Memory

Memorythe process by which we encode, store, and

retrieve information

3 Basic Processes:EncodingStorageRetrieval

Three-System Memory Theory

Sensory memorythe initial, momentary storage of information,

lasting only an instanttypes are dependent on the source of

sensory information (iconic memory, echoic memory)

can store information for only a very short time, but its precision is high

can be destroyed or replaced with a new one

Short - term memorymemory that holds information for 15 to 25

seconds

Chunka meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be

stored as a unit in short-term memorycan be individual letters or numbers, or may

consist of larger categories such as words or meaningful units

P B S F O X C N N A B C C B S M T V N B C

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Rehearsalthe repetition of information that has entered short-

term memoryinformation is maintained in the short-term memory

or may transfer into long-term memory

Elaborative rehearsaloccurs when information is considered and organized

in some fashionexpanding, linking to another memory, turning to

image, transforming to some other way

Mnemonicsformal techniques for organizing information in a way

that makes it more likely to be remembered

Working MemorySome theorists view short - term memory as a

working memory, in which information is retrieved and manipulated. In this view, it is a central executive processor involved in reasoning and decision-making

a set of temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and rehearse information3 systemsvisual store (visual and spatial information)verbal store (speech, words, numbers)episodic buffer (episodes or events)

It uses significant amount of cognitive resources during its operation. In turn, it makes us less aware of our surrounding.

Long - term memorymemory that stores information on a relatively

permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve

Serial position effectthe ability to recall information in a list depends on

where in the list an item appears

primacy effectitems presented early in the list are remembered

better

recency effectitems presented late in a list are remembered best

Memory Modules

Declarative memorymemory for factual information

Semantic memoryfor general knowledge and facts about the world

as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used infer other facts

Episodic memorymemory for events that occur in a particular time,

place, or context

Procedural memorymemory for skills and habits

Semantic Networksmental representations of clusters of

interconnected information

Spreading activationactivating one memory triggers the

activation of related memories

Neuroscience of memory

Hippocampusaids in the initial encoding of information

Cerebral Cortexwhere information is stored

Amygdalainvolved with memories involving emotion

Recalling Long-Term MemoryTip-of-the-tongue phenomenonthe inability to recall information that one

realizes one knows - a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory

Retrieval Cueis a stimulus that allows us to recall more

easily information that is in long-term memory

Recall memory task in which specific information

must be retrieved

Recognitionmemory task in which individuals are

presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives

What are the names of the seven dwarves in the Disney Movie Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs?

Which of the following are the names of the seven dwarves in the Disney Movie Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs?

Goofy BashfulSleepy SneezySmarty HappyScaredy DocDopey CrazyWheezy Donald

Levels-of-processing Theoryemphasizes the degree to which new material is

mentally analyzedthe amount of information processing that occurs

when material is initially encountered is central in determining how much of the information is ultimately remembered information is processed in physical and sensory

aspectstranslated to meaningful unitsanalyzed in terms of meaning (wider context,

associations)

the deeper the initial level of processing of information is, the longer the information will be retained

Forms of Memory

Explicit memoryintentional or conscious recollection of

information

Implicit memorymemories of which people are not

consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behaviorunclear dislike for an acquaintanceprejudice and discrimination

Priminga phenomenon in which exposure to a word

or concept (prime) later makes it easier to recall related information, even when there is no conscious memory of the word or concept

Name the moon of Mars.

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Flashbulb Memoriesmemories centered on a specific,

important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event

memories that are exceptional are more easily retrieved (although not necessarily accurate) than are those relating to events that are commonplace

romantic experience, witnessing car accident, first airplane flight

Source amnesiawhen an individual has a memory for some

material but cannot recall where he or she encountered it before

Constructive Processesprocesses in which memories are influenced by

the meaning we give to eventsexperiences, guesses, inferences affect the

memory we produce when we retrieve information

Schemasorganized bodies of information stored in memory

that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled

are based not only on the specific material to which people are exposed, but also on their understanding of the situation, their expectations, and awareness of motivations of others

A basic principle is that some information gets lost during each process. You notice only a small part the world that confronts you; you encode only a small part of what you notice; and you retrieve only part of what was previously stored in your memory.

Memory in the Courtroomeyewitness on trial

wordings of questionsweaponsAge

repressed memories - recollections of events that are initially shocking that the mind responds by pushing them into the unconscious

false memory - inaccurate or even wholly falseexperience or imagination

Autobiographical Memory

incompatible with the way in which we currently see ourselves

particular periods of life are remembered more easily than others

Why We ForgetFailure of encodingDecay - loss of information in memory

because of nonuseInterference - the phenomenon by which

information in memory disrupts the recall of other information

Cue-dependent forgetting - forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to revive information that is in memory

The Before and After of Forgetting

Proactive interferenceinterference in which information learned

earlier disrupts the recall of newer material

Retroactive interferenceinterference in which there is difficulty in the

recall of information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material

Memory DysfunctionsAlzheimer’s diseasean illness characterized in part by severe

memory problemsAmnesiamemory loss that occurs without other mental

difficultiesretrograde amnesiain which memory is lost for occurrences prior

to a certain eventanterograde amnesiain which memory is lost for events that follow

an injury

Improving Memory

keywordencoding specificityorganization cueseffective note takingpractice and rehearsedon’t believe claims about drugs that

improve memory