Memory Cognitive Psych

8/12/2019 Memory Cognitive Psych

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MEMORYMemory - refers to the processes that allow us torecord, store, and later retrieve experiences andinformation. It is the means that we retain and drawon our past experiences to use that information forfuture use.

3 Common Operations of Memory1. Encodingtransforming sensory data into a form

of mental representation

2. StorageKeeping the encoded information inmemory

3. RetrievalPull out, access or use informationstored in memory


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MODELS OF MEMORY1. The Traditional Model

A) William James Memory Structures:1.primary memorywhich holds temporary

information currently in use

2. secondary memorywhich holdsinformation permanently

B) Atkinsons and Shiffrins Memory Stores:

1. sensory store capable of storing limited

amounts of information for a very brief period;initial repository of information

1.1iconic storea discrete visual sensory

register that holds information briefly.


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2. short-term storecapable of storing information forsomewhat longer periods but of relatively limited capacity aswell

3. long-term storeof very large capacity capable of

storing information for a very long periods perhapsindefinitely.

permastorerefers to a very long-term storage ofinformation, such as knowledge of foreign language and

mathematics.

2. The Levels of Processing Model/Frameworkthispostulates that memory does not comprise three or evenany specific number of separate stores, but rather variesalong a continuous dimension in terms of depth encoding.That is the level at which information is stored will dependin large part on how it is encoded.


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Craiks and Tulvings Level of Processing:

1. Physical - visually apparent features of letters

2. Phonologicalsound combinations associated with

the letters3. Semanticmeaning of the word

3. The Integrative Model: Working Memory Model

probably the most widely used and accepted modeltoday. The key feature of this model is the role of theworking memory. Like the other models this alsopoints out the components of memory but its

approach is different with the other two models.While the three-store model emphasizes structuralreceptacles for stored information, this modelunderscores the functions of working memory ingoverning the processes of memory.


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3 Components of the Working

Memory Model:

1. Sensory memorybriefly holds incoming sensory

information. It comprises different subsystems

called sensory registers, which are initialinformation processors. (Like our visual sensory

register is called iconic store. Some information

reaches working memory and long-term memory,where it is represented by memory codes,

(visual, phonological, semantic or motor codes).


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Memory Codesare mental representations of

some type of information or stimulus.

Various forms of sensory memory codes:

1. Visual codesmental images2. Phonological codescode something by sound

3. Semantic codesfocus on the meaning of stimulus

4. Motor codesphysical actions, patterns ormovement


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2. Working/Short-Term Memorya memory store

that temporarily holds a limited amount of

information; thus it is a limited-capacity system

that temporarily stores and processes information

(Baddeley, 2002).

5 Elementsof working memory:

1. Visuospatial sketchpadbriefly stores visual and

spatial information

2. Phonological loopbriefly stores sensations of

sounds like inner speech for verbal comprehension

and acoustic rehearsal.


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2 Critical Components of Phonological loop:

1. Phonological storageholds information in

memory

2. Subvocal rehearsalwhich is used to put the

information in the memory in the first place

Articulatory suppression a phenomenon thatoccurs when the subvocal rehearsal is inhibited ,

the new information is not stored.

3. Central Executivewhich both coordinates

attentional activities and governs responses.


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Central Executive directs the overall action. It plansand controls the sequence of actions that need to beperformed, divides and allocates attention to the

other subsystems, and integrates information withinthe episodic buffer. It may also monitor the progressas interim steps are completed (DeStefano & LeFevre,2004)

4. Subsidiary Slave Systems - performs othercognitive or perceptual tasks (Baddeley, 1989, p. 36)

5. Episodic bufferprovides a temporary storage

space where information from long term memory,phonological, visuospatial be integrated, manipulated,and made available for conscious awareness(Baddeley, 2002).


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3.Long-Term Memory - - is our vast library of more

durable stored memories. It stores large amounts of

information for up to a lifetime

Types of Long-term memory:

Declarative memoryinvolves factual knowledge

and includes two subcategories.

Episodic memoryis our store of knowledge

concerning personal experiences: when, where, and

what happened in the episodes of our lives.

Semantic memoryrepresents general factual

knowledge about the world and language, including

memory for words and concepts.


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Procedural (non-declarative) memoryis reflected

in skills and actions (Gupta & Cohen, 2002).

