Long-Term Memory

Psikologi Kognitif

Cakupan:

1. Forgetting2. Theories of Long-term

memory3. Amnesia4. Schema theories5. Everyday memory

Long-termMemory

For-getting

Theoriesof LTM

Amnesia

Everydaymemory

Cue-dependentsystem

Interference

Repression

Episodic vs.Semantic

Implicit vs.Explicit

TheoriesOf Amnesia

Residual LearningAbility

1. Episodic vs. Semantic2. Explicit vs. Implict3. Declarative vs. Procedural

Bartlett’s Script-pointer-Plus-tag

Flashbulb

EyewitnessTestimony

1. Post-event information2. Verbal shadowing3. Face recognition4. Weapon focus

SchemaTheories

[ 1/5 ]Forgetting Pioneer researcher:

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913)discovered ‘forgetting function.’

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0Length of retention intervals (hours)

Savi

ngs

100

1 8 24 48 120 744

[ 1/5 ]Forgetting

`Repression The function of rejecting and keeping

something out of consciousness (Sigmund Freud, 1915, 1943)

Experimental supports: (1979) Weinberger, Schwartz, and Davidson (1994) Myers and Brewin (1994) Williams (1995) Lief and Fetkewicz (1995) Ceci

[ 1/5 ]Forgetting

`Interference Theories Types of interference:

Proactive interferenceWhen previous learning disrupts later learning

Retroactive interferenceWhen later learningdisrups previous learning

Previouslearning

Previouslearning Later

learningLater

learningFAILFAIL

[ 1/5 ]Forgetting

`Cue-dependent forgetting (retrieval failure) Types of forgetting:

Tulving (1974)

Trace-dependent theoriesInformation is no longer stored in memory

Cue-depended theoriesinformation is in memory, but cannot be accessed

[ 1/5 ]Forgetting

`Cue-dependent forgetting (retrieval failure) Encoding specificity:

The probability of successful retrieval of the target item is a monotonicaly increasing function of information overlap between the information present at retrieval and the information stored in memory.

Informationstored

Informationpresent at retrieval

Result of retrieval

[ 2/5 ]Theories of Long-term memory

`Episodic vs Semantic Memory Pioneer researcher:

Tulving (1972) Episodic memory

the storage of specific events or episodes occuring in a particular place at aparticular time

Semantic memoryis a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possess about words and other verbal symbols, their meaning and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations

[ 2/5 ]Theories of Long-term memory

`Implict vs Explicit Memory Pioneer researcher:

Graf & Schacter (1985) Explicit memory

is revealed when performance on a task requires conscious recollection of previous experiences

Implicit memoryis revealed when performance on a task is facilitated in the absence of conscious recollection

[ 3/5 ]Amnesia definition:

A condition in which there are severe problems with long-term memory

information stored in memory

[ 3/5 ]Amnesia

Two (major) types: Anterograde amnesia

impairments in the ability to remember new information learned after the onset of the amnesia

Retrograde amnesiagreat difficulty in remembering events from before the onset of amnesia

amne

sia

informationafter amnesia…

Information before amnesia

Difficult toretrieve

Difficult toretrieve

[ 3/5 ]Amnesia Damage in the brain

Reed and Squire (1998) Anterograde amnesia

Hippocampus (less relevant with temporal lobe)

Retrograde amnesia Hippocampus temporal lobe

[ 3/5 ]Amnesia

`Residual learning ability Not all memory ability is damaged in amnesiac

individual. Some mental ability remains: Short-term memory Skill learning Repetition priming Conditioning

[ 3/5 ]Amnesia

`Theories of amnesia Episodic vs. Semantic memory

(Gabrieli, cohen, and Corkin, 1988; Vargha-Khadem, 1997)

More problem with episodic memory Less problem with semantic memory

Explicit vs. Implicit memory(Schacther, 1987; Graf, Squire, and Mandler, 1984)

More problem with explicit memory Less problem with implicit memory

[ 3/5 ]Amnesia

`Theories of amnesia Declarative vs. Procedural memory

(Cohen and Squire, 1980; Ryle, 1949) Declarative memory corresponds to knowing

that (covers semantic and episodic) Procedural memory corresponds to knowing

how (refers to the ability to perform skilled actions)

The fundamental deficit in amnesia is the selective disruption of declarative memory.

