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EyeDiseases:DiagnosisandDetec0on
LearningObjec0ves
ThroughexaminingimagesfromtheMementoMü)erexhibit(memento.mu?ermuseum.org),readingmaterials,andhands-onac0vi0es,studentswill
• Understandhowaberra0onsintheeye’shomeostasisaffecttheeye’sabilitytofunc0on.
• Understandthecausesofthemostcommonformsofeyedisordersandhowthesedisordersaffectvision.
• Learnandapplythetoolsandtechniquesphysiciansusetoassessanddetecteyedisorders.
TimeRequiredforLesson:Theoverviewandin-classac0vityshouldtakeanhour.StudentsaretoreadtheaCachedhandoutinadvanceoftheclasssession.
ClassPrepara0on
Inadvanceofthelesson,theinstructorshouldpreparethefollowingmaterials:
Handouts:
• ACachedmodelSnellenEyeChart(modifiedforuseinasmallerspacethanthestandard20foot/6meterchart),enoughtoallowforgroupsof2-4.ItcanalsobedownloadedathCp://visionsource.com/site/assets/files/1192/free_eye_chart.pdf.
• ACached“OcularDisorderOverview”readingmaterial,tobereadinadvanceoftheclasssession.
• Printoutone“EyeExamina0onSheet”foreachstudenttakingpartintheEyeExamina0onandEyeDisorderAssessmentac0vity.
EyeDisorderDemonstra<onGlasses(Madeinadvancebyinstructor) 1 Thesegoggles,designedbyAnn-MarieRaphail,EmilyBach,andRobertHallock,aredesignedtoprovideahands-onsimula0onoftheeffectsofvariouseyedisorders.Theinstructorshouldmakeenoughtoaccommodategroupsof2-4students.
SuppliesNeeded:
• Plas0cprotec0vegoggles(suchaslaboratoryglasses):Thenumberofgogglesdependsonhowmanydemonstra0onsofvariouscondi0onsyouwouldliketoconduct.
• Blackelectricaltape
• Plas0csandwichbags
• Cleartape
• Op0onal:Permanentmarkerorconstruc0onpaper
AssemblyInstruc<ons:
Ann-MarieRaphail,EmilyC.Bach,andRobertM.Hallock,“ClassroomDemonstra0onoftheVisualEffectsofEye1
Diseases,”JournalofUndergraduateNeuroscienceEduca<on,Vol.12,No.2(Spring2014),A150-A153.
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Eachpairofgogglesisdesignedtosimulateoneofthreekindsofvisualdisorders:tunnelvision(asinglaucoma),scotoma(adistor<onincentralvision,asinmaculardegenera<on),andblurredvision(asinrefrac<veerrorsandcataracts).
Fortunnelvision:
Coverasetofsafetygogglesinblackelectricaltape,leavingopenasmallcircleroughlyaninch(2.5cm)indiameterinthemiddleofeachlens.Coverthesidesaswell.Nextcovertheedgesofeachcirclewithalayerofcleartape(accordingtoRaphailet.Al.thismeasureis“tosimulatethegradualchangefromnormalvisioninthecentertodarknessintheperiphery”).
Forscotoma(blindspot):
Coverablackcircleofelectricaltapeatthecenterofeachlensonasetofsafetygoggles.Acircleofblackconstruc0onpaperorpermanentmarkercanalsobeused.
Forblurredvision:
Tapeseveralplas0csandwichbagsoverthetopsofthelensesofasetofsafetygoggles.ThemorebagsaCached,theblurrierthevision.
AnswerstoStudentWorksheets:Emailmailto:[email protected]
AcademicStandards(Lesson,Ac0vity,andAssignments):
Next-Genera0onScienceStandards:HS-LS1-2,HS-LS1-3
CommonCore:
ScienceandTechnicalSubjects:CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.1,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.2,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.3,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.4,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.5,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.6,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.8,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.10,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.11-12.2,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.11-12.3,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.11-12.4,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.11-12.5,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.11-12.6,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.11-12.7,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.11-12.9,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.11-12.10
Wri0ng:CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.9-10.2,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.9-10.4,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.9-10.6,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.9-10.7,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.9-10.8,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.9-10.9,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.11-12.2,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.11-12.4,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.11-12.6,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.11-12.7,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.11-12.8,CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.11-12.9
KeyTerms
Age-RelatedMacularDegenera0on:Eyedisorderwherethemacula’sconnec0ontothere0nabeginstodeteriorate,resul0nginagradualdeteriora0onofcentralvision.
Amblyopia:Eyedisorderwhererefrac0veerrorsaremoresignificantinoneeyethantheother.Alsoknownas“lazyeye.”
As0gma0sm:Refrac0veerrorcausedwheneitherthecorneaorthelensareirregularly-shaped,causingblurredvisionatnearbyandfardistances.
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Cataract:Eyedisorderwherethelensbecomescloudy,resul0nginblurredvision.
Congenital:Condi0ondevelopedatbirthorduringearlydevelopment.
Diabe0cRe0nopathy:Eyedisorderwherebloodvesselsinthere0nabecomedamaged,leakingbloodandotherfluidsintotheeye.
Drusen:Depositsthatformunderthemaculaduring“dry”maculardegenera0on.
