Chapter 15 - Interpersonal & Organizational Communication

Communication Defined: The Transfer of Information & Understanding

Communication - the transfer of information and understanding from one person to another.

You are an efficient communicator when you can transmit your message accurately in the least time.

You are an effective communicator when your intended message is accurately understood by the other person

Communication has been said to be a process consisting of "a sender transmitting a message through a medium to a receiver who responds."

The sender is the person wanting to share information - called a message - and the receiver is the person for whom the message is intended.

Sender Message Receiver

Encoding is translating a message into understandable symbols or language.

Decoding is interpreting and trying to make sense of the message.

Sender [Encoding] Message [Decoding] Receiver

The medium is the pathway by which a message travels.

Feedback is when the receiver expresses his or her reaction to the sender's message.

Noise is defined as any disturbance that interferes with the transmission of a message.

Noise occurs in

nonverbal communicationo as when our physical movements send a message

that is different from the one we are speaking, cross-cultural communication

o as when we make assumptions about other people's messages based on our own culture instead of theirs

Media richness indicates how well a particular medium conveys information and promotes learning.

Face-to-face communication, also the most personal form of communication, is the richest.

It allows the receiver of the message to observe multiple cues, such as body language and tone of voice.

It allows the sender to get immediate feedback, to see how well the receiver comprehended the message.

Impersonal written media is just the reverse,

Only one cue and no feedback, making it low in richness.

Matching the Appropriate Medium to the Appropriate SituationRich medium

Best for nonroutine situations and to avoid oversimplification. E.g. learning about a major company reorganization from your boss, which might affect your

position.o Rich – Face to face, more personalo Lean – Bulletin board, less personal

Usually people would prefer face-to-face. The danger of using a rich medium for routine matters (such as monthly sales reports) is that

it results in information overloading-more information than necessary.

Lean medium

Best for routine situations and to avoid overloading. E.g. getting routine monthly sales reports

o Rich – Phone calls, time consumingo Lean – Emails or text messages, less time consuming

Usually people would prefer just an email. The danger of using a lean medium for nonroutine matters (such as a company

reorganization) is that it results in information oversimplification-it doesn't provide enough of the information the receiver needs and wants.

A communication barrier - is anything interfering with accurate communication between two people.

3 Types of Barriers1. Physical barriers

a. soundb. timec. spaced. timezone differencese. telephone line staticf. crashed computers

2. Semantic barriers a. semantics is the study of the meaning of words.

i. Unusual pronunciation while dealing with other culturesb. jargon is terminology specific to a particular profession or group.

i. “HR – Human Resource, VP – Vice-president, ASAP- as soon as possible”ii. Buzzwords – words primarily designed to impress rather than inform.

1. “leverage”, “interface”

3. Personal barriersa. individual attributes that hinder communication

i. Variable Skills in Communicating Effectively1. Some people are simply better communicators than others.

ii. Variations in How Information Is Processed & Interpreted1. People use different frames of reference /experience to interpret

things and are selective about what has meaning to them and what doesn’t.

iii. Variations in Trustworthiness & Credibility1. Without trust, both of you will be concentrating on defensive

tactics, not the meaning of the message being exchangediv. Oversized Egos

1. Egos influence how we treat each other as well as how receptive we are to being influenced by others, can create political/power battles.

v. Faulty Listening Skillsvi. Tendency to Judge Others' Messages

1. Natural tendency to judge people’s messages based on our own views.

vii. Inability to Listen with Understanding1. see the expressed idea from the other person's point of view, to

achieve his frame of reference in regard to what he is talking aboutviii. Stereotypes & Prejudices

1. stereotype consists of oversimplified beliefs about a group of people

ix. Nonverbal Communication1. Gestures or facial expressions sometimes contradict words.

All it takes is one blocked step in the communication process for communication to fail.

Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication consists of messages sent outside of the written or spoken word.

1. Eye Contacta. Eye contact serves four functions in communication:

It signals the beginning and end of a conversation; there is a tendency to look away from others when beginning to speak and to look at them when done.

It expresses emotion; for instance, most people tend to avoid eye contact when conveying bad news or negative feedback.

Gazing monitors feedback because it reflects interest and attention. Depending on the culture, gazing also expresses the type of relationship

between the people communicating. o Westerners are taught at an early age to look at their parents when

spoken to. o Asians are taught to avoid eye contact with a parent or superior in

order to show obedience and subservience.