[ 4/5 ]Schema theories definition:

well-integrated packages of information about the world, events, people and actions.

schema

scripts frames

deal with knowledge about events and consequences of events

deal with knowledge about the properties of objects and locations

expectations

[ 4/5 ]Schema theories

`Bartlett’s schema theories Bartlett (1932):

What we remember from stories is determined not only by the story itself, but also by our store of relevant prior knowledge in the form of shemas.

[ 4/5 ]Schema theories

`Bartlett’s schema theories Sulin and Dooling (1974):

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Mea

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sco

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rrec

t rej

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emati

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Short retentioninterval (5 min)

Long retentioninterval (1 week)

Fictious main character

Famous main character

[ 4/5 ]Schema theories

`Script-pointer-plus-tag hypothesis Assumptions (Abelson 1977):

Information from the story is combined with information from the underlying script in memory

action in a story are either typical (consistent with the underlying script or schema) or atypical (inconsistent with the underlying script)

information about atypical action is tagged individually to the underlying script.

[ 4/5 ]Schema theories

`Script-pointer-plus-tag hypothesis Assumptions (Abelson 1977):

recognition memory will be worse for typical than for atypical actions, because typical present in the story are hard to discriminate from atypical actions absent from the story

initial recall for atypical actions should be better than for typical actions, because they tagged individually in memory

recall for atypical actions at long retention intervals should be worse than for typical actions, because recall increasingly relies on the underlying script or schema

[ 5/5 ]Everyday memory Memories under laboratorium investigation

differs from daily memories (Koriat and Goldsmit, 1996), in:

What should be studied? How should be studied? Where should be studied?

[ 5/5 ]Everyday memory Important consideration on memory

experiments:(Neisser, 1996)

It is purposeful it has a personal quality (about it) it is influenced by situational demands,

rather than by the need to be accurate

[ 5/5 ]Everyday memory

`Eyewitness testimony Why eyewitness testimony is weak:

Post-event information - Loftus and Palmer 1974) Verbal overshadowing - Schooler and Engstler-

Schooler (1990) Face recognition - Bruce (1982), etc Confidence - Hollins (1996) Confirmation bias - Weapon focus - Loftus (1979)

[ 5/5 ]Everyday memory

`Flashbulb memories definition:

Vivid and detailed memories that people have of certain dramatic world events (Brown and Kulik, 1977)

Included in the flashbulb memories: informant place where the news was heard ongoing event individual’s own emotional state emotional state of others consequences of the event for the individual

[ 5/5 ]Everyday memory

`Flashbulb memories Flashbulb memories are forgotten the same way

other (ordinary) memories are (Bohannon, 1988)

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Mea

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RehearsalsCalm Calm Upset UpsetFew Many Few Many

Emotions

Two weeksEight months

[ 5/5 ]Everyday memory

`Flashbulb memories Flashbulb memories depend on three main

process,plus one optional processes.(Conway, 1994)

1. Prior knowledge2. Personal importance3. Surprise and emotional feeling state4. overt rehearsal

Long-termMemory

For-getting

Theoriesof LTM

Amnesia

Everydaymemory

Cue-dependentsystem

Interference

Repression

Episodic vs.Semantic

Implicit vs.Explicit

TheoriesOf Amnesia

Residual LearningAbility

1. Episodic vs. Semantic2. Explicit vs. Implict3. Declarative vs. Procedural

Bartlett’s Script-pointer-Plus-tag

Flashbulb

EyewitnessTestimony

1. Post-event information2. Verbal shadowing3. Face recognition4. Weapon focus

SchemaTheories