Esotropia:Crossedeyeswhereoneorbotheyesturninwardtowardthenose.
Exotropia:Crossedeyeswhereoneorbotheyesturnoutwardtowardthetemple.
FundusoftheEye:Theinteriorsurfaceoftheeye.
Glaucoma:Eyedisorderwhereabuildupofaqueoushumorintheeye,createspressureontheop0cnerve.Thispressurecausesthefieldofvisiontonarrow.
Hyperopia:Refrac0veerrorwherelightenteringtheeyeisprojectedontoafixedpointjustbehindofthere0na,causingnearbyobjectstoappearblurry.Alsoknownasfarsightedness.
Macula:Thecentralpointofthere0nathatallowsforcentral(focused)vision.
MacularEdema:Theswellingorthickeningofthemaculacausedbydiabe0cre0nopathy.
Myopia:Refrac0veerrorwherelightenteringtheeyeisprojectedontoafixedpointjustaheadofthere0na,causingdistantobjectstoappearblurry.Alsoknownasnearsightedness.
Ophthalmoscope:Eyeexamina0ondevicethatusesalightsource,lensesandmirrorstoexaminethefundusoftheeye.
Presbyopia:Refrac0veerrorcausedwhenthelenslosesitsflexibility.
Refrac0veError:Eyedisordersthataffecttheeye’sabilitytoproperlyfocusonobjects.Causedbyirregulari0esinthecornea,thelens,ortheeyeitself.
Strabismus:Eyedisorderacondi0onwheretheeyescannotproperlyalign.Alsoknownas“crossedeyes.”
Victrectomy:Eyedisordertreatmentinwhichthevitreoushumorisdrainedfromtheeyeandreplacedwithaclearsaltsolu0on.
LectureMaterial
Part1:BasicOverviewoftheEyeandEyeDisorders
Organismshaveevolvedtomaintainastateofstabilityknownashomeostasis.However,variousfactorscaninfluencethehomeostasisofbodilysystemsandupsetthisbalance.Eyedisorders,causedeitherthroughgene0corenvironmentalfactors,candisrupttheeye’sabilitytofunc0onproperly.DoctorshavedevelopedmethodstoaCempttodetectdisorderssoastominimizeorpreventpermanentdamage.
Eyedisorderscanbetheresultofnumerousfactors:imperfec0onsdevelopedintheeyeduringbirthorearlydevelopment(congenital),injuriestotheeyeorbrain,sideeffectsofdiseases,orthe
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naturaldeteriora0onofthebodyasitages.Whateverthecause,itisimportantfordoctorstoiden0fywhatisgoingonintheeyetoensurethepropertreatmentscantakeplace.
VisualDemonstra4on:EyePathologiesImagefromMemento.Mu)erMuseum.org
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Figure1.EyePathologies,AccessionNo.9201-9301.
Teacher’sNote:Showzoomed-inimagesofthewaxmodelsofeyepathologiestodemonstratetheeffectsofavarietyofeyediseases.
Thesewaxmodelsdemonstrateavarietyofeyeinjuriesanddiseases,fromthecommon(suchasthe“black”eye,thesecondeyefromtherightintheboComrow)totheextreme(suchasthepolypthathasforcedtheeyefromitssocketandtheeyesocketdestroyedbycancer,thefirstandsecondfromtherightinthetoprow,respec0vely).
Physicianslearnabouttheeyethroughdissec0onofspecimens,analyzingmodels,andexamininglivepa0ents.
VisualDemonstra4on:Papier-mâchéEyeballModelfromMemento.Mu)erMuseum.org
Teacher’sNote:Rotatethemodeltodemonstratethepartsoftheeye.Instructstudentstoiden4fythevariousparts.
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Figure2.Papier-MâchéEyeballModel,withlabeledparts,AccessionNo.F1993.701.
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Figure3.DrawingoftheEye.Source:Na<onalEyeIns<tute,Na<onalIns<tutesofHealth.UsedunderCrea<veCommonlicense2.0.Nochangeshavebeenmade.
Part2:OverviewofEyeExamina0ons
Becausemanyeyediseasesexhibitnosymptoms,theNa0onalIns0tuteofHealthrecommendsregularcheckupsasameansofdetec0ngeyediseasesearly.Indiseasessuchasdiabe0cre0nopathyand
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glaucoma,earlydetec0onisessen0altoensurepropertreatment.Earlydetec<oncanbethedifferencebetweenmaintainingorlosingsight! 2
Duringarou0neeyeexamina0on,anphysicianconductsaseriesofteststoassesschangesinapa0ent’svisualacuityandcheckforthesignsofeyedisorders.AccordingtotheAmericanAcademyofOphthalmology,arou0neeyeexamina0onconsistsofeightparts:
• VisualAcuityTest(usingeyechartstotestapa0ent’svision)
• PupilExamina0on(tes0ngpupilsize,shape,andresponsivenesstolight)
• ExtraocularMo0lityandAlignment(tes0ngwhethertheeyescanmoveandalignproperlybyhavingapa0entfollowanobjectwithhisorhereyes)hCps://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/ar0cle/003397.htm
• IntraocularPressure(tes0ngforglaucomabymeasuringtheeye’sinternalpressure)
• VisualFieldAssessment(tes0ngthepa0ent’scentralandperipheralvision)
• ExternalExamina0on(visuallycheckingeyelids,skin,headandlymphnodes)
• SlitLampExamina0on(closeexamina0onofop0cnerve,macula,sclera,cornea,anteriorchamber,iris,andlensthroughaspecializedmicroscopecalledaslitlamp)
• Fundoscopy(usinganophthalmoscopetoexaminethefundus) 3
Theresultscollectedfromeachofthesetestsarethencomparedtopastresultsfrompreviousexamina0ons.Thephysicianusestheseresultstodiagnoseaneyedisorder.
