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Journal of Public Management & Social Policy
Volume 21 | Number 1 Article 3
June 2015
Measuring Public Manager Cultural Competence:The Influence of Public Service ValuesThomas LongoriaTexas State University
Nandhini RangarajanTexas State University
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalscholarship.tsu.edu/jpmsp
Part of the Political Science Commons, Public Affairs, Public Policy and Public AdministrationCommons, and the Urban Studies and Planning Commons
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at Digital Scholarship @ Texas Southern University. It has been accepted forinclusion in Journal of Public Management & Social Policy by an authorized editor of Digital Scholarship @ Texas Southern University. For moreinformation, please contact [email protected].
Recommended CitationLongoria, Thomas and Rangarajan, Nandhini (2015) "Measuring Public Manager Cultural Competence: The Influence of PublicService Values," Journal of Public Management & Social Policy: Vol. 21 : No. 1 , Article 3.Available at: http://digitalscholarship.tsu.edu/jpmsp/vol21/iss1/3
Longoria and Rangarajan Measuring Public Manager Cultural Competence: The Influence of Public Service Values
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P
S
Measuring Public Manager Cultural Competence:
The Influence of Public Service Values
Thomas Longoria
Texas State University
Nandhini Rangarajan
Texas State University
This study develops a public manager cultural competence instrument. The proposed
instrument includes items from existing cultural competence instruments from professional
fields (e.g., Nursing, Social Work, and Medicine) and new items developed specifically for
measuring public manager cultural competence. We find that self-reported bilingual
respondents have higher cross-cultural competence scores on three dimensions (attitudes,
skills, knowledge). Minority respondents have higher cross-cultural competence scores on
two dimensions (skills, and behavior). Gender and international travel experience do not
result in statistically significant differences. Implications for the promotion of cultural
competencies in graduate education settings and in public sector organizations are
considered and recommendations are made.
ublic administrators are increasingly expected to be mindful of changing demographics
and the influence of cultural elements as they make decisions, respond to issues and
implement policy. Public administrators encounter issues entwined with systems of
collectively held values (e.g. immigrant culture, youth culture, corporate culture) on a regular
basis. In this regard, cultural competence is essential because it plays a vital role in ensuring
effective policy responses to situations with cultural dimensions (Rice 2007). Before public
personnel administrators can develop effective programs and strategies to enhance individual
cultural competence, we need to better understand the measurement of cultural competence
of public employees.
Given the importance of understanding culture for effective service delivery and
public policy, cultural competence has been conceptualized for various levels of analysis and
for various domains (Cross et al. 1989; Isaacs and Benjamin 1991; Davis 1997; Cox and Beale
1997; Brach and Fraser 2000; Sue 2001; Ridley, Baker, and Hill 2001; Hurdle 2002;
Betancourt, Green, and Carrillo 2003; Farr et al. 2005; Rice 2007). Culturally competent
public sector organizations, for example, acknowledge “the importance of cultural assessment
of cross cultural relations, vigilance toward the dynamics that result from cultural differences,
expansion of cultural knowledge, and adoption of services to meet culturally unique needs”
(Betancourt, Green, and Carrillo 2003, 118; see also Rice 2007, 2008). Culturally competent
public sector organizations use a repertoire of professional practices, policies, tools, systems,
structures and standards for this purpose. Public sector organizations are also more likely to
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be culturally competent if the individuals who make and implement policies and programs are
themselves culturally competent. Thus, at the individual level of analysis, “cultural
competence” refers to one’s ability to appropriately harness cultural knowledge, awareness,
skills, attitudes, behaviors, values, and experiences in crafting effective responses to address
culturally unique needs. Diversity scholars also emphasize the importance of understanding
the connection between management of diversity and cultural competence (Pitts and Wise
2010).
Given the significance of cultural competence in public administration, it is not
surprising that cultural competence has been examined from theoretical (Rice 2007, 2008),
practical (Rice 2007, 2008; Hewins-Maroney and Williams 2007; Johnson and Borrego 2009)
and pedagogical perspectives (Bernotavicz 1997; Weisinger 2001; White 2004; Brintnall
2008;Wyatt-Nichol and Antwi-Bosiako 2008; Carrizales 2010; Norman-Major 2012; Rivera,
Johnson, and Ward 2010). Surprisingly, there has been little attention to measurement of
public administrator cultural competence (PACC) at the individual level. While other fields
such as nursing (Campinha-Bacote 1999; Schim et al. 2003; Doorenbos et al. 2005), medicine
(Gozu et al. 2007) and social work (Boyle and Springer 2001) have developed validated
cultural competence instruments, there is no such instrument to measure PACC. A keyword
search of journal articles for the terms “public administration” “survey” “cultural
competence” yielded no results.