Explicit memoryinvolves conscious or intentional

memory retrieval, as when you consciously recognize

or recall something. Recognition requires us to decide

whether a stimulus is familiar. Recall involves

spontaneous memory retrieval.

Implicit memoryoccurs when memory influences

our behavior without conscious awareness (May et

al., 2005).


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MEMORY PROCESSES3 Memory Operations in which each one likewiserepresents a stage in memory processing:

1. Encodingrefers to how you transform a physical,sensory input into a kind of representation thatcan be placed into memory

2. Storagerefers to how you retain encodedinformation in memory

3. Retrievalrefers to how you gain access to

information stored in memory.These operations are often viewed as sequential

stages, however they interact with each other andare interdependent.


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Memory models in Memory Processes:

According to the integrative working memory model,information enters into sensory memory (ENCODING)

then reaches into short-term memory where it istemporarily stored and is processed and is transferredinto the long term memory (STORAGE). The holdingsof the long-term memory like those of a library mustbe organized if information are to be made availablewhen one wish to retrieve them (RETRIEVAL).Effective encoding is a must then.

Levels of Processing Framework emphasizes depth ofencoding. That is the level at which information isstored will depend in large part on how it is encoded.


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HOW ARE INFORMATIONS STORED

2 basic types of Encoding:

1. Effortful processingencoding that is initiatedintentionally and requires conscious attention

(Hasher & Zacks, 1979).

(Ex. When you rehearse information, make lists, and

take notes, you are engaging in effortful

processing)

2. Automatic processingencoding that occurs

without intention and requires minimal attention.

Information about frequency spatial location, and

sequence of events is often encoded automatically

(Jimenez & Mendez, 2001).


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Levels of Processingthe more deeply we process

information, the better we will remember it (Craik &

Lockhart, 1972).

Forms of Encoding according to its depth:

1. Structural (shallow) encodinghow the word,

figure, or stimulus looks

2. Phonemic (deeper) encodinghow the word,

figure, or stimulus sounds

3. Semantic (deepest) encodingrequires focus to

the meaning of the word, figure, or stimulus

Deeper processing enhances memory


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Devices that deepen encoding: Rehearsalrote repetition or repeated repetition

of an item. It may be overt that is aloud andobvious to anyone and covert in this case silent

and hidden. Effects of rehearsal are calledpractice

effects.

2 kinds of Rehearsal

1. Maintenance rehearsalinvolves simple rote

repetition2. Elaborative rehearsalwhich involves focusing on

the meaning of information or expanding (ex.

elaborating) on it in some way


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Mnemonic devicesspecific techniques for

deeper encoding:

Hierarchiesorganizing material in a hierarchy, that

is organizing items from top to down, uses the

principle that memory is enhanced by associations

between concepts (Bower et al., 1969).

Chunkingcombining individual items into larger

units of meaning. Ex:(I R S Y M C A I B M C I A F B I)

Dual Codingfrom dual coding theory

- encoding information using both verbal and visual

codes enhances memory because the odds improve

that at least one of the codes will be available later to

support recall.


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Visual imageryit is recommended to use visual

imagery with dual coding.

Categorical Clusteringorganize a set of items into

categories

Interactive Imagesthe objects represented by

words are recalled as if the objects are interacting

with each other in some way

Pegword systemassociate each word with a word

in a previously memorized list and form an interactive

image between the two words


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Method of locia memory aid that associates

information with mental images of physical locations

or land marks and link those visual landmarks to

specific items remembered

Acronyms devise a word or expression by

combining a letter usually the first letter of each

information we want to recall in which each (first)letter stands for a certain other word or concept

Acrosticsform a sentence rather than a single

word to help one remembers new words

Keyword systemcreate an interactive image that

links the sound and meaning of a foreign word with

the sound and meaning of a familiar word

I VAL


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RETRIEVAL:

FROM SHORT TERM MEMORY4 possible predictions in retrieval:1. Parallel processing refers to simultaneous handling

of multiple operations; items retrieved all at once

2. Serial processing refers to operations being doneone after another; items are retrieved insuccession

3. Exhaustive serial processingwhere one alwayschecks one digit against all digits in the positive set

4. Self-terminating serial processingwhere onewould check the test digit against only those digits

needed to make a response

RETRIEVAL


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RETRIEVALFROM LONG TERM MEMORY

Retrieval from memory could be recall andrecognition,implicit and explicit, and declarativeknowledge and procedural memory tasks.