Part3:TheOphthalmoscope,aRevolu0onaryTool
Oneofthemostrevolu0onarydevelopmentsinthehistoryofdiagnosingeyediseaseswastheinven0onoftheophthalmoscope.
VisualDemonstra4on:Ophthalmoscopeand“Anearlyophthalmoscopewithsourceoflightshown”
Teacher’sNote:NavigatetotheophthalmoscopeonMemento.Mu)erMuseum.org.
hCps://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/eyediseases.html.2
hCp://www.aao.org/young-ophthalmologists/yo-info/ar0cle/how-to-conduct-eight-point-ophthalmology-exam.3
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Figure4.Ophthalmoscope,AccessionNo.17647.16
Note:Asyouexplainthefunc4onoftheophthalmoscope,movethroughtheslidesoftheimage,focusingonthemechanismandlenses.
HowtheOphthalmoscopeWorks
Theophthalmoscopeworksbyshiningalightsourceontoamirror.Themirrorreflectsthelightthroughthepupilofasubject’seye.Thelightreflectsontothere0na,illumina0ngthefundus,orinteriorsurface,oftheeye.Thisillumina0onallowstheobservertoexaminethefundus,usinglensestoenhancetheimage,thusallowingtheobservertoexaminetheeye. 4
HistoricalOverview:Thepupilperplexedeighteenthandnineteenthcenturyscien0sts.Theyobservedthatunderlowlightcondi0onsthattheeyesofcertainanimalsappearedtoglow.Whatcouldbethesourceofthisillumina0on?Didtheeyeactasitsownlightsourceindarkness?Didtheeyeabsorblightduringtheday?Wasthereachemicalprocessgoingonintheeyethatallowedittoglow,asinthecaseoffireflies?Diditemititsownelectricity?
Ul0mately,experimentsconductedinthe1800sprovedtheanswertobe“NoneoftheAbove.”In1810,Frenchscien0stBénédictPrévostdeterminedthere0naonlyrespondedtolightenteringthepupil,andtheeyewasnotgenera0nglightonitsown.Laterscien0stsdiscoveredthattheinterioroftheeyecouldbeseenwhileflashingalightthroughthepupil. In1823,Czechscien0stJanPurkyne5
determinedtheeyedidnotgenerateitsownlightintotaldarkness;instead,the“illumina0on”wastheresultoflightreflec0nguponthere0na.Helearnedthisbyconduc0ngexperimentsinvolvingshiningacandlelightontoasetoflensesintothepupilofadog’seye.Thisledotherscien0ststoexplorethepossibilityusingacombina0onofmirrorsandalightsourcelighttoexaminethefundus.
Duringthemid-1800s,therewereseveralaCemptstocreateadeviceforexaminingtheeye.Perhapstheearliestcamein1847whenAmericaninventorCharlesBabbagedesignedasimple
GeorgeT.TimberlakeandMichaelKennedy,TheDirectOphthalmoscope:HowItWorksandHowtoUseIt4
(UniversityofKansasMedicalCenter,2005),11-13.
StanleyJoelReiser,MedicineandtheReignofTechnology(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUP,1981),45-47.5
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ophthalmoscopebyplacingamirroratanangleinasmallmetaltube.Alightsourcecouldthenbereflectedontothemirrorandintotheeye.However,duringthetes0ngofhisdevice,Babbagefoundhewasunabletoobservetheinterioroftheeyeandheabandonedhisdesign.
Thesolu0ontotheophthalmoscopecameseveralyearslater.In1851,ayoungGermanscien0stnamedHermannvonHelmholtzdevelopedasimilardevice,whichhecalledAugenspiegel(Germanfor“eyemirror”).Itcontainedasetof0ltedglassplateswhichwhenexposedtoalightsourceallowedtheusertoviewtheinteriorofasubject’seye.Thedeviceeventuallycametobeknownasthe“ophthalmoscope.”Theophthalmoscoperemainsastandardtoolineyeexamina0ontothisday,withfewaltera0onstoHelmholtz’soriginaldesign. In1892,ophthalmologistEdwardLoringcommentedon6
theophthalmoscope:“Inthewholehistoryofmedicinethereisnomorebeau0fulepisodethantheinven0onoftheophthalmoscope,andphysiologyhasfewgreatertriumphs.”