The main purpose of this study is to address this gap in the literature. We aim to
accomplish this purpose by, first, setting the theoretical context for the development of an
instrument by reviewing different cultural competence models. Second, we describe our
strategy for the development of our multi-dimensional PACC instrument and discuss the
sources for the items selected for consideration as part of a PACC instrument. Third, we
provide details about our methods of data collection and analysis. After we present the results,
we conclude with a discussion of the applicability of this instrument in the field of public
administration and its implications for public administration education and research.
THEORY
Extant research on cultural competence emphasizes its multi-dimensional nature.
The multi-dimensional nature of this construct presents considerable challenges related to its
operationalization and measurement. Doorenbos et al. (2005) use the metaphor of a jigsaw
puzzle to illustrate how different elements come together to make a cohesive whole called
cultural competence. The different elements or parts identified in the literature include:
“cultural attitude,” “cultural awareness,” “cultural beliefs,” “cultural behavior,” “cultural
desire,” “cultural experience,” “cultural sensitivity,” “cultural skills” and “cultural
knowledge” (see for example, Campinha-Bacote 1999; Sue 2001; Johnson, Lenartowicz and
Apud 2006; Gozu et al. 2007; Rice and Matthews 2012). Sue (2001) in the context of
counseling psychology, and Purnell (2002, 195) in the context of transcultural nursing,
highlight the “nested” nature of personal, family, community, group, and societal cultural
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competence. The “nested” aspect of cultural competence refers to the idea that these cultural
domains do not exist in isolation but are related to and affected by each other.
Some models of cultural competence assume that cultural competence is an inherent
trait and other models assume that cultural competence is a learned behavior (Ridley, Baler,
and Hill 2001, 828). Given our purpose in this paper, we clearly assume that cultural
competence can be instilled and developed. In this regard, Cross et al. (1989, v) emphasize
the developmental nature of cultural competence and propose negative-positive continuum of
cultural competence that ranges from cultural destructiveness to cultural proficiency. Purnell
(2002) views cultural competence on a continuum where individuals can be unconsciously
incompetent, consciously incompetent, consciously competent and unconsciously competent.
Making further sense of cultural competence is facilitated by use of a conceptual
model that organizes concepts into a framework. Deardorff’s (2006) model (summarized in
Figure 1) proposes that an individual’s culture-related attitudes such as openness to cultural
learning, curiosity and respect lead them to acquire culture-related knowledge and skills. In
theory, this acquisition of knowledge and skills will allow them to engage in culturally
competent behaviors such as being adaptive and flexible in cross-cultural situations. These
behaviors can be leveraged to result in culturally competent outcomes for the organization.
This process-oriented model focuses on how individual-level attitudes, knowledge, skills, and
behaviors translate into organizational strengths and result in positive outcomes such as
effectiveness and responsiveness (Deardorff 2006). This model suggests that investing in
cultural competence training for public organizations and addressing cultural competence in
MPA programs is a prudent choice that will produce socially beneficial outcomes.
