Managerial Economics THEORY OF DEMAND. Managerial Economics After going through this unit, you will be able to: 0 Explain meaning and concept of demand

Managerial Economics

THEORY OF DEMAND

Managerial EconomicsAfter going through this unit, you

will be able to:

0 Explain meaning and concept of demand• Elucidate on Law of Demand and Elasticity of Demand• Identify Demand Functions• List Determinant factors of Elasticity of Demand• Carry out Demand Forecasting

Managerial Economics2.3 Demand Function

• The functional relationship between the demand for a commodity and its various determinants may be expressed mathematically in terms of a demand function, thus:

• Dx = f (Px, Py, M, T, A, U) where,• Dx = Quantity demanded for commodity X.• f = functional relation.• Px = The price of commodity X.• Py = The price of substitutes and complementary goods.• M = The money income of the consumer.• T = The taste of the consumer.• A = The advertisement effects.• U = Unknown variables or influences.


• Thus, an over-simplified and the most commonly stated demand function is: Dx = f (Px), which connotes that the demand for commodity X is the function of its price

• In other words, the statement, 'the quantity demanded is a function of price' implies that for every price there is a corresponding quantity demanded.


Shift in Demand Curve

• When demand curve changes its position retaining its shape (though not necessarily), the change is known as shift in demand curve.



the demand curve D2 in Fig. 2.3 is the original demand curve for commodity X. At price OP2 consumer buys OQ2 units of X, other factors remaining constant. If any of the other factors (e.g., consumer’s income) changes, itwill change the consumer’s ability and willingness to buy commodity X. For example, if consumer’s disposable income decreases, say, due to increase in income tax, he may be able to buy only OQ1 units of X instead of OQ2 at price OP2 the consumers would be able to buy less of commodity X at all other prices. This will cause a downward shift in demand curve from D2 to D1.


Reasons for Shift in Demand CurveConsider, for example, the decrease in demand forcommodity X by Q1Q2 in Fig 2.3. Given the price OP1, the demand for X might have fallen from OQ2 to OQ1 (i.e., by Q1Q2) for any of the following reasons:

•Fall in the consumer’s income so that he can buy only OQ1 of X at price OP2—it is income effect.• Price of X’s substitute falls so that the consumers find it beneficial to substitute Q1Q2 of X with its substitute—it is substitution effect


• Advertisement made by the producer of the substitute, changes consumer’s taste or preference against commodity X so much that they replace Q1Q2 of X with its substitute, again a substitution effect.• Price of complement of X increases so much that they can now afford only OQX of X

Managerial Economics2.4 Elasticity of Demand

The responsiveness of demand for a good to the change in its determinants is called the elasticity of demand. The elasticity concept plays an important role in various business decisions and government policies.

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Managerial Economicsthe following kinds of demand elasticity.• Price Elasticity: Elasticity of demand for a commodity with respect to change in its price.• Cross Elasticity: Elasticity of demand for a commodity with respect to change in the priceof its substitutes.• Income Elasticity: Elasticity of demand with respect to change in consumer’s income.• Price Expectation Elasticity of Demand: Elasticity of demand with respect to consumer’s expectations regarding future price of the commodity.

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• P & Q are inversely related by the law of demand so E is always negative– The larger the absolute value of E, the more sensitive

buyers are to a change in price

Price Elasticity of Demand (E)

• % QE

% P

The degree of responsiveness or sensitiveness of demand for a commodity to the changes in its price


Price Elasticity of Demand (E)

Elasticity Responsiveness EElasticUnitary ElasticInelastic

% Q % P

% Q % P

% Q % P

E 1

E 1

E 1

Table 6.1


Price Elasticity of Demand (E)• Percentage change in quantity

demanded can be predicted for a given percentage change in price as:–%Qd = %P x E

• Percentage change in price required for a given change in quantity demanded can be predicted as:–%P = %Qd ÷ E


Price Elasticity & Total Revenue

Elastic

Quantity-effect dominates

Unitary elastic

No dominant effect

Inelastic

Price-effect dominates

Price rises

Price falls

TR falls

TR rises

No change in TR

No change in TR

TR rises

TR falls

% Q % P % Q % P % Q % P

Table 6.2

Managerial EconomicsFactors Affecting Price Elasticity of Demand

• Availability of substitutes – The better & more numerous the substitutes for

a good, the more elastic is demand• Percentage of consumer’s budget– The greater the percentage of the consumer’s

budget spent on the good, the more elastic is demand

• Time period of adjustment– The longer the time period consumers have to

adjust to price changes, the more elastic is demand

Managerial EconomicsCalculating Price Elasticity of Demand

• Price elasticity can be calculated by multiplying the slope of demand (Q/P) times the ratio of price to quantity (P/Q)

% QE

% P

Q

QP

P

100

100

Q P

P Q


Income Elasticity• Income elasticity (EM) measures the

responsiveness of quantity demanded to changes in income, holding the price of the good & all other demand determinants constant–Positive for a normal good–Negative for an inferior good

d dM

d

% Q Q ME

% M M Q

Managerial Economicsincome elasticity of demand is positive because of a positive relationship between income and demand for a product. There is an exception to this rule. Income elasticity of demand for an inferior good is negative, because of negative income-effect. The demand for inferior goods reduces with the rise in consumer’s income and vice versa. When income is more, consumers change over to the consumption of superior commodities.