WebResourcesRelatedtotheEyeandEyeDisorders:
hCp://www.aao.org/
hCps://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/eyediseases.html
hCp://www.aoa.org/pa0ents-and-public/eye-and-vision-problems?sso=y
ClassroomAc0vity:EyeExamina0onandEyeDisorderAssessment
Inthisac4vity,studentswillexaminetheeffectsofeyedisordersonregularvision.Workinginpairs(orsmallgroupsdependingonaccesstosupplies),studentswillconducttwotestsperformedduringarou4neeyeexamina4on:avisualacuitytestandavisualfieldassessment.Thegroupswillusetheseteststocomparevisionundernormal(unimpeded)circumstancestovisionimpairedbythreedifferentkindsofvisualdisorders:tunnelvision(asinglaucoma),blurredvision(asinrefrac4veerrorsandcataracts),anddistortedcentralvision(asinmaculardegenera4on).
Ac4vity
Part1:Prepara0on
1) Studentsbreakintogroupsoftwo.EachgrouptakesacopyoftheSnellenchart,asetofgoggles,andanexamina0onsheet.Ifsuppliesarelimitedhavethembreakintogroupsofthreeorfour.
2) First,haveeachstudentsetupacontrolbymeasuringeachother’svisualacuity.Useatapemeasuretomeasureadistanceoftenfeet.Dependingonthesizeoftheclassroomthismayneedtobeconductedinthehallway.Floor0lesmayalsobeusedtomeasureoutthenecessarydistance.Onestudentwillserveas“thepa0ent”andtheother“theobserver.”
3) Havetheobserverstandatoneend,holdinguptheSnellenchart,whilethepa0entstandsattheoppositeend.
4) Instructthepa0enttocoveroneeyeandaCempttoreadthesmallestrowofleCershe/shecansee,thenrepeatthiswiththeoppositeeye.Ifthestudentwearscorrec0velenses,havethemkeepthemonduringthisprocess.
CRKeeler,“ABriefHistoryoftheOphthalmoscope,”OptometryinPrac<ceVol.4(2003),137-145;CRKeeler,6
“BabbagetheUnfortunate,”JournalofOphthalmologyVol.88No.6(June2004),730-732..
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5) Theobserverthendocumentsthefrac0onnexttotherowthepa0entcouldreadontheirexamina0onchart.Thenthestudentsswitchrolesandrepeattheprocess.
6) Next,eachstudentwillconductavisualfieldassessment.Instructeachstudenttostandfacetofaceroughlytwofeetapart.
7) Havethepa0entstarestraightahead.Theobserverwillthenholdupfingers(theamountisuptothem)infrontofthepa0entwhothentellstheobserverhowmanyfingerstheysee.Theobserverthenholdsupfingersandmoveshis/herhandtothelerofthepa0ent’sheadjustattheedgeoftheirperiphery.Thepa0entagainsayshowmanyfingershe/shesees.Theobserverthendoesthesametotherightofthepa0ent.
8) Theobserverrecordswhetherornotthepa0entcouldcorrectlyiden0fythenumberoffingersontheexamina0onsheet.Thestudentsthenswitchroles.
Thedatacollectedfromthevisualacuityandvisualfieldassessmentswillserveasacontrol.
9) Repeatthevisualacuityandvisualfieldassessmentswhilethepa0entwearseachofthesetsofgoggles,makingnoteoftheresultsontheexamina0onsheet.
10) Onceallstudentshavecompletedtheirexamina0ons,theclassreconvenesandhavestudentsexplaintheirresults.
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EyeExamina0onSheet
Observer’sName:_________________________________________________________________
Pa0ent’sName:___________________________________________________________________
DateofExamina0on:_______________________________________________________________
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Test#1(ControlGroup):
VisualAcuityTest: LerEye:20/__________ RightEye:20/_________
VisualFieldAssessment:
CentralVision(Canseenumbersinfrontofface): YES NO
PeripheralVision
Canseenumberstothelerofface: YES NO
Canseenumberstotherightofface:YES NO
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Test#2(Glaucoma)
VisualAcuityTest: LerEye:20/__________ RightEye:20/_________
VisualFieldAssessment:
CentralVision(Canseenumbersinfrontofface): YES NO
PeripheralVision
Successfullyseesfingerstothelerofface: YES NO
Successfullyseesfingerstotherightofface:YES NO
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Test#3(MacularDegenera0on)
VisualAcuityTest: LerEye:20/__________ RightEye:20/_________
VisualFieldAssessment:
CentralVision(Canseenumbersinfrontofface): YES NO
PeripheralVision
Successfullyseesfingerstothelerofface: YES NO
Successfullyseesfingerstotherightofface:YES NO
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Test#4(Cataracts)
VisualAcuityTest: LerEye:20/__________ RightEye:20/_________
VisualFieldAssessment:
CentralVision(Canseenumbersinfrontofface): YES NO
PeripheralVision
Successfullyseesfingerstothelerofface: YES NO
Successfullyseesfingerstotherightofface:YES NO
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StudentHandout:OverviewofOcularDisorders
Overview:
AccordingtotheCentersforDiseaseControlandPreven0on,roughly14millionpeopleovertheageoftwelvehavesomekindofvisualimpairment.TheCDCreportsthemostcommoneyedisordersareRefrac4veErrors,Age-RelatedMacularDegenera4on,Cataracts,Diabe4cRe4nopathy,Glaucoma,Amblyopia,andStrabismus. 7
Refrac0veErrors:
Refrac0veerrorsarethemostcommoneyedisorders.Refrac0veerrorsarecommonlycausedbyirregulari0esinthecornea,thelens,ortheeyeitself;theseirregulari0esaffecttheabilityoftheeyetoproperlyfocusonobjects.Theycanexhibitatayoungage(myopia,hyperopia,as0gma0sm)orlaterinlifeasaresultofaging(presbyopia).Refrac0veerrorsarecommonlycorrectedthroughtheuseofcorrec0velenses(glassesorcontactlenses)orsurgery.