Figure 1: Cultural Competence Model (Adapted from Deardorff 2006)
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Based on our review of the literature from other fields, there are four common
individual-level dimensions of cultural competence (attitudes, knowledge, skills, and
behavior) (e.g. Deardorff 2006; Schim et al. 2003; Doorenbos et al. 2005; Gozu et al. 2007)
and these four dimensions logically lead to culturally relevant outcomes at the organizational
level. In the context of public administration, Rice and Matthews (2012) have also
emphasized the importance of knowledge, skills and awareness as essential components of
cultural competence for public managers. However, their work is conceptual in nature and
does not operationalize these dimensions as has been done in other fields. In addition, Rice
and Matthews (2012) do not discuss culturally competent behaviors as a dimension of cultural
Requisite
Attitudes:
- Respect (valuing
other cultures,
cultural diversity)
- Openness (to
intercultural
learning and to
people from other
cultures,
withholding
judgment)
- Curiosity and
discovery
(tolerating
ambiguity and
uncertainty)
Knowledge &
Comprehension:
- Cultural self-
awareness;
- Deep
understanding and
knowledge of
culture (including
contexts, role and
impact of culture
& others’ world
views);
- Culture-specific Skills:
- To listen,
observe, and
interpret,
communicate
- To analyze,
evaluate, and
relate
DESIRED
INTERNAL
OUTCOME:
Informed frame of
reference/filter
shift:
- Adaptability (to
different
communication
styles & behaviors;
adjustment to new
cultural
environments);
- Flexibility
(selecting and using
appropriate
communication
styles and behaviors;
cognitive
flexibility);
- Ethnorelative
view;
- Empathy
DESIRED
EXTERNAL
OUTCOME:
- Behaving and
communicating
effectively and
appropriately
(based on one’s
intercultural
knowledge, skills,
and attitudes) to
achieve one’s
goals to some
degree
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competence.
It is not appropriate to take existing instruments from other fields and simply use
these questions to measure cultural competence among public managers. One reason for this
is that most of the existing cultural competence surveys in other fields use items written to be
more applicable to service providers rather than public managers. However, while many
public managers do not have direct contact with culturally diverse clients on a daily basis they
must still be culturally competent in their development of policies and programs. In addition,
given that the purpose of a cultural competence instrument for public administrators is to
improve public management education and training, the Network of Schools of Public Policy,
Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) “universal required competencies” for students are
integrated into the instrument (NASPAA 2009). These standards are discussed in more detail
below.
In summary, our approach to construction of a PACC instrument is to select items from
the literature to measure the four commonly found dimensions (cultural attitudes; cultural
knowledge; cultural skills; cultural behavior) and modify the items in ways that are more
relevant to the actions of a public manager when necessary. As we selected and developed
items, we used the following conceptual definitions:
(1) Cultural Attitudes are defined as personal dispositions or orientations
about cultural aspects as they relate to public service
(2) Cultural Knowledge is defined as the extent that information about
different cultures in the jurisdiction where a public manager serves has been
sought and retained
(3) Cultural Skill is defined as the ability to collect relevant cultural data
and develop programs that accurately utilize this information
(4) Cultural Behavior is defined as those behaviors that increase and refine
one’s cultural sensitivity such as seeking out information, openness, and
adaptability.
Six items were included for each of the four dimensions for a total of 24 items.
Eighteen items were taken entirely or in part from existing instruments identified by Gozu et
al. (2007) in a review essay on the measurement of cultural competence. The remaining six
items are original and developed by the authors of this study. Five of the items include
wording that reflects the NASPAA competencies. NASPAA proposes five “universal required
competencies” that are fundamental to the practice of public administration (NASPAA 2009)
and that form the basis of a Master of Public Administration (MPA) program’s curriculum.
These standards include the ability: (1) to lead and manage in public governance; (2) to
participate in and contribute to the policy process; (3) to analyze, synthesize, think critically,
solve problems, and make decisions; (4) to articulate and apply a public service perspective;
(5) to communicate and interact productively with a diverse and changing workforce and
citizenry (NASPAA 2009).
In addition, each of the items was written in such a way that the response categories
used the same seven point Likert type scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree and three
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of the items were reverse coded.
DATA AND METHOD
The 24-item survey was distributed to MPA students at a large comprehensive Texas
university during regular classroom meetings. The total student population of the university
is 34,000 and there are approximately 200 MPA part and full-time students currently enrolled
in the program. The full 24-item PACC survey was distributed in two phases. The first phase
allowed us to understand, through factor analysis, whether item loadings mirrored results from
previous studies that formed the basis of this study. Then based on what we learned, we
developed and distributed a modified version of the survey. A total of 122 completed the first
version and 66 completed the second version of the survey. We do not claim that this sample
is generalizable either to students in other MPA programs or to public managers generally.
Rather, we present these findings as an exploratory analysis to develop instruments prior to
future analysis with more representative samples.
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics for the respondents that completed the first and
second versions of the survey. The first and second samples do differ in a number of ways.