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Managerial EconomicsNATURE OF COMMODITY AND INCOME ELASTICITY

For all regular goods, income elasticity is positive although the degree of elasticityfluctuates as per the nature of commodities. Consumer goods are usually categorised under three classes, viz. necessities (essential consumer goods), comforts and luxuries. Theuniversal structure of income elasticity for goods of various categories or a rise in incomeand their effect on sales are provided in Table 2.5.

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Cross-Price Elasticity

• Cross-price elasticity (EXY) measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded of good X to changes in the price of related good Y, holding the price of good X & all other demand determinants for good X constant– Positive when the two goods are substitutes– Negative when the two goods are complements

X X YXY

Y Y X

% Q Q PE

% P P Q


2.5 Determinants of DemandPrice elasticity of demand fluctuates from commodity to commodity. While the demand of some commodities is highly elastic, the demand for others is highly inelastic.the main determinants of the price elasticity of demand are :1. Availability of SubstitutesOne of the most significant determinants of elasticity of demand for a commodity is the availability of its substitutes. Closer the substitute, greater is the elasticity of demand for the commodity. For instance, coffee and tea could be regarded as close substitutes for one another.


Thus, if price of one of these goods rises, its demand reduces more than the proportionate rise in its price as consumers switch over to the relatively lower-priced substitute. Moreover, broader the choice of the substitutes, greater is the elasticity. E.g. soaps, washing powder, toothpastes, shampoos, etc. are available in several brands; each brand is a close substitute for the other. Thus, the price-elasticity of demand for each brand will be to a large extent greater than the general commodity. In contrast, sugar and salt do not have their close substitute and for this reason their price-elasticity is lower


2. Nature of CommodityCommodities can be categorised as luxuries, comforts and necessities, on the basis of their nature. Demand for luxury goods (e.g., luxury cars, decorative items, etc.) are more elastic than the demand for other types of goods as consumption of luxury goods can be set aside or delayed when their prices increase. In contrast, consumption of essential goods, (e.g., sugar, clothes, vegetables, etc.) cannot be delayed and for this reason their demand is inelastic. Demand for comforts is usually more elastic than that for necessities and less elastic than the demand for luxuries.


3. Proportion of Income Spent on aCommodityIf proportion of income spent on a commodity is extremely little, its demand will be less elastic and vice versa. Characteristic examples of such commodities are sugar, books, washing powder etc., which use a very tiny proportion of the consumer’s income. Demand for these goods is usually inelastic as a rise in the price of such goods does not largely have an effect on the consumer’s consumption pattern and the overall purchasing power. Thus, people continue to buy approximately the same quantity even at the time their price rises.


4. Time FactorPrice-elasticity of demand relies moreover on the time which consumers take to amend to a new price: longer the time taken, greater is the elasticity. As each year passes, consumers are capable of altering their spending pattern to price changes


5. The Proportion of Market SuppliedPrice elasticity of market demand furthermore relies on the proportion of the market supplied at the determined price. If less than half of the market is supplied at the determined price, elasticity of demand will be higher if more than half of the market is supplied. i.e. demand curve is more elastic at the upper half than at the lower half.


2.6 Demand Forecasting

Demand forecasting entails forecasting and estimating the quantity of a product or service that consumers will purchase in future . Demand forecasting may be used in making pricing decisions, in assessing future capacity requirements, or in making decisions on whether to enter a new market. Thus, demand forecasting is estimation of future demand.


2.6.1 IMPORTANCE OF DEMAND FORECAST

1. Management Decisions:An effective demand forecast facilitates the management to take appropriate steps in factors that are pertinent to decision making2. Evaluation: Demand forecasting furthermore smoothes the process of evaluating the efficiency of the sales department.

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3. Quality and Quantity Controls: Demand forecasting is an essential and valuable instrument in the control of the management of an organization to provide finished goods of correct quality and quantity at the correct time with the least amount ofexpenditure.

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Managerial Economics4. Financial Estimates: As per the sales level as well as production functions, the financial requirements of an organisation can be calculated using various techniques of demand forecasting.5. Recommendations for the future: Demand forecast for a specific commodityfurthermore provides recommendations for demand forecast of associated industries.

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6. Significance for the government: At the macro-level, demand forecasting is valuable to the government as it aids in determining targets of imports as well as exports for various products and preparing for the international business.

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Assignments

• Discuss how availability of Substitute goods determines the demand of a good.

• Write notes on the following:1. Importance of Demand Forecast

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Documents

Managerial Economics THEORY OF DEMAND. Managerial Economics After going through this unit, you will be able to: 0 Explain meaning and concept of demand