09/09/2019 1

Searching for the Invisible Variables/Factors of

Human behavior/condition and Destiny

© Dr. Francis Adu-Febiri, 2019

MAKING SOCIOLOGY A SCIENCE:

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH AND THE

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

SCIENTISTS: “Seeing is believing” (FACTFULNESS)

09/09/2019 2

Contents of Presentation

1. Introduction:

– Smarter Than Chimpanzees?

– Sociological Conclusions

– Central Question, Main Thesis, and Main Argument

– Major Concepts of Sociological Research

2. Why sociological research?

3. Types and aims of sociological research

4. Sociological research: the big picture

5. Research Processes: Positivistic Framework: Scientific Method:

Correlation and Causation

6. Research Processes: Interpretive Framework

7. Triangulation: The Fusion Approach

8. Elements and concepts of Research

9.The challenges of sociological research

10. Summary and Conclusion

09/09/2019 3

MOTIVATE– Why we should we care about sociological

research

Are you smarter than a chimpanzee?© Hans Rosling (2018): Factfulness

Where does the majority of the world population

live?

A: low-income countries

B: middle-income countries

C: high-income countries

There are 2 billion children in the world today,

aged 0 to 15 years old. How many children will

there be in the year 2100 according to the United

Nations?

A: 4 billion

B: 3 billion

C: 2 billion09/09/2019 4

FACTFUL

FACTFUL

Are you smarter than a chimpanzee?© Hans Rosling (2018):Factfulness

Worldwide, 30-year-old men have spent 10 years

in school, on average. How many years have

women of the same age spent in school?

A: 9 years

B: 6 years

C: 3 years

In all low-income countries across the world

today, how many girls finish primary school?

A: 20 per cent

B: 40 per cent

C: 60 per cent09/09/2019 5

FACTFUL

FACTFUL

Introduction: What are your responses to

the following sociological conclusions?http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2199PPD8fRw

– Suicide is not caused by depression

– Famine is not caused by drought

– War is not caused by territorial greed

– Economic success is not caused by hard work

– Marriage is not caused by love

– Rape is not caused by depraved lust

– Child abuse is not caused by mentally sick people

FACTFULNESS

Introduction: Sociological Conclusions

Using Scientific Research in investigating the social world

helps sociology to draw conclusions that show

CAUSALITY and distinguish them from conclusions (as

found in the previous slide) that show CORRELATION but

not CAUSALITY:

– E.G. Visible phenomena such as depression and suicide may have

some correlation (association or relationship), but this does not

mean that depression causes suicide.

• There are so many people who are depressed but don’t commit suicide; there

are many people who commit suicide although they’re not depressed.

• CAUSALITY & CORRELATION: The sociological reasoning is that

INVISIBLE social phenomena cause VISIBLE social phenomena.

Visible social phenomena does not cause visible social phenomena.

Visible social phenomena may only CORRELATE (relate or associate).

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Introduction: Sociological Conclusions

x

Y

X relates/associates with Y = Correlation

X causes/explains/predicts Y = Causality

Introduction: Sociological Conclusions

Solutions to social problems and designing

programs to effectively improve lives are

derived from accurate DATA or factual

information (empirical evidence) based on

the sociological research’s discovery of

CAUSALITY not mere CORRELATION.

• Discovery of CAUSALITY is the foundation of

Applied Sociology (sociological work that

focuses on creating intervention

programs/projects to solve social problems).

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Introduction: Central Question and

Main Thesis of Lecture 2

CENTRAL QUESTION:

– Why do sociologists do research and why do they use the strategies/processes they use?

MAIN THESIS (Proposed Answer):

– Ultimately, sociologists do research to produce DATA (accurate factual information or empirical evidence) that may help identify causality [not mere correlation]. In order to achieve this goal they use credible and ethical methodologies, including the Scientific Method, that minimize bias and overcome unscientific thinking.

?

=

Introduction: Main Argument

(Amplified Thesis)

MAIN ARGUMENT:Sociologists use credible and ethical quantitative (positivistic) and/or qualitative (interpretive) research methodologies, processes, methods/designs and techniques to systematically collect, analyze, display, and interpret DATA to show empirical evidence about social regularity, including causality [not mere correlation] for the following three purposes:

a) to test theories and construct theories

b) to make visible the unseen social forces that shape human behavior, the human condition, and human destiny

c) to help create social policies and community programs/projects that provide solutions to social problems and improve the human condition and change lives.