For example, the second sample has a higher percentage of women (55 percent compared to
50 percent) and Hispanics (42 percent versus 27 percent). There were more self-reports of bi-
lingual ability in the second sample (55 percent) compared to the first sample (44 percent).
Eighty-five percent of Hispanic respondents indicated that they were bilingual, compared to
71 percent of Asian Americans, 35 percent of African Americans, and 25 percent of white
respondents. The vast majority of students reported at least some international travel
experience in both samples (88 percent and 77 percent). Overall, 75 percent of the respondents
are in-service students that have full-time public sector experience (72 percent of the first
sample and 79 percent of the second sample).
The MPA program from which the samples are drawn was, in 2012, 49 percent
female and 41 percent non-white indicating that the sample is representative in terms of
gender and slightly over-represented in terms of students who are racial or ethnic minorities.
Because the purpose of this study is to examine these differences and not to generalize to
others, these differences in the sample characteristics are presented for informational
purposes. There are sufficient numbers of respondents in the first and second surveys for
conducting the relevant statistical analyses.
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics
First Sample Second Sample
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Variable Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Gender
Male 59 50 29 46
Female 58 50 36 55
Ethnicity
White 65 56 30 46
Latino 32 27 27 42
African American 11 9 6 9
Asian 5 4 2 3
Native American 4 3 0 0
Language
Monolingual 66 56 29 45
Bilingual 51 44 36 55
Travel Outside US
No 14 12 15 23
Yes 103 88 50 77
Full-time Public
Managers
No
Yes
Number of Cases
26
88
117
23
77
100
9
52
65
15
85
100
Because we used many questions from established survey instruments and follow
the approach that there are four different dimensions of cultural competence, we conducted
confirmatory factor analysis and specified that four factors should be extracted with
VARIMAX rotation to facilitate interpretation.
FINDINGS
The results of the factor analysis on the first version of the survey distributed to the
first sample of students with all 24 items are presented in Table 2. As can be seen, the four
dimensions produce results that are different from the factor loadings suggested from findings
in other professional fields. Cross cultural knowledge and skill load on the same dimension
rather on separate dimensions. This finding suggests that these may be multiple measures of
the same underlying construct entered into the factor analysis. Four attitude items load on the
same dimension and four behavior items also load on the same dimension.
Table 2: Factor Structure Matrix for Varimax Rotated Factor Solution: First Version
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No Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor
3
Factor
4
1-
S
I can analyze data in ways that
enhance my understanding of the
relationship between culture, public
policy, and public service delivery
.773 .047 137
.058
2-
S
I can lead and manage in the context
of cultural diversity
.715 .034 .124
.022
3-
S
I can define culture and list various
factors that influence culture
.674 -.087 .106
.079
4-
K
I know how to communicate how
and why culture matters .721 .320 -.045
.058
5-
K
I understand how my own cultural
background influences my
interaction with people of different
cultures
.649 .029 .010
.081
6-
K
I understand the cultural aspects of
interpersonal communication .562 .310 -.012 .268
7-
K
I understand the influence of a
client's culture on public service
delivery
.569 .362 -.007
.325
8-
S
I can describe the cultural practices
of different ethnic and racial groups .650 -.121 .388
.043
9-
S
I can incorporate culturally relevant
information into policy analysis .541 .131 .024
.561
10-
S
I know how to ask others if there are
culturally relevant dimensions to
their needs
.658 .137 .054
.090
11-
K
I can communicate well with
culturally diverse populations .629 .119 .152
.464
12-
K
I can describe the racial and ethnic
composition of the city where I
currently reside
.589 .065 .134
.145
13-
B
I feel uncomfortable interacting with
people whose cultural background is
different from my own (reverse
coded)
.058 -.102 .361
.608
14-
B
I have regular social interactions
with people of different ethnic or
racial groups outside of the
classroom or work
.391 -.069 .526
.458
15-
B
I seek out books, articles, movies and
other media on cultural dimensions
of public policy and public service
provision
.287 .246 .716
.042
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16-
B
I use a variety of sources to learn
about the cultural heritage of other
people
.208 -.020 .746 .029
17-
B
I learn from others about different
cultural heritages
.087 .042 .709
.011
18-
B
I avoid using generalizations to
stereotype people
.082 .309 .436
.159
19-
A
I feel unsafe within communities of
color (reverse coded)
.012 .020 -.181
.574
20-
A
When people immigrate to the US,
they should learn enough English to
manage basic daily transactions on
their own (reverse coded)
.119 -.140 -.394
.043
21-
A
Public administrators need to be
aware of different cultures that exist
within their communities
.048 .842 .043
.106
22-
A
Public administrators have a
responsibility to learn about different
groups of people that make up
society
.200 .814 .134
.013
23-
A
I am open to feedback about how I
relate to people of different cultures
.237 .661 .041
.152
24-
A
Access to public services is not a
privilege but a right, regardless of
one's social or political status
-.070 .532 .186
.
