Memory & Cognition

Memory

• Learning that has persisted over time

• Information that can be retrieved

3 Key Processes in Memory

How We Remember

Encoding

• Automatic Processing• Parallel processing• Space (where you lost your backpack)• Time (when you lost your back pack)• Frequency (running into someone multiple times)

• Effortful Processing• Rehearsal—conscious repetition• Massed practice• Distributed study

What We Encode

• Visual—what we see

• Acoustic—what we hear

• Semantic—what we understand

Effectiveness

An Example

• The procedure Is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do…. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life.

More Encoding Tips

• Elaboration—make connections

• Visual imagery (harder to remember abstract concepts)

• Self-reference effect

• Dual encoding is more effective

• Mnemonic devices—memory aids

• Chunking (ROY G BIV & 708-434-3472)

• Hierarchies (Chapters in this book)

Atkinson & Shiffrin Model of Memory Storage

Storage

• Sensory Memory• Iconic—a picture that lasts ¼ of a second• Echoic—an echo that lasts 3-4 seconds

• Working/Short-term Memory• 10-20 seconds• 7 + or – 2 (Miller’s Law)

• Long-term Memory• Limitless

Improving your Memory

• http://youtu.be/6vsYCSmBcM0

Amazing Memory Feats

• http://youtu.be/t2uRuFgZSDc

How Do We Store Memories

• Synaptic Changes called Long-term Potentiation• An increase in a synapse’s firing potential

after brief, rapid stimulation

One Receptor Site Multiple Receptor Sites

Memory & Emotion

• Strong emotion aides in forming memories

• Flashbulb memories• Clear memories of significant events

• Extreme stress can suppress the creation of new memories and also block existing memories• Giving a presentation when your mind goes

blank and then not remembering anything you said during the presentation

Types of Long-term Memory

• Explicit (Declarative)• I can declare (tell) you what I know• Processed in the hippocampus• Facts & Personally experienced events• E.g.—explaining long-term potentiation

• Implicit (Non-declarative or procedural)• No conscious recall—I can show you but I can’t tell you• Processed in other areas of the brain including the

cerebellum• Skills & Classical Conditioning• E.g.—exhaling at the sound of the tone

Retrieval

• Recall• Essay or fill in the blank

• Recognition• Matching or multiple choice

• Re-learning• Takes less time to re-learn than without prior

exposure

Moods and Memories

• State-dependent memory• Being under the influence of a drug• E.g.—drunk, high, caffeine, etc.

• Mood-congruent memory• More good memories when you are happy• More bad memories when you are sad

Retrieval Failure—Interference

• Proactive (forward acting) interference• Forgetting something new• E.g.—you keep writing 2012 instead of 2013

• Retroactive (backward acting) interference• Forgetting something old• E.g.—you can’t remember your teachers’

names from last year

Summary of Memory Repression & Construction

• Sexual abuse happens

• Injustice happens

• Forgetting happens

• Recovered memories are commonplace

• Memories before age 3 are unreliable

• Don’t trust age-regressed memories

Improving Memory

• Study repeatedly

• Make the material meaningful and about you

• Activate retrieval cues

• Use mnemonic devices

• Minimize interference

• Sleep more

• Quiz yourself frequently