CommonRefrac0veErrors:
Myopia(Nearsightedness):Innormalvision,lightisprojectedontothere0naandisprocessedbythephotoreceptors.Inthecaseofpa0entswithmyopia,thelightisprojectedontoafixedpointjustaheadofthere0na,causingdistantobjectstoappearblurry.AccordingtotheAmericanOptometricAssocia0on,nearlythirtypercentofAmericanshavemyopia. 8
Hyperopia(Farsightedness):Innormalvision,lightisprojectedontothere0naandisprocessedbythephotoreceptors.Inthecaseofpa0entswithhyperopia,thelightisprojectedontoafixedpointjustbehindofthere0na,causingnearbyobjectstoappearblurry. 9
As4gma4sm:As0gma0smiscausedwheneitherthecornea(theprotec0vecoveroftheeye)orthelensareirregularly-shaped.Thiscausesblurredvisionatnearbyandfardistances. 10
Presbyopia:Presbyopiaiscausedwhenthelenslosesitsflexibility.Itappearsmostcommonlyinpa0entsovertheageoffortyasvisionnaturallydeteriorates. 11
Age-RelatedMacularDegenera0on(AMD):
hCp://www.cdc.gov/visionhealth/basic_informa0on/fast_facts.htm;hCp://www.cdc.gov/visionhealth/7
basic_informa0on/eye_disorders.htm.
hCp://www.aoa.org/pa0ents-and-public/eye-and-vision-problems/glossary-of-eye-and-vision-condi0ons/myopia?8
sso=y.
hCps://www.aoa.org/pa0ents-and-public/eye-and-vision-problems/glossary-of-eye-and-vision-condi0ons/9
hyperopia?sso=y.
hCps://www.aoa.org/pa0ents-and-public/eye-and-vision-problems/glossary-of-eye-and-vision-condi0ons/10
as0gma0sm?sso=y.
hCps://www.aoa.org/pa0ents-and-public/eye-and-vision-problems/glossary-of-eye-and-vision-condi0ons/11
presbyopia?sso=y.
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Themaculaisthecentralpointofthere0naandallowsforfocusedvision.AMDiscausedwhenthemacula’sconnec0ontothere0nabeginstodeteriorate,resul0nginagradualdeteriora0onofvision.Thisusuallystartsasablurrypointinthecenterofapa0ent’svisionwhichgraduallyincreasesinsizeastheyage.Maculardegenera0oncomesintwovarie0es:wetanddry.Dryisthemostcommonformandiscausedwhendepositscalleddrusenformunderthemacula,causingittobecomethin.Wetiscausedwhenbloodvesselsformunderthemaculaandbegintoleakfluids.ThereiscurrentlynocureforAMD.
Asthenamesuggests,AMDismostcommonlyexhibitedinagingpa0ents(usuallyagedfiryandolder),anditistheleadingcauseofvisionlossinpa0entsovertheageoffiry,accordingtotheCDC. 12
Cataracts:
Cataractsarecausedwhenthelensbecomescloudy,resul0nginblurredvision.Theyaremostcommonamongelderlypa0ents.AccordingtotheNa0onalEyeIns0tuteoftheNa0onalIns0tuteofHealth,overhalfthepeopleovertheageofeightyhavecataracts.However,cataractscanappearatbirthorearlyinlife(congenitalcataracts);developduetoeyetrauma(trauma0ccataracts)orradia0onexposure(radia0oncataracts);oroccurastheresultofotherdiseasessuchasglaucomaordiabetes(secondarycataracts). 13
Cataractscanbemanagedthroughcorrec0velenses.Ifvisionissignificantlydeterioratedthedamagedlenscanbesurgicallyremovedandreplacedwithanar0ficialone.
Diabe0cRe0nopathy:
Certaindiseaseswhentheyprogressorwhenleruntreatedcaneventuallyaffectvision.ThemostcommonoftheseintheUnitedStatesiscausedbyadvanceddiabetes.AccordingtotheCDC,Diabe0cRe0nopathyistheleadingcauseofblindnessinadultsintheUSbetweentheagesof20and74.