.005
It is of note that two of the items intended to measure attitudes and two of the items
intended to measure behavior either do not load along any dimension or load on a separate
dimension. These items (shaded in Table 2) have the similar characteristic in that they reject
treating people who are different from one’s self (the “other”) with suspicion. Indeed, to treat
people that the public manager is charged to “serve” as “the other” directly contradicts public
service values. These items might be very useful for other fields to identify behaviors and
attitudes that might impede the client-provider relationship. Based on this insight, we drop
these items and perform factor analysis on the remaining items using the second sample to
refine the PACC survey.
Table 3 reports the results of the factor analysis for the second version of the survey
distributed to the second sample of students with the four incongruent items omitted. Again,
we conduct factor analysis specifying a four-factor solution and use VARIMAX rotation. The
first factor suggests a "cross cultural attitudes" dimension. Three of the four items that load
on that dimension load as cross cultural attitudes in the literature (Items 21, 22, and 23). In
addition, Item 5 (“I understand how my own cultural background influences my interaction
with people of different cultures”) loads as a cross-cultural attitude rather than cross-cultural
knowledge. This finding makes intuitive sense. From the perspective of the public manager,
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self-awareness and recognizing one’s own biases are seen as a matter of having an attitude
that promotes effective leadership and service to others. The servant leadership view
(Greenleaf 1991) for example, puts others first by making sure other people's needs are being
served.
All six of the cross-cultural skills items now load along a single dimension and,
accordingly, Factor 2 is labeled as “cross-cultural skills.” Items 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, and 10 are viewed
as cross-cultural skills in the literature from other fields. Recall that our approach included
verbatim items from the literature as well as modified questions. This approach did not
undermine the integrity of the index suggesting that skills are skills regardless of the
perspective as a direct service provider or a public manager.
The four remaining behavior items (Items 14, 15, 16, and 17) load on the same
dimension, which suggests Factor 3, a “cross-cultural behavior” dimension. The four cross-
cultural behavior items load on a single dimension along with one cross-cultural attitude item
(Item 24) that logically aligns with behavior items when seen from the perspective of a public
manager. Specifically, “access to public services is not a privilege, but a right, regardless of
one’s social or political status” is perhaps understood not in the abstract but, rather, how they
expect services to be provided in practice.
Three items load together in what might be considered cross-cultural knowledge
(Items 6, 7, and 12) including understanding the influence of culture on service delivery,
describing the racial and ethnic composition of the city, and understanding cultural aspects of
communication. The fourth factor is, accordingly termed “cross-cultural knowledge.”