2. Facial Expressionsa. Smiling represents warmth, happiness, or friendship whereas b. Frowning represents dissatisfaction or anger

3. Body Movements & Gesturesa. Interpretations of body language are subjective, hence easily misinterpreted, and

highly dependent on the context and cross-cultural differences. Usually an subconscious indication of a person’s thoughts.

4. Toucha. Norms for touching vary significantly around the world, vary based on cultures.

In the Middle East it is normal for two males who are friends to walk together holding hands, not commonplace behavior in the United States

5. Setting a. The location of an office, its size, and the choice of furniture often expresses the

accessibility of the person in it.

6. Timea. As a manager yourself, you should always give the people who work for you

adequate time. b. You should also talk with them frequently during your meetings with them so they

will understand your interest.

Gender-Related Communication Differences

Learning "Soft Skills" - to communicate, build teams, and develop flexibility

Avoid the use of masculine wording for jobs or roles that are occupied by both genders, o Using police officer instead of policeman; supervisor rather than foreman.

Women as Executive Coaches

Females always want another female as a coach. When a man is asked to coach another, they have a tendency to compete.

Formal Communication Channels: Up, Down, Sideways, & Outward

Formal communication channels follow the chain of command and are recognized as official.

Formal communication is of three types:

(1) Vertical - meaning upward and downward, (2) Horizontal - meaning laterally (sideways), and (3) External - meaning outside the organization.

Vertical: Up & Down the Chain of Command Vertical communication is the flow of messages up and down the hierarchy within the

organization: bosses communicating with subordinates, subordinates communicating with bosses.

a. The more management levels through which a message passes, the more it is prone to some distortion.

b. Downward communication - from top to bottom. i. Downward communication flows from a higher level to a lower level (or

levels).1. In small organizations, top-down communication may be delivered

face-to-face. 2. In larger organizations, it's delivered via meetings, e-mail, official

memos, and company publications.

c. Upward communication - from bottom to top. i. Upward communication flows from a lower level to a higher level(s).

1. Often this type of communication is from a subordinate to his or her immediate manager, who in turn will relay it up to the next level, if necessary.

2. Effective upward communication depends on an atmosphere of trust.

a. No subordinate is going to want to be the bearer of bad news to a manager who is always negative and bad-tempered.

Horizontal Communication: Within & Between Work Units Horizontal communication flows within and between work units; its main purpose is

coordination, consulting with colleagues and co-workers at the same level as you within the organization.

a. Horizontal communication is encouraged through the use of committees, task forces, and matrix structures.

b. Horizontal communication can be impeded in three ways: i. by specialization that makes people focus just on their jobs alone;

ii. by rivalry between workers or work units, which prevents sharing of information; and

iii. by lack of encouragement from management

External Communication: Outside the Organization External communication flows between people inside and outside the organization.

a. These are other stakeholders: customers, suppliers, shareholders or other owners, and so on.

b. Companies have given this kind of communication heightened importance, especially with customers or clients, who are the lifeblood of any company.

Informal Communication ChannelsInformal communication channels develop outside the formal structure and do not follow the chain of command - they skip management levels and cut across lines of authority.

Two types of informal channels are

(1) The Grapevine and (2) Management by Wandering Around.

The Grapevine The grapevine is the

a. Unofficial communication system of the informal organization, a network of gossip and rumor of what is called "employee language."

i. Gossip can be notoriously misleading and a great reducer of morale in a dysfunctional company.

Management by wandering around (MBWA) Management by wandering around (MBWA)

a. is the term used to describe a manager's literally wandering around his or her organization and talking with people across all lines of authority.

i. Helps to reduce the problems of distortion 1. that inevitably occur with formal communication flowing up a

hierarchy.ii. Allows managers to

1. listen to employees and learn about their problems as well as to 2. express to employees what values and goals are important

Multicommunicating represents "the use of technology to participate in several interactions at the same time

University of Toronto professor Don Tapscott and his fellow researchers have identified eight norms for this “Internet Generation”.

The Always On generation is accustomed to spending 8 hours a day or more looking at various screens

on cell phones, on computers, on TVs-constantly busy with text messaging, e-mail, and the Internet.

