drying conditions, and the trans- formation towards both a different ecosystem and cultural lifestyle. The immediately preceding local fauna (Firstview local fauna) reflects a more modern community than a pluvial- related one and C4 grasses were well established. The selecti- vity of meat cuts and increased use of high dietary fat animals such as muskrats and puddle ducks by Firstview peoples (8600yr BP) may be seen as a strategy to balance a lean meat diet brought on by climatic stress. The dependence on plant foods as a major Archaic subsistence strategy may have its beginnings for this region in the Firstview culture coping with the end of pluvial conditions.

During the Archaic (8500 to 2000yr BP), open grasslands dominated the draws. The Early Archaic (8500 to 6400yr BP) was a transitional period climatically in that conditions represented a drying trend that led to the aridity of the middle Holocene. It was a semiarid setting of much less available moisture than the pluvial conditionsof the preceding period but more mesic than the succeedingone. The middle Archaic (6400 to 4500yr BP) was the time of the middle Holocene drought known as the Altithermal (Holliday, 1982, 1985a, 1989; Johnson and Holliday, 1986) characterised by considerable aeolian deposition and the presence of the Mexican pocket gopher. A 500-year period of respite occurred between the droughts.

By the Late Archaic (4500 to 2000yr BP), the climate had ameliorated with a return to more mesic conditions and a stable landscape. The Lubbock Lake Archaic record (Johnson and Holliday, 1986) indicates a continued human and animal presence in the area, even during the most severe drought conditions. At least 38 discrete archaeological occurrences were identified from throughout this period (Johnson and Holliday, 1986). This record demonstrates that at least this area was not abandoned during the middle Holocene drought, probably because water was always available (Holliday, 1985a, 1989). Occupation levels are denoted by hearths and camping debris, bison bone beds, and an oven. Bison kill/


butchering locales indicate that bison hunting persisted. But a mixed economy with the systematic incorporation of plant foods in the subsistence base is attested to by metates and an oven for plant cooking (Johnson and Holliday, 1986; Johnson, 1987b).

Basically, the modern semiarid climate has existed for the past 4500 years with minor departures towards some aridity. Although i t is difficult to determine the exact nature of the departures, increased temperature, decreased effective moisture, or both were involved. Progressively less areal extent and thickness of deposits are involved, indicating less duration or less severityof drought or both. Coincident aeolian activity in dune fields record the same events (Holliday, 1985d).

Small-scale bison hunting continued in the Ceramic through the Aboriginal Historic periods but a broader meat subsistense base developed. The activity at Lubbock Lake focused on secondary by-products in the large-game processing stations and marrow extraction and grease rendering increased through time. Bone and stone tools of an informal, expedient nature continued to dominate the tool kits. Camping events are numerous and prepared hearths may indicate extended stays. These aboriginal activities came to an end as Europeans (buffalo hunters and then settlers) began to use the area.

Making geological, environmental, or cultural correlations throughout any region always has pitfalls and can be mislead- ing. Such risks, however, are probably fewer for the Southern High Plains than almost any other region in the country because of the flat topography, l ow environmental gradients, and uniform regional geology. Similarities in cultural and late Quaternary stratigraphic and environmental records have been recognised and documented for several localities (Sellards, 1952; Sellards and Evans, 1960; Hester, 1972; Haynes, 1975; Stafford, 1981 ; Holliday, 1975d, 1985e, 1989).

Lubbock Lake has thick, well-stratified deposits and associated soils that provide an almost complete late Quaternary geologic and natural history record of environmental change. The excellent geological sequence holds evidence of successive cultures and changing lifestyles, from late Pleistocene (Clovis times) continuing through to the founding of Lubbock in the latter part of the 19th century. This remarkable sequence i s enhanced further by the excellent age control available. This sequence, then, provides the basic framework for the prehistory of the Southern High Plains.

Acknowledgments The authors are indebted to Joe Ben Wheat (University of Colorado Museum) and Glen L. Evans (Austin, Texas) for their continuing encouragement and sharing of their knowledge of Lubbock Lake, archaeology, and late Quaternary research in general; to Paola Villa (University of Colorado) for her review and constructive criticism of this manuscript; and to Pat Shipman (The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore) for the SEM photomicrograph. Any errors, however are those of the authors. On the Museum staff, typing was provided by Linda Lamb and technical assistance by Nicky Olson and Jamye Dee Jones.

This manuscript represents part of the ongoing research of the Lubbock Lake Project into cultural adaptations to ec-ological change on the Southern High Plains. The data base for this research was generated through Lubbock Lake supporting grants and agencies: National Science Foundation (SOC75-14857; BNS76-12006; BNS76-12006- A01; BNS78-1 1 1551, National Geographic Society, Texas Historical Commission (National Register Program), Moody Foundation (Galves- ton), Center for Field Research (EARTHWATCH), City and County of Lubbock, West Texas Museum Association, Institute of Museum Research and the Museum of Texas Tech University, and the Lubbock Lake Landmark Community Volunteers. Excavations are conducted under State of Texas Antiquities Committee Permit for Archeological Investigation No. 36. The documentation and specimens from the WPA, WTM, and LLP excavations are housed in the Anthropology Division of the Museum of Texas Tech University. The materials from

the TMM work are located at the Texas Memorial Museum and Texas Archaeological Research Laboratory, University of Texas (Austin).