Diabe0cRe0nopathyoccursintwostages:nonprolifera0veandprolifera0ve.InNonprolifera0veDiabe0cRe0nopathy(NPDR),theearliestphase,bloodvesselsinthere0nabecomedamaged,leakingbloodandotherfluidsintotheeye.AsNPDRadvances,themaculacanbegintoswellorthickeninaprocessknownasmacularedema.Thisswellingofthemacularesultsinblurredvision.Thecondi0oncanthenadvancetoProlifera0veDiabe0cRe0nopathy(PDR),wherethebloodvesselsinthere0naclose.There0naaCemptstocompensatebygrowingnewvessels.However,thesenewvesselsgrowabnormally,causingthemtoleakmorefluidintothevitreoushumor.Scar0ssuecausedasaresultcanleadtothere0nadetachingwhichcanleadtoblindness.
hCps://www.macular.org/what-macular-degenera0on;hCps://www.aoa.org/pa0ents-and-public/eye-and-vision-12
problems/glossary-of-eye-and-vision-condi0ons/macular-degenera0on?sso=y;hCps://nei.nih.gov/health/maculardegen/armd_facts;DeborahPavan-Langston,ManualofOcularDiagnosisandTherapy,FourthEdi0on(Boston:LiCle,BrownandCompany,1996),168-169.
hCps://nei.nih.gov/health/cataract/cataract_facts.13
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Medica0onandlasertreatmenttoeliminatedefec0vebloodcellscanbeusedtominimizetheeffectsofmacularedema.Doctorscanalsoperformaprocedurecalledavictrectomyinwhichthevitreoushumorisdrainedfromtheeyeandreplacedwithaclearsaltsolu0on. 14
Glaucoma:
Glaucomaisanameforcollec0onofeyediseases.Collec0velytheyarecausedbyanexcessbuildupofaqueoushumorintheeye,crea0ngaddi0onalpressureontheop0cnerve.Thisbuildupinpressurecanleadtodamagetotheop0cnerve.Asthediseaseprogressives,pa0entswillgraduallyloseperipheralvisioninoneorbotheyes,followedbytunnelvisionastheperipheralvisioncon0nuestonarrow.Thisnarrowingcanadvanceun0lthepa0entislercompletelyblind.
Themostcommonformofthediseaseisknownasprimaryopenangleglaucoma.Inthisversionofglaucoma,thebuildupinaqueoushumoriscausedwhenthevesselsresponsiblefordrainingthefluidbecomeblocked.AccordingtotheGlaucomaResearchFounda0on,aboutthreemillionpeopleintheUSsufferfromprimaryopen-angleglaucoma.
Currentlythereisnocureforglaucomabuttherearemedica0onsavailabletohelpreduceeyepressure.Laserandtradi0onalsurgerymayalsobeusedtodrainexcessaqueoushumor. 15
Strabismus:
Commonlyknownas“crossedeyes,”strabismusisacondi0onwheretheeyescannotproperlyalign.Itiscausedwhenthemusclessurroundingtheeyearenotworkingproperly.Themisalignmentcanresultinoneorbotheyesleaninginwardtowardthenose(esotropia)oroutwardtowardthetemple(exotropia).Thiscanresultindoublevision,lackofdepthpercep0on,andamblyopia(seebelow).Strabismusmanifestsmostcommonlyinchildrenundertheageofthree.However,avarietyoffactors,includingcertaindiseases(suchasbotulismanddiabetes)andocularorneurologicaldamage(asaresultoftraumaorstroke),cancausestrabismusinadults.Thecondi0onistreatedthroughcorrec0velenses,eyemuscleexercises,orsurgery. 16
Amblyopia:
Commonlyknownas“lazyeye,”amblyopiaisacondi0onwhererefrac0veerrorsaremoresignificantinoneeyethantheother,causingthebraintofavoroneeyeovertheother.Thiscondi0onmanifestsduringinfancyorearlychildhood.
Contrarytopopularbelief,amblyopiadoesnotcausemisalignmentoftheeye(strabismus).However,amblyopiacandevelopinpa0entswithstrabismusthatisnotproperlytreated.Amblyopiacanalsobebroughtuponbyacataract.
hCps://nei.nih.gov/health/diabe0c/re0nopathy;hCp://www.aoa.org/pa0ents-and-public/eye-and-vision-14
problems/glossary-of-eye-and-vision-condi0ons/diabe0c-re0nopathy?sso=y;hCp://www.aao.org/eye-health/0ps-preven0on/what-is-diabe0c-re0nopathy.
hCp://www.aao.org/eye-health/diseases/what-is-glaucoma;hCp://www.glaucoma.org/glaucoma/primary-open-15
angle-glaucoma.php;hCps://nei.nih.gov/health/glaucoma/glaucoma_facts.
hCps://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/ar0cle/001004.htm;hCp://www.aoa.org/pa0ents-and-public/eye-16
and-vision-problems/glossary-of-eye-and-vision-condi0ons/strabismus?sso=y.
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Amblyopiacanbestbecorrectediftreatedatanearlyagewhiletheeyesares0lldeveloping(usuallybetweentheagesofsevenandtenyearsold).Themostcommontreatmentistoacceleratethegrowthoftheweakereyebyinhibi0ngthevisionofthestrongereyethroughatropineeyedropsoraneyepatch. 17
hCps://nei.nih.gov/health/amblyopia/amblyopia_guide;hCp://www.aapos.org/terms/condi0ons/21.17
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NAME_____________________________________________ DATE:______________Assignment:ReadtheaCachedOverviewofOcularDisordersandcompletethesec0onsbelow.
Part1:Usethereadingsampletocompletethefollowingsentences.
1. ________________________isadisorderwherethemacula’sconnec0ontothere0nabeginstodeteriorate.
2. Arefrac0veerrorcausedbyeitheranirregularly-shapedcorneaorlens,causingblurredvisionatnearbyandfardistancesisknownas________________________.