Recall- one produce a fact, a word or another item

from memoryTypes of Recall Tasks:

1. Serial Recallrecalling items in the exact orderthey are presented

2. Free Recallrecalling items in any order from agiven list

3. Cued Recallrecalling items in pairs in which oneof a certain pair is considered as the cue

i i k l i h i


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Recognition Tasksselection or otherwise

identification of an item as being one that you have

been exposed to previously.

Implicit Memory Taskdrawing on information in

memory without consciously aware that one is doing

so.

oProcedural Knowledge Memory Taskalso known

as memory for processes can also be drawn from

implicit memory task. It is remembering learned skills

and automatic behaviorsrather than facts.

oPriming is the facilitation of ones ability to utilize

missing information

E li i M T k i ll i f


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Explicit Memory Taskconscious recollection of

particular information.

oDeclarative Knowledge Memory Taskrecollection

of facts.

FORGETTING

Why do we forget?2 Theories of Forgetting

1. Interference Theoryrefers to the view that

forgetting occurs because recall of certain wordsinterferes with recall of other words

2 ki d f I f


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o2 kinds of Interference:

1. Retroactive interferenceoccurs when newly

acquired knowledge impedes the recall of older

material.

2. Proactive interferencewhen materials that was

learned in the past impedes the learning of new

material.

Serial Position Curvea statistical curve

demonstrating that first and last group of items in a

given list of five groups of items for recall are likely to

be remembered more that items in the 2nd, 4thand the

least likely to be remembered are the items on the 3rd

group.

R Eff t f t i ll f d


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Recency Effect refers to superior recall of words

at and near the end of the list.

Primacy Effect refers to the superior recall of

words at and near the beginning of a list

Schemas are mental frameworks that represent

knowledge in a meaningful way. Prior knowledge

has an enormous effect on memory, sometimes

leading to interference or distortion.

2. Decay Theoryasserts that information is

forgotten because of the gradual disappearance

rather than displacement of memory trace.

THE CONSTRUCTIVE NATURE OF MEMORY


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THE CONSTRUCTIVE NATURE OF MEMORY

Memory retrieval is not only reconstructivethat is

involving the use of various strategies for retrieving

the original memory; but also it is constructive in that

prior experience affects how we recall things and

what we actually recall from memory.

Autobiographical memory refers to memory of

an individuals history.

Flashbulb memory a memory of an event so

powerful that a person remembers the event as vividly

as if it were indelibly preserved on film.

3 I t h i t lik l t


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3 Instances where a memory is most likely to

become flashbulb memory:

1. The memory trace is important to the individual

2. The memory trace is surprising

3. The memory trace has emotional effect on the

individual

MEMORY DISTORTIONS Schacters 7 sins of memory:

1. Transiencememory fades quickly

2. Absent-mindedness inattention

3. Blocking - information is blocked

4 Mi tt ib ti i tt ib ti th


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4. Misattribution misattributing the memory

5. Suggestibility - people are susceptible to

suggestion

6. Biaspeople are often bias in their recall

7. Persistencepeople sometimes remembers things

as consequential when in broad context is

inconsequential.

Repressed Memories memories that are alleged to

have been pushed down into unconsciousness

because of the distress they cause. Such memories

according to psychologists who believed in them are

very inaccessible but they can be dredged out.

R h f l i t f


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Research on false memories suggests reasons for

skepticism of some psychologists about repressed

memories:

1. Some therapists may inadvertently plant ideas in

their clients head.

2. Showing that implanted memories are false are

often extremely hard to do.

At present no compelling evidence points to the

existence of such memories; but psychologists also

have not reached the point where their existence

can be ruled out definitively , therefore no clear

conclusion can be reached at this time.

Source monitoring error occurs when a person


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Source-monitoring erroroccurs when a personattributes a memory derived from one source toanother source.

Spreading activation

every time an item isstudied, one think of other items related to that item.

The Effect of Context in Memory

Encoding Specificityhow items are encoded hasa strong effect both on how , and on how well itemsare retrieved. What is recalled depends on what isencoded (Tulving & Thomson, 1973)

SOURCE: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, Sternberg &

Sternberg 2012

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Memory Cognitive Psych