Table 3: Factor Structure Matrix for Varimax Rotated Factor Solution: Second
Version
No Item Attitudes Skill Behavior Knowledge
1-
S
I can analyze data in
ways that enhance my
understanding of the
relationship between
culture, public policy,
and public service
delivery
.166 .502 .490 -.210
2-
S
I can lead and manage in
the context of cultural
diversity
.292 .678 .070 .093
3-
S
I can define culture and
list various factors that
influence culture
.334 .599 .174 .102
4-
K
I know how to
communicate how and
why culture matters
.412 .458 .490 -.210
5-
K
I understand how my
own cultural background .771 .345 -.005 -.043
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influences my interaction
with people of different
cultures
6-
K
I understand the cultural
aspects of interpersonal
communication
.359 .468 .077 .500
7-
K
I understand the
influence of a client's
culture on public service
delivery
.213 .261 .277 .684
8-
S
I can describe the
cultural practices of
different ethnic and
racial groups
.202 .732 .098 .220
9-
S
I can incorporate
culturally relevant
information into policy
analysis
.042 .584 .335 -.142
10-
S
I know how to ask others
if there are culturally
relevant dimensions to
their needs
-.016 .711 .346 -.013
11-
K
I can communicate well
with culturally diverse
populations
.493 .448 .037 .082
12-
K
I can describe the racial
and ethnic composition
of the city where I
currently reside
.324 .277 .250 .648
13-
B
I feel uncomfortable
interacting with people
whose cultural
background is different
from my own (reverse
coded)
14-
B
I have regular social
interactions with people
of different ethnic or
racial groups outside of
the classroom or work
.077 .215 .603 -.036
15-
B
I seek out books, articles,
movies and other media
on cultural dimensions of
public policy and public
service provision
-.101 .228 .672 .390
16- I use a variety of sources .093 .236 .791 .135
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B to learn about the
cultural heritage of other
people
17-
B
I learn from others about
different cultural
heritages
.341 .347 .746 -.046
18-
B
I avoid using
generalizations to
stereotype people
19-
A
I feel unsafe within
communities of color
(reverse coded)
20-
A
When people immigrate
to the US, they should
learn enough English to
manage basic daily
transactions on their own
(reverse coded)
21-
A
Public administrators
need to be aware of
different cultures that
exist within their
communities
.896 .116 .228 -.005
22-
A
Public administrators
have a responsibility to
learn about different
groups of people that
make up society
.842 .111 .296 .051
23-
A
I am open to feedback
about how I relate to
people of different
cultures
.870 .132 .118 .022
24-
A
Access to public services
is not a privilege but a
right, regardless of one's
social or political status
.287 -.121 .725 -.013
The more items the more potentially reliable the index. In the case of cross, cultural
knowledge, only three items load on the same dimension. However, for the purposes of this
study, we perform reliability analysis on all four factors. Cronbach’s alpha determines the
internal consistency of survey items and if the items are multiple measures of the same
underlying construct. Computation of Cronbach’s alpha should be performed prior to creating
any summary indexes and a score greater than .7 is widely accepted as the point where the
index can be considered reliable.
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Three of the four indexes have Cronbach’s alphas higher than .7 indicating the items
are multiple measures of the same underlying construct including cross-cultural attitudes
(Cronbach’s alpha = .867), cross-cultural skills (Cronbach’s alpha = .815), and cross cultural
behavior (Cronbach’s alpha = .785). Items that load on the same dimension of cross-cultural
knowledge in the factor analysis are not reliable multiple measures of the same underlying
construct (Cronbach’s alpha = .273).
In order to determine if these items can be turned into a useful index for the purposes
of future research, we examine differences in mean index scores. We summed the items for
each of the four dimensions, but of course noting that cross-cultural knowledge was not
reliable. The cultural attitude index has 5 items with a potential range of 5 to 35, where higher
values indicate more agreement with the different items. The mean cross cultural attitude
index is 31.6 (Std. Dev. = 4.45; range 5 to 35). The cross-cultural skill index has 6 items with
a potential range of 6 to 42, where higher values indicate more agreement with the different
items. The mean cross cultural skill index is 30.98 (Std. Dev. = 5.69; range 13 to 42). The
cross-cultural behavior index has 5 items with a potential range of 5 to 35, where higher values
indicate more agreement with the different items. The mean cross cultural behavior index is
27.49 (Std. Dev. 5.86; range 5 to 35). The cultural knowledge index has 3 items with a
potential range of 3 to 21, where higher values indicate more agreement with the different
items. The mean cross cultural knowledge index is 16.43 (Std. Dev. 2.56; range 6 to 21).