3. Onetreatmentfordiabe0cre0nopathyis________________________inwhichthevitreoushumorisdrainedfromtheeyeandreplacedwithaclearsaltsolu0on.
4. ________________________,or“nearsightedness,”isarefrac0veerrorwheredistantobjectsappearblurry.
5. Ifapa0enthascrossedeyeswhereoneorbotheyesturninwardtowardthenose,he/shesuffersfrom________________________.
6. ________________________,or“crossedeyes,”isadisorderwheretheeyescannotproperlyalign.
7. Ifapa0entviewsnearbyobjectsasblurry,itispossiblehe/shesuffersfrom________________________,alsoknownas“farsightedness.”
8. The________________________isthepartoftheeyethatallowsforcentral(focused)vision.
9. ________________________isadisordercausedwhenanexcessbuildupofaqueoushumorcreatesgreaterpressureontheeye,causingthepa0ent’svisiontonarrow.
10. Acondi0onwheretherefrac0veerrorinoneeyeisgreaterthantheotherisknownas________________________,or“lazyeye.”
11. Duringdrymaculardegenera0on,depositsknownas________________________formunderthemacula,causingittobecomethin.
12. Apa0entissufferingfrom________________________whenthelensinoneorbotheyesbecomescloudy,resul0nginblurredvision.
13. ________________________isarefrac0veerrorcausedwhenthelenslosesitsflexibility.
14. Apersonwith“crossedeyes”whereeitheroneorbotheyesturnoutwardtowardthetemplesuffersfrom________________________.
15. Untreateddiabetesmaybringabout________________________,adisorderwherebloodvesselsinthere0nabecomedamagedandleakbloodandotherfluidsintotheeye.
Part2:Listonetreatmentforthefollowingeyedisorders:
1. Refrac0veErrors
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2. Diabe0cRe0nopathy
3. Amblyopia
4. Glaucoma
5. Cataracts
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NAME_____________________________________________ DATE:______________ReadingScien0fic/TechnicalSubjectTake-HomeAssignment:
ReadthesampleofHermannvonHelmholtz’sexplana0onoftheophthalmoscope,andanswerthefollowingques0onsonaseparatesheetofpaper.
1) Summarizethepassage.Whatisthecentralthemeofthepassage?
2) Definethefollowingtermsusedinthetext:
Choroid:
Sclero0c:
Re0na:
LuminousObject:
Fundus:
Ophthalmoscope:
3) Usingtextualevidence,answerthefollowingques0ons:
a) WhatdoesHelmholtzviewasanobstacletoobserversexamininganilluminatedre0na?
b) WhatisHelmholtz’sproposedsolu0ontothisproblem?
c) Whenthisobstacleisovercome,accordingtoHelmholtz,howshouldthere0naappearto
theobserver?
d) HowdoesHelmholtzproposegetngaclearerviewoftheinsideofthere0na?
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HermanVonHelmholtz’sExplana0onofHisOphthalmoscope(1857)
HermannvonHelmholtz,trans.JamesP.C.Southall,HelmholtzTrea<seonPhysiologicalOp<csOp0calSocietyofAmerica,1924.226-229.
Accordingtotheprincipleofthereversibilityofthelightpath,lightwilltraversepreciselythe
sameroutethroughanop0calinstrumentfromoneendtotheotherineitherdirec0on.Thus,for
example,sofarasthisprincipleisconcerned,itmakesnodifferencewhichoneofapairofconjugate
pointsisregardedasthesourceofthelightandwhichoneastheimage,becauseinthisrespectobject
andimageareinterchangeable.Suppose,therefore,thattheeyeisaccommodatedtofocusonthere0na
anexactimageofanexternalluminousobject;andsupposethatweregardtheilluminatedpartofthe
re0naasbeingitselfaluminousobject:thenitsimageprojectedbytheocularmediawillcoincide
exactlywiththeexternalobject.Inotherwords,allthelightproceedingfromthere0nathroughtheeye
willreturnpunctuallytotheoutsideluminousbody.Inordertogetsomeofthislight,anobserverwould
havetoinserthiseyebetweentheluminousbodyandtheilluminatedeye,whichofcourse,cannotbe
donewithoutsomeauxiliarycontrivancetopreventtheillumina0nglightfrombeingintercepted.
…Thus,underordinarycircumstances,eventhepartsofthefundusoftheeyethatreflectlight
beCerthantheotherplaces,as,forexample,thewhiteareawheretheop0cnerveenterstheeyeand
thebloodvessels,arenotvisibletoanoutsideobserver…Butiftheilluminatedeyeisnotaccommodated
exactlyeitherfortheluminousobjectorforthepupiloftheobserver’seye,itmaybepossibleforthe
observertogetsomeofthelightreturningfromthepupiloftheotherperson’seye;andthenthepupil
willlookbrighttohim.