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STAFFORD, T. W., Jr. 1981. Alluvial geology and archaeological potential of the Texas southern Plains. American Antiquity, 46, 3,

STAFFORD, T. W., Jr. 1984. Quaternary Stratigraphy, Ceochronology and Carbon Isotope Geology o f Alluvial deposits in the Texas Panhandle. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Arizona, Tucson.

STRAHLER, A. N. and STRAHLER, A. H. 1983. Modern Physical Geography, 2nd edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York.

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2 5 7-2 72.

548-585.

Appendix 1

Summary of archaeological occurrences at Lubbock Lake

Stratigraphic Age Interpreted Game Season of Cultural period unit (C-14 yr BP) activity animals MNI occupation

Historic FA6-14 581 ca. loo?* processing station modern bison

modern horse FA9-3 581 ca. 200-1 OO?* kilVbutchering locale modern bison FA6-19 581 ca. 200-1 OO?* processing station modern bison

modern horse wolf

FA6-1 581 ca. 200 processing station modern bison modern horse pronghorn antelope coyote wolf modern bison modern horse wolf

FA6- 1 0 581 ca. 200* processing station

1 unknown 1 3 unknown 2 unknown 1 1 6 unknown 1 1 1 2 6 unknown 1 2



FA5-2/GA5-4 561

FAl-1 561

GA7-1 56 A Horizon

FA8-1 /GA8-1 56 A Horizon

GA8-11/GA8-2/ 56 A Horizon

GA7-2 56 FA8-9 5B

Singer Soil

Singer Soil

KA8-1 /KA8-2 Singer Soil

Protohistoric GA7-3 5A A Horizon

FA8-7/GA8-3/KA8-3 5A A Horizon

GA7-4 5A A Horizon

Apache Soil

Apache Soil

Apache Soil

FA8-1 O/FA8-12 5A A Horizon

FA15-1 5A FA 1 9-2 5A FA19-1 5A FA8-13/GA8-6 5A FA8-2/GA8-41 5A

apache soil

GA8-5/KA8-4

GA7-5 5A

FA14-1 5A FA4-2 5A FA4-3 5A FA8-6/FA8-3/KA8-5 5A FA8-4/GA8-71KA8-6 5A

GA7-6

FA5-6

Ceramic Late Ceramic GA8-8 FA8-5lKA8-7

5A

5Al

5A 5A

ca. 300-100*

ca. 300-100*

ca. 200-100?*

ca. 200-100?*

ca. 200-loo?*

ca. 300-200* ca. 300-200*

ca. 40&300*

ca. 400-300*

ca. 400-300*

ca. 400-300*

ca. 320 ca. 350 ca. 350-300* ca. 400* ca. 400*

ca. 400

ca. 400 ca. 500-400* ca. 5OWOO* ca. 500 ca. 500*

ca. 500-300*

ca. 500-300*

ca. 700* ca. 700*

processing station

processing station

camp?

camp

camp

camp camp

camp

camp

camp

camp

hearth hearth camp camp camp with hearth

camp with hearth

hearth camp hearth camp with hearth camp

camp

processing station

camp with hearth camp

modern bison modern horse pronghorn antelope coyote wolf modern bison modern horse pronghorn antelope coyote wolf none

none

modern bison pronghorn antelope modern bison modern bison

modern bison

modern bison pronghorn antelope modern bison pronghorn antelope coyote none

none none none modern bison modern bison pronghorn antelope wolf modern bison wolf coyote none none none modern bison modern bison pronghorn antelope coyote wolf badger jackrabbit cottontail rattlesnake modern bison wolf coyote modern bison pronghorn antelope coyote wolf

modern bison modern bison coyote

5 4 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1

NA

NA

1 1 1 1

1

1 1 3 1 1

NA

NA NA NA

1 2 1 1 3 1 1

NA NA NA

1 16+ 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 6 1 1 1

2 2 1

unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown unknown unknown unknown fal l?

unknown

unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown

unknown

early spring?

unknown unknown


~~~ ~


KA8-8 FA8-8 GA8-9/KA8-9 FA1 -2

FA1 -3

Early Ceramic

+Early Ceramic/ Late Archaic

KA14-1

FA8-14

GA8-1 OlKA8-10

KA8-11

WA23-21

Archaic Late Archaic GA8-11/KA8-12

GA7-7

FA8-15

GA7-8

Middle Archaic FA1 6-1 WA23-20 WA23-19 WA23-18 WA23-17 WA23-16 WA23-15 WA23-14 WA23-13 WA23-12 WA23-11 WA23-10 WA23-9 WA23-8 WA23-7 WA23-6 WA23-5 WA23-4 FA6-2 1 FA5-4 TMM Station E FA5-9 GA12-1 GA4-1 WA23-3 WA23-2

Early Archaic FA4-1/GA4-1

5A ca. 700* camp 5A . ca. 700* camp 5A ca. 700* camp 5Al ca. 700* processing station

41 ca. 1000 processing station

51 ca. 2000-1000* camp

48 A Horizon ca. 4500-1 OOO* camp? Lubbock Lake Soil 48 A Horizon ca. 4500-1 OOO* camp Lubbock Lake Soil 48 A Horizon ca. 4500-1 OOO* camp Lubbock Lake Soil 48 A Horizon ca. 4500-1 OOO* camp? Lubbock Lake Soil

46 A Horizon ca. 4500-2000* Lubbock Lake Soil 48 A Horizon ca. 4500-2000* Lubbock Lake Soil 48 A Horizon ca. 4500-2000* Lubbock Lake Soil 48 ca. 4500

48 46 46 48 48 48 48 46 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 46 46 4A 4A 4A 31 31 31 3e 3e

ca. 4800 ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5000-4500* ca. 5500-5000* ca. 5500-5000* ca. 5500-5000* ca. 640&5000* ca. 6400-5000* ca. 6400-5000* ca. 6400-5000' ca. 6400-5000*

2e ca. 8000

camp

camp?

camp?

camp?

oven camp? hearth hearth camp camp camp camp camp camp camp camp? camp camp camp camp camp camp camp?

modern bison none modern bison modern bison pronghorn antelope coyote wolf modern bison pronghorn antelope coyote wolf

modern bison

none

none

none

none

none

modern bison

none

none

none none modern bison none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none none

kill/butchering locale? modern bison kilVbutchering locale modern bison unknown pronghorn antelope camp none camp none camp none camp none

1 NA

1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

1

NA

NA

NA NA

1 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

1 1 o+

1 NA NA NA NA

unknown unknown unknown fall?

unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown

unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown summer to fall? unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown

k i Wbutchering locale extinct bison 4 fall?

LUBBOCK LAKE: LATE QUATERNARY CULTURAL A N D ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ON THE SOUTHERN HIGH PLAINS, USA 165

Stratigraphic Age Interpreted Game Season of Cultural Deriod unit (C-14 yr BP) activity an i ma Is MNI occuDation

Paleoindian + Firstview/ Early Archaic? GA12-2

CAI 2-3

FA5-8 & 1 O/GA5-1

Firstview FA6-3

GA5-2

Unknown CAI 2-4 FA5-7/GA5-3

Plain view FA5-12 FA5-17 FA9-1 FA6-11 GA12-5

unknown FA6-15

Folsorn FA6-8

Clovis-age FA2-2 FA2-1

28 A Horizon Firstview Soil




28

28 28

2s 2s 2s 28 28

2A

2A

1B 1B-1A contact

ca. 8600-6400*

ca. 8600-6400*

ca. 8600-6400*

ca. 8600

ca. 8600

ca. 8600*

ca. 9000* ca. 9100

ca. 9800 ca. 10000 ca. 10000 ca. 9900 ca. 10000*

ca. lOOOO*

ca. 10300

ca. 11 100* ca. 11 100

camp? extinct bison pronghorn antelope jackrabbit cottontail badger coyote

pronghorn antelope jackrabbit cottontai I coyote

camp? extinct bison

kilVbutchering locale extinct bison

kill/butchering locale extinct bison

camp or processing pronghorn antelope area jackrabbit

cottontail ma I I a rd cinnamon teal gadwall pintail grouse

kill/butchering locale? extinct bison

camp? none kill/butchering locale extinct bison

kilVbutchering locale extinct bison kill/butchering locale extinct bison kill/butchering locale extinct bison kilVbutchering locale extinct bison kilVbutchering locale extinct bison



kill/butchering locale extinct bison processing station mammoth

extinct horse extinct camel short-face bear giant armadillo pond turtle extinct box turtle soft-shell turtle w i Id turkey

2 spring? 1 1+ 1+ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

7

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

NA 6

4 3 5 6 3

1

3

3 3 2 1 1 1 1 + 1 + 1 + 1

spring?

unknown

early spring

early spring?

unknown

unknown early spring?

unknown unknown spring? early spring early spring?

unknown

fall-winter

unknown unknown

+no diagnostics or radiocarbon age *no radiocarbon age; age estimate based on stratigraphic correlation MNI minimum number of individuals Pleasenote: Feature numbers under the column ‘Cultural period’ are distinctive and maintained from one field season to the next. The feature designation combines an abbreviation for feature (F if excavated by the Lubbock Lake Project or initial of last name of previous investigator, e.g. W = Wheat). The term ‘feature’ i s applied to sets of artifacts, bone refuse, and other finds that are spatially and stratigraphically associated thus forming significant units of analysis. These configurations can be of a different nature, size, and complexity. In the Old World, an alternative and more common designation is ‘archaeological occurrence.’

Documents

Lubbock Lake: Late Quaternary cultural and environmental change on the Southern High Plains, USA