Introduction: Main Argument

Illustrated Since it was first founded, many people interested in

sociology have been driven by the scholarly desire to

contribute knowledge to this field [including research that

discovers causality], while others have seen it as way not

only to study/research society, but also to improve

[transform] it. Besides the creation of public health care in

Canada, sociology has played a crucial role in many

important social reforms such as equal opportunity for

women in the workplace, improved treatment for individuals

with mental and learning disabilities, increased recognition

and accommodation for people from different ethnic

backgrounds, the creation of hate crime legislation, the

right of aboriginal populations to preserve their land and

culture, and prison system reforms

(http://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology/chapter/chapt

er1-an-introduction-to-sociology/)

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EXPLORE• To develop awareness and understanding of

concepts and/or theories/paradigms

MAJOR CONCEPTS OF SOCIOLOGICAL

RESEARCH“Concepts or ideas are not as important as the relationships that went

into forming them” (Wilson, 2008, p. 74)

Major Aims of Sociological Research

Types and Purposes of Research: Exploratory, Descriptive,

Explanatory, and Empowerment Research

Variables: Independent (X) and Dependent (Y)

Correlation and Causality

Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research

Deductive Logic and Inductive Logic

Positivistic Research Framework: The Scientific Method

Interpretative Research Framework: Alternative Methods

Research Methods/Designs and Techniques/Instruments

Triangulation or Fusion Research Approach or Mixed Methods

Ethics in Research09/09/2019 14

WHY SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH?

Four Major Reasons:

1. To minimize the chance of drawing

biased conclusions:

In everyday life, believing is seeing. In other words,

in everyday life our biases easily influence our

observations. This often leads us to draw incorrect

conclusions about what we see. In contrast, in

science (similar to philosophy of chimpanzees),

seeing is believing. Scientists, including sociologists,

develop ways of collecting, observing, analyzing and

thinking about DATA or evidence that minimize their

chance of drawing biased conclusions.09/09/2019 15

FACTFULNESS

WHY SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH?

2. To overcome unscientific thinking.

Sociological research seeks to

overcome unscientific thinking such

as tradition, authority, personal

experience, opinion, media myth and

commonsense about human

behavior and the social world.

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WHY SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH?

3. To produce DATA (accurate factual

information or empirical evidence) that

discovers causality and use it to:

– a) make the unseen social forces visible

– b) test social theories

– c) construct social theories

– d) develop social policies

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WHY SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH?

4. To create a solid basis for sustainable

social and community programs/projects

that improve the human condition and

change lives.

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Major Aim, Types and

Purposes of

Sociological Research

A MAJOR AIM OF SOCIAL

RESEARCH

“In large part, social research aims to find

patterns of regularity in social life…social

affairs do exhibit a high degree of regularity

[rhythm, consistency, orderliness] that can be revealed

by research and explained by theory” (Earl

Babbie and Lance Roberts 2018, p. 11)

– “What about Exceptions?”: Social regularities

are probabilistic patterns, and they are no less

real simply because some cases don’t fit the

general pattern (ibid., p. 12). 09/09/2019 20

TYPES AND PURPOSES OF

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

1. To EXPLORE patterns of human behavior and

social worlds: EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

2. To DESCRIBE patterns of human behavior and

social worlds: DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

3. To EXPLAIN/PREDICT patterns of human

behavior and social worlds: EXPLANATORY

RESEARCH

4. To CHANGE patterns of human behavior and

social worlds: EMPOWERMENT RESEARCH

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09/09/2019 22

PURPOSES AND TYPES OF

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

FOCUS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Systematic gathering, analysis

and interpretation of information

to produce Empirical Evidence

EXPLANATORY:To discover

patterns governing

the social world

so as to explain

and/or predict

events.

DESCRIPTIVE: To describe patterns

of data, human behavior, social action,

and social world.

EMPOWERMENT:

To smash patterns

of the myths of

human behavior

and to utilize

patterns in the

social world in

order to empower

people to change

lives and society.

EXPLORATORY:To document patterns of human

behavior, social action, and the social

world that has not been previously

researched.