It’snothardtounderstandhowtheobservercangetlightfromallthosepartsofthere0naof
anotherperson’seye,thatarecomprisedwithintheareacoveredbytheblurredimageofthepupilofhis
owneye.Suppose,foramoment,thatthepupiloftheobserver’seyeisreplacedbyaluminousdisc
whoseblurredimageintheotherperson’seyecoincidedexactlywithwhatwastherebefore.Nowinthis
caseraysoflightproceedfromoneormorepointsoftheilluminateddisctoallthepointsofitsblurred
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image.Accordingly,raysoflightmaycomebackfromallpartsoftheilluminatedareaonthere0natothe
correspondingpointorpointsonthedisc;thatis,totheplacewheretheobserver’spupilis.Thusthe
observerwillseetheotherperson’seyeasluminous,whenevertheblurredimageofhisownpupilin
thateyepartlyoverlapstheblurredimageofaluminousobject.
Suppose,therefore,thattheobserverlooksrightpasttheedgeofalight,thatisscreenedfrom
hisowneyesoasnottoblindhim,intoanotherperson’seye;andsupposethatthislaCereyeis
accommodatedforapointbetweenthetwoeyesorforapointmuchfartherawaythantheopposite
eye:underthesecircumstances,theobserverwillseethepupiloftheothereyeshiningred….The
experimentisusuallysuccessfulalsowithouttakingaccountoftheaccommoda0onoftheilluminated
eye,providedtheobserverisfaraway,orprovidedthepa0entlookstooneside…becausethenthe
imageofthelightandthatofthepupiloftheobserver’seyeareprojectedonthelateralpartsofthe
re0nawheretheimagesaregenerallynotclear-cut.Theillumina0onisbrightestwhenthelightfallsat
theplacewheretheop0cnerveenterstheeye,becausethelightishighlyreflectedfromthiswhite
substance,andalsobecauseitstranslucencyissuchthatitdoesnotofferanydefinitesurfaceforthe
projec0onofaclear-cutimage.
Itmaybenotedthatwithsufficientlystrongillumina0onenoughlightgoesthroughthechoroid
tothesclero0ctobepercep0blewhenitisdiffuselyreflectedbackagain….Hence,withstrong
illumina0on,evenwhenthepa0ent’seyeisexactlyaccommodatedforthepupiloftheobserver’seye,
theluminositymaybefeeble,especiallyifthereisnotmuchpigmentintheeye….
Theluminosityoftheeyecanbeobserveds0llbeCer,provided[thelightsource]isnot
permiCedtofalldirectlyontheeye,butisreflectedonitfromaglassplatethroughwhichtheobserver
canlookintoit
[….]
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Nowalthoughunderthesecircumstancestheobserverbeholdstheilluminatedfundusofthe
eye,asarule,perhaps,hecannotmakeoutanyofitsdetails,becauseheisunabletoaccommodatefor
theimageofthefundusthatisproducedbytheocularmedia.Todothis,hemustuseappropriateglass
lenses.Thecombina0onofanillumina0onapparatuswithglasslensesinthiswaycons0tutesan
instrumentcalledanophthalmoscope(or“ocularmirror”),whichenablestheobservertoseedis0nctly
theimagesonthere0naandthedetailsofthere0naonanotherperson’seye,andtoinves0gatethem.
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EyeDisorderResearchAssignment:
Selectaneyediseaseorcondi0onlistedbelowtouseasatopicofaresearchproject. 18
Gatherresearchfromreliableprintandweb-basedsourcesandanswerthefollowingques0ons:
1) Whatisthecause(orcauses)ofthedisorder?
Albinism CytomegalovirusRe0ni0s MarfanSyndrome
Anisocoria DetachedorTornRe0na MicrovascularCranialNervePalsy
BacterialKera00s DryEye MyastheniaGravis
Bell’sPalsy EyeCancer Nevus
BlackEye EyeLymphoma Nystagmus
Blephari0s Floaters OcularHypertension
BlockedTearDuct Fuchs’Dystrophy OcularMelanoma
BranchRe0nalVeinOcclusion(BRVO)
GiantCellArteri0s Onchocerciasis(AfricanRiverBlindness)
Celluli0s GravesDisease Op0cNeuri0s
CentralRe0nalVeinOcclusion Hemangioma PigmentDispersionSyndrome
ChalaziaandStye HerpesZoster(Shingles) Pinguecula
ChoroidalNeovascularMembranes
Histoplasmosis Ptosis
Coloboma Hyphema Scleri0s
ColorBlindness(ColorVisionDeficiency)
IridocornealEndothelialSyndrome
StargardtDisease
Conunc0vi0s(PinkEye) IschemicOp0cNeuropathy S0cklerSyndrome
CornealAbrasion Kera00s Trachoma
CornealDystrophies Keratoconus Trichiasis
CornealErosion MacularHole UsherSyndrome
CornealLacera0on MacularPucker Uvei0s
CornealUlcer MacularTelangiectasia MarfanSyndrome
hCp://www.aao.org/eye-health/a-z.18
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2) Istheredebateamongscien0stsoveritscauses?Ifso,brieflyexplainthedifferencesinopinion.
3) Whateffectsdoesthedisorderhaveonthepartsoftheeye?
4) WhatarethesymptomsaCributedtothisdisorder?
5) Whatareitsshortandlongtermeffects?
6) Arethereanyavailablecuresortreatments?Isthedisorderpreventable?Arethereanydisagreementsinthescien0ficcommunityoverwhicharethemosteffec0ve?
©2016TheCollegeofPhysiciansofPhiladelphia