8 Norms of the Millennial or Internet Generation

Digital Communication & the New Workplace:Videoconferencing, Telecommuting, & Teleworking

Videoconferencing videoconferencing, also known as teleconferencing,

o using video and audio links along with computers to see, hear, and talk with one another

Does not beat face-to-face meetings for opening a relationship with a prospective client or closing a decision

Many organizations set up special videoconferencing rooms or booths with specially equipped television cameras.

o Some of the more sophisticated equipment is known as telepresence technology,

high-definition videoconference systems that simulate face-to-face meetings between users

telepresence systems require a specially designed room with multiple cameras and high-definition video screens, simulating "the sensation of two groups of people at identical tables facing each other through windows,"

Telecommuting Telecommuting involves

o doing work that is generally performed in the office away from the office, using a variety of information technologies.

Employees typically receive and send work from home via phone and fax or by using a modem to link a home computer to an office computer.

Among the benefits are(1) reduction of capital costs, because employees work at home;(2) increased flexibility and autonomy for workers;(3) competitive edge in recruiting hard-to-get employees;(4) increased job satisfaction and lower turnover;(5) increased productivity; and(6) ability to tap nontraditional labor pools

Teleworking The term teleworking has been adopted to replace the term "telecommuting" because it

encompasses not just working from home but working from anywhere.o With cell phones, broadband at home, Wi-Fi, virtual private networks, and

instant messaging becoming ubiquitous, telework has become easier. Employees in different locations and time zones can work simultaneously

o (called synchronous communication) Team members can work on the same project at different times

o (asynchronous communication)

The Downside of the Digital Age Security: Guarding Against Cyberthreats

o Security is defined as a system of safeguards for protecting information technology against disasters, system failures, and unauthorized access that result in damage or loss.

Pick strong passwords & Use different passwords Don't reveal sensitive information Don't share files / Avoid file-sharing services Keep data in hard drives or storage devices Apply the latest security updates

Privacy: Keeping Things to Yourself o Privacy is the right of people not to reveal information about themselves.o A particularly aggravating violation of privacy is identity theft, in which thieves hijack

your name and identity and use your good credit rating to get cash or buy things. E-Mail: Productivity Enhancer or Time Waster?

o We love that we can send and receive e-mail 24/7 from practically anywhere. o But we hate the fact that the average worker receives 200 e-mails a day

Some other disadvantages of e-mail are that (1) there has been a decrease in all other forms of communication

among co-workers, including greetings and informal conversations; (2) emotions often are poorly communicated or miscommunicated via

e-mail messages; and (3) the greater the use of e-mail, the less connected co-workers

reportedly feelo Practical tips for handling e-mail:

Treat all e-mail as confidential. Be careful with jokes and informality Avoid sloppiness, but avoid criticizing others' sloppiness. When replying, quote only the relevant portion. Not every topic belongs on e-mail.

Cell Phones: Use & Abuseo Cellphones can text, access e-mail and Web pages, view TV programs, almost all are

smartphones, becoming an indispensable part of our lives.o 5 Rules of using the Cell Phone:

1. Keep the volume of your voice down while on the phone; no need to SHOUT.

2. Don't force defenseless others on buses, in restaurants, and so on to have to listen to your phone conversations.

3. Shut off your ringer during meetings and public performances; set the phone on "vibrate," and return calls at a discreet distance.

4. Don't text during meetings or other conversations.5. Don't dial/text while driving.

Being an Effective Listener

Concentrate on the Content of the Message Judge content, not delivery.

o Don't tune out someone because of his or her accent, clothing, mannerisms, personality, or speaking style.

Ask questions, summarize remarks.o Good listening is hard work. Ask questions to make sure you understand. Recap

what the speaker said. Listen for ideas.

o Don't get diverted by the details; try to concentrate on the main ideas. Resist distractions, show interest.

o Don't get distracted by things other people are doing, paperwork on your desk, things happening outside the window, television or radio, and the like.

o Show the speaker you're listening, periodically restating in your own words what you've heard.

Give a fair hearing.o Don't shut out unfavorable information just because you hear a term that

suggests ideas you're not comfortable with.o Try to correct for your biases.

Being an Effective Reader

Concentrate on the content of the message, judge the content and not the delivery, and concentrate on the main ideas.

Realize That Speed Reading Doesn't Worko Speed reading or skimming may work well with easy or familiar reading

material, but it can lead to problems with dense or unfamiliar material Learn to Streamline Reading

o Be savvy about periodicals and books Review magazine subscriptions and eliminate as many as possible. Subscribe to just a few industry publications Read summaries and reviews that condense business books and articles.

o Transfer your reading load. Ask your employees

to scan it first, then post a note on items that need additional reading

to read important books and summarize them in four or five pages.

o Make internal memos and e-mail more efficient. Ask others to

specify in their e-mails, memos, and reports what they want you to do.