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QUIZ #1

Kate Weeks is doing research that involves

interviewing victims of identity theft at

Camosun to discover the meaning that

victimization has in their lives with the primary

purpose of helping them to take control of and

move on with their lives. What type of

sociological research would provide more

validity to this project?

a) Empowerment research

b) Exploratory research

c) Explanatory research

d) Descriptive research

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Sociological Research:

The Big Picture

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH:

THE BIG PICTURE

Research involves

– data collection

– data analysis

– display of pattern discovered and interpretation

of the pattern or social regularity revealed.

Data collection methods are designed to detect or

measure social regularities/patterns, while data

analysis techniques are used to specify and

interpret these patterns and theories to explain

them” (Earl Babbie and Lance Roberts 2018, p. 12)09/09/2019 25

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Idea or Topic Research Problem & Questions

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH: DATA COLLECTION PROCESSES

Theory

Hypothesis or

Thesis

METHODOLOGY

Concepts: Abstract Reality

Variables/Factors

MEASUREMENT

of real social regularities

Ethics

Validity Reliability

Research

Methods

Objectivity

Approach

Instruments

Qualitative

Inductive

Quantitative

Deductive

ExperimentSurveyEthnographic Research

Non-reactive Research

Questionnaires & InterviewsObservations & Content Analysis

Positivism, Interpretism,

Attributes

Fusion

Correlations & Causality

Sampling

Inductive Deductive

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STORYLINES OF THE PATTERN OF

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

1. Sociology is a science. Therefore, it is in the business of using the Scientific Research Processes to produce empirical evidence about causation a) to make unseen social forces visible, b) to test and/or construct theories to explain and predict and/or c) to formulate policies and strategies to change/improve human behavior and condition.

2. In order to produce empirical evidence, there is the need for reliable and valid ways of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information or data.

3. To ensure reliability and validity in the production of empirical evidence, there are certain processes/procedures and research decisions/choices that have to be made.

RESEARCH PROCESSES

Source: Del Balso and Lewis (2008, p. 15)

Design researchGather data Analyze data

THEORY

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RESEARCH STEPS:

a) The Positivistic Framework: Scientific Method

THEORY

(1)

Begin with a Theory,

Deduce Research

problem and questions

focusing on

a gap in existing

knowledge

Review

literature to show that

the proposed

gap in knowledge is

theoretically logical

(2)

(3)Deduce

Hypothesis from Theory/Literature.

(4)Select Quantitative Methods

and instruments to collect

data

(5)Analyze data

statistically for a

Pattern, display pattern

and interpret it to

confirm or reject

hypothesis in relation

to theory

(6)

Share results in a report;

Show new problem that

emerges from the

research

RESEARCH STEPS:

b) The Interpretive Framework

THEORY

Begin with a

particular

Research problem or

question focusing on

goals of researcher or

the researched

Review literature to

show that the pattern

is true/valid

Analyze data

for pattern & display

pattern

Share results in a report;

Show new research issues

that emerge from this

research

Select

Qualitative

Methods and

instruments to

collect data

Interpret the

pattern, formulate thesis

and show how it connects

with existing knowledge.

Suggest theory

1

2

3

4

5

6

09/09/2019 31

Research Frameworks :–RESEARCH PROCESSES GUIDES:

• 1) Positivistic or Quantitative– Sociological Imagination supports this framework

• 2) Interpretive or Qualitative– Social construction of reality supports this framework

• 3) Fusion or Triangulation– Both Sociological Imagination and Social Construction

of Reality support this framework

09/09/2019 32

Research Processes Guides:

–a) Positivistic Framework: The Scientific

Method: (See pp. 8 and 26 of Textbook)

• The world is a single reality that can be known by independent,

neutral and objective scientists using the scientific method (Van de

Sande & Schwartz 2011, p. 70). It focuses on the production of

“positive” or certain knowledge based on “sensory experiences”

subjected to logical reasoning; knowledge that is generalizable.