If we find expected statistically significant mean differences then this might indicate
some degree of validity. For example, we would expect that respondents with international
travel experience and second language ability would score higher on the indexes. In addition,
we expect that there will be racial and gender differences in index scores. Table 4 reports the
mean differences for different respondent characteristics. Self-reported bilingual respondents
have higher cross-cultural competence means on three dimensions (attitudes, skills,
knowledge) and these differences are statistically significant. Not surprisingly, minority
respondents have statistically significant higher cross-cultural competence means on two
dimensions (skills, and behavior). Gender and international travel experience do not result in
statistically significant differences. We explore the implications of these findings in the next
section
Table 4: Comparison of Means Female Male Bi-
Lingual
Mono-
Lingual
Travel No
Travel
Minority White
Attitudes 31.9 31.3 32.5 30.5+ 32.0 30.6 31.9 31.3
Skill 30.8 31.3 32.2 29.4* 31.3 31.1 32.5 29.2*
Behavior 27.5 27.5 28.2 26.6 27.7 26.9 28.9 25.7*
Knowledge 16.6 16.2 16.1 15.8+ 16.5 16.1 16.7 16.1
+ t = <.10; * t= <.05
DISCUSSION
This study represents a step toward development of a public administration cultural
competence survey instrument. We do not claim that this is the final word on the development
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of a cultural competence instrument for public administration. The eventual development of
a valid and agreed upon cultural competence instrument is needed because an agreed upon
measure will promote more research and build knowledge through its application in different
contexts and with different populations. The major contribution of this study, in this regard,
is to indicate to future scholars that it may not be necessary to include cross cultural attitude
and behavior items that go against public service values. Because we developed an instrument
by first consulting other professional fields, this study helps us better understand cultural
competence and how it may be different for public administrators.
It is important to note that there are no benchmarks of what constitutes an “acceptable
level of cultural competence” and this study does not purport that this is a useful line of
inquiry. However, we do suggest that paying attention to this important dimension of public
service and public policymaking in ways consistent with other fields that have established
cultural competence as an important aspect of effective service delivery is a step in the right
direction for more effective teaching and assessment of public sector employees.
Innovative pedagogical techniques that encourage inclusive interaction in diverse
classrooms can help students look beyond the categories of race and gender and focus on the
politics of diversity and thereby enhance cultural competence (Rivera, Baker and Hill 2010).
We fully endorse the development of innovative pedagogical techniques and methods in the
promotion of cultural competence. However, cultural competence education is not the only
way to impact cultural competence measures. This study finds that self-reported bilingualism
is more consistently associated with higher cultural competence scores a finding that is
consistent with theory connecting these two constructs (see for example Sue 2001). Study
abroad programs with a strong language component, short courses, and similar opportunities
that encourage students and employees to acquire second-language skills may be the most
direct way to improve public administration cultural competence scores as measured with this
tool. Perhaps these types of experiences result in increased self-awareness and appreciation
of differences (Rivera, Baker and Hill 2010; Antonio et al. 2004).
In addition to university MPA and BPA programs, public sector organizations also
have an important role to play in the promotion of cultural competence at the individual level.
The term life-long learner has become cliché, but it is an important value that can be instilled
in employees through training. A public organization can promote individual cultural
competence in a number of ways including, for example, by promoting an environment that
encourages understanding and exploration of cultural differences. In terms of the findings of
this study, affirming public service values and communicating in training and other forums
how cultural competence is a skill that rests on the foundation of respect for others, technical
knowledge, and professional expertise might resonate best.
Organizations may be interested in enhancing the overall level of organizational
cultural competence by hiring more culturally competent individuals. This approach seems
more acceptable in the case of hiring direct service providers--especially in the medical and
psychological fields--where the lives and well-being of others is at higher risk. In the context
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Longoria and Rangarajan Measuring Public Manager Cultural Competence: The Influence of Public Service Values
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of this study’s findings, screening and hiring public managers based on their cultural
competence (either self-expressed in an interview or measured through a screening survey
tool) may not be as desirable. However, informing public managers that their performance
evaluations will include criteria such as their ability to demonstrate culturally competent
public management will promote individual-level commitment and organizational cultural
competence.
Authors Biography
Thomas Longoria, Ph.D. is a professor of political science of the Master of Public
Administration Program at Texas State University. His research interest includes local
government and administration and nonprofit management. Dr. Longoria received his Ph.D.
from Texas A&M University.
Nandhini Rangarajan, Ph.D. is associate professor of political science at Texas State
University. She earned a Ph.D. in Public Administration from the Rockefeller College of
Public Affairs and Policy, State University of New York at Albany. Her interests are in
creativity, innovation and public management. Her research has appeared in the Review of
Public Personnel Administration, Public Productivity and Management Review and the
Journal of Public Affairs Education. Her recently published book (co-authored with Dr.
Shields), A Playback for Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks and Project
Management, provides useful tools for graduate students to manage research process.
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