–b) Interpretive Framework: The

Alternative Method: (See p. 9 of Textbook)

• Values of the researcher cannot be separated from the research—

objectivity is not possible, nor is it desirable because there are

multiple realities based on subjective interpretations people assign to

their worlds (van de Sande & Schwartz 2011, p. 14)

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Research Processes Guides:

C) Fusion Framework: Mixed

Methods (See pp. 27 and 28 of Textbook)

– Using mixed methods (both positivist and

interpretist frameworks) to research the same

phenomenon to achieve high validity and

reliability. Feminist Research Methods fall into the

Fusion Framework (See pp. 58-60 of Textbook)

RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS:

a) Positivistic or Quantitative

Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=

mi8DQspNeX4

09/09/2019 34

POSITVISTIC FRAMEWORK:

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: “VARIABLES”

Facts: Correlation & Causality

X is a variable

Y is a variable

X relates/associates with Y = Correlation

X causes/explains Y = Causality

POSITVISTIC FRAMEWORK:

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: “VARIABLES”

“Variables are properties of objects

that can change. Variables change

across a set of scores called

attributes” [or indicators]. For example,

sex/gender, blood type, social class,

height, ethnicity, IQ…” (Earl Babbie

and Lance Roberts 2018, p. 13)

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POSITVISTIC FRAMEWORK:

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: “VARIABLES”

A Focus on Facts: Correlation & Causality

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

X (CAUSE) Y (EFFECT)

Parents’ Income Likelihood of children’s

enrolling in college or

university

Correlation does not necessarily mean CAUSALITY:

– Is the connection between parents’ income and children’s enrollment

college/university a correlation or causality

Reference: Witt & Hermiston 2010, p. 25; Ravelli 2013, p.

100.09/09/2019 37

INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORK: “FACTORS”:

A Focus on Truths: Social Relationships

The impact of parents’ income on children’s educational

outcomes may depend on the values and beliefs of parents.

These factors are interpretations that cannot be quantified.

QUIZ #2

In the above context, the Interpretive Frameworks is

arguing that…..

– a) Parents’ income causes their children’s educational

attainment

– b) Parents’ income influences enrollments in Canadian

schools

– c) Parents’ income correlates with, but does not

necessarily cause their children’s educational attainment

– d) Parents’ income does not influence enrollments in

Canadian schools

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POSITIVISTIC FRAMEWORK (SCIENTIFIC METHOD):

APPROACH & NATURE OF EVIDENCE

QUANTITATIVE: Numerical or Mathematical Testing for FACTS: Hard Data

(See pp. 38-39 of Textbook): We see social forces as/in numbers.

Chance of Getting a Job: The Skin Colour or Criminal Record Effect?

34%

17%

14%

5%

No criminal record

Criminal Record

No criminal record

Criminal record

Source: Pager 2003, p. 958. Cited in Witt & Hermiston 2010

WHITE

BLACK

POSITIVISTIC FRAMEWORK (SCIENTIFIC METHOD):

APPROACH & NATURE OF EVIDENCE

QUIZ #3:

What is the Dependent Variable

in the graph in the previous

slide?

– A) Chance of getting a job

– B) Skin colour

– C) Criminal Record

– D) Numerical Testing

09/09/2019 40

QUIZ #4

For many of the social issues confronting humanity today such as hate crimes, other

crimes, violence against women and minorities, sexism, racism, etc., it might not be

an exaggeration to say that new patterns of socialization are ultimately necessary if

our society wants to be able to address these issues effectively. Parents and

teachers of young children and adolescents bear a major responsibility for making

sure our children do not learn to hate and commit harm to others, but so do our

schools, mass media, and religious bodies. No nation is perfect, but nations like

Japan have long been successful than the United states in raising their children to

be generous and cooperative (Steven Barkan 2012, p. 75). If you understood Chapter

One of the required textbook for this course, you discovered that Sociology is also

about transformation of society. What is the correct Independent Variable of the

transformation process suggested in the above scenario?

a) Crime, violence and the isms.

b) Confronting humanity

c) New Patterns of Socialization

d) Parents and Teachers

e) School, mass media and religious bodies09/09/2019 41

INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORK: APPROACH & NATURE OF EVIDENCE

QUALITATIVE: Non-numerical or

Words: Soft Data: (See pp. 38 and 40-43 of Textbook) (Also,

see Ravelli 2013, pp. 16, 17, 97, 98 & 106). Rigorous

research for TRUTHS or creative

insights:

– We see the social forces

beyond/beneath the

numbers/statistics/facts.

RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS:

a) Positivistic or Quantitative and

b) Interpretive or Qualitative

ILLUSTRATION VIDEO:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=

MlU22hTyIs4

09/09/2019 43

POSITIVISTIC FRAMEWORK:

Logic or System of Reasoning

DEDUCTIVE LOGIC : From Theory

through Hypothesis to Data (see p. 37 of

Textbook)

– Researchers who use QANTITATIVE

approach typically use deductive

reasoning (Ravelli 2013).

– The focus is on Hypothesis = Suspected

testable causal link between/among

variables (Witt and Hermiston 2010, p.

24).

44

INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORK:

Logic or System of Reasoning

INDUCTIVE LOGIC: From Data

through thesis to Theory (see p. 37 of Textbook)

– Researchers who use QUALITATIVE

approach usually use inductive

reasoning (Ravelli 2013, p. 92).

– The focus is on Thesis = proposed

answer to a qualitative research

question.

FRAMEWORK Quantitative (pp. 95-96): POSITIVISTIC Qualitative (p. 96): INTERPRETIVE

AIM/TYPE Descriptive or Explanatory Descriptive, Exploratory or

Interpretive

FOCUS/CONCEPTS Variables, Hypothesis, Validity,

Reliability, Correlation, Causality (pp.

99-100 of Ravelli & Weber 2014)

Factors, Thesis, Credibility,

Dependability

SAMPLING Random, probability (pp. 100-101, Ibid.) Non-random, non-probability (pp.

100-101, ibid.))

DESIGN/METHODS Structured: Experiment, Quantitative

Survey, Non-reactive (pp. 100, 102, 110-

112 Ibid.)

Flexible: Field Research, Qualitative

Survey, Participatory Action

Research, Mixed (p. 106, Ibid.)

REASONING Deductive: From theory thru hypothesis

to data (p. 98, Ibid)

Inductive: From Data thru thesis to

Theory (p. 98, Ibid)

RESEARCHER Researcher uses inanimate instruments Researcher is the main instrument

INSTRUMENTS or

TECHNIQUES

Questionnaires and tests, Statistical

software, Content Analysis (pp. 101-105,

Ibid.)

Participant Observation, interviews,

Focus Group, Content Analysis (pp.

103-105, ibid.).

ETHICS Do No Harm: Milgram’s Obedience

Study, Stanford Prison Experiment (pp.

110-112 ibid.), Tuskegee Syphilis

Experiment

Do No Harm: Humphery’s Tearoom

Trade (p. 112, ibid)

THEORY Functionalism, Social Conflict,

Feminism (pp. 94 & 108, ibid.)

Interactionism, Feminism (pp. 94 &

108, Ibid.), postmodernism

QUIZ #5

Canada’s Attorney General has awarded you a major funding to research into the causes of and solutions to marijuana grow-ops in British Columbia. You have decided to adopt the qualitative research approach. What would be your role as a researcher?

A) A research instrument

B) A research instrument user

C) Experimenter

D) Surveyor

QUIZ #6

Jasmica believes that the social world is a stable, macro social structure and culture that have objective existence ruled by deductive logic. She has decided to research into the drug trade from this perspective. What would be the, methodological approach, method, and the main instrument she would adopt?

A) Qualitative, field research and content analysis

B) Qualitative, participatory action research, and focus group

C) Quantitative, survey, and questionnaire

D) Qualitative, experiment, and intensive interviews

KEY ISSUES OF RESEAECH

Regardless of which of the three

major research frameworks you

choose, there are three critical

issues that must be addressed:

– 1. Sampling (See pp. 46-48 of Textbook)

– 2. Validity & Reliability (See last para of p.36 of Textbook)

– 3. Ethics (See p. 54, para 2 of Textbook)

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09/09/2019 50

RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS:

c) FUSION APPROACH or

TRIANGULATION (see p. 42, para 3 of Textbook)

09/09/2019 51

Triangulation:– ILLUSTRATION VIDEO:

– Humphreys’ Tearoom Trade

–https://www.youtube.com/watc

h?v=rsFa10JFats

09/09/2019 52

TRIANGULATION: THE FUSION APPROACH

Using mixed methods to research the same phenomenon to

achieve high validity and reliability

EXPERIMENT

Quantitative

SURVEY:

Quantitative

Participatory

Action Research

Qualitative

FIELD

RESEARCH:

Qualitative

09/09/2019 53

Challenges of Research

09/09/2019 54

CHALLENGES OF SOCIOLOGICAL

RESEARCH

1. Time and Money

2. Sensitive and/or dangerous topics: sexuality, crime, conflicts, etc.

3. Ethics: a) Do no harm (Milgram’s Obedience Study); b) Safety of research subjects (Stanford Prison Experiment); c) Informed consent (Humphreys’ Tearoom Trade; the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment); d) Privacy--anonymity & confidentiality—(Humphreys’ Tearoom Trade) See Ravelli 2013 pp. 110-112 and p. 54 para 2 of Textbook)

4. Emotions, values, and morality

UNETHICAL RESEARCH:

Milgram’s Obedience to Authority

Experiment http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bc

vSNg0HZwk

09/09/2019 55

UNETHICAL RESEARCH: The

Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x

-YMdaEdbcg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=

mi8DQspNeX4

09/09/2019 56

UNETHICAL RESEARCH:

Humphrey’s Tearoom Trade

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T

huhwPdI-04

09/09/2019 57

09/09/2019 58

CREATE

•Be a Changemaker

09/09/2019 59

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Guiding Questions for and

Answers to the Research Processes:

ILLUSTRATION

1. What is your research topic?: Social Media Technology

2. What theory applies?: The use pattern of social media technology is generation-specific

3. What is already known about Social Media technology?—The usage pattern of Myspace, Twitter and Wiki among the various generations living Victoria.

4. What is missing from this knowledge? The pattern of generational gap in the use Facebook Networking Program in the city of Victoria.

5. What exactly are your research questions? What is the difference in the Facebook use pattern between teenagers and older adults living in Victoria?

6. What is your hypothesis or Thesis? Teenagers use Facebook to communicate more than older adults in Victoria.

7. What research framework informed your research? Positivism /Quantitative

8.What methods and instruments/techniques did you use to gather needed information? Survey and Observation: Questionnaire and online monitoring.

0. How did you record and analyze the information? Electronic; Statistics Software

10. What did the data tell you and what is your interpretation of this? There is no difference in the pattern of Facebook usage among teenagers and older adults in Victoria: Interpretation: This is because of similarity in access to social media technology. The hypothesis is refuted

11. What is your conclusion?: There is no generation gap in Facebook usage pattern in Victoria.

09/09/2019 60

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Use the answers to the

Guiding Questions in the previous slide as a guide to

answer the following questions based on your own

chosen research topic:

1. What is your research topic?:

2. What theory applies?:

3. What is already known about Social Media technology?

4. What is missing from this knowledge?

5. What exactly are your research questions?

6. What is your hypothesis or Thesis?

7. What research framework informed your research?

8.What methods and instruments/techniques did you use to gather needed information?

9. How did you record and analyze the information?

10. What did the data tell you and what is your interpretation of this?

11. What is your conclusion?

09/09/2019 61

APPLY

•See the multiple choice

questions in the EXPLORE

section.

09/09/2019 62

Summary and Conclusion

09/09/2019 63

DNA is not Destiny; The

SOCIAL is Destiny SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH, using the SCIENTIFIC METHOD and

LOGICAL REASONING, has produced enough EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE and THEORIES to substantiate the PARADIGM that the SOCIAL is destiny, not DNA or the BRAIN.

In effect, things do not happen in the world and to people because PHYSICAL and EMOTIONAL forces cause them (Robert J. Brym 2004: 3-4: New Society: Sociology for the 21st Century. Fourth Edition). Examples of correlation but

not causality:– Famine is not caused by drought

– War is not caused by territorial greed

– Economic success is not caused by hard work

– Marriage is not caused by love

– Suicide is not caused by depression

– Rape is not caused by depraved lust

– Child abuse is not caused by mentally sick people

09/09/2019 64

CONCLUSION: A PARADIGM

SHIFT

Sociology has caused a paradigm shift about

the world and human behavior/condition

because of Sociological Research

methodologies/methods/techniques that

– a) utilize the principles of science, including

the Scientific Method, to discover/reveal

unseen social forces as causality and not

mere correlation.

– b) constitute the foundation of sociological

theorizing that will be discussed in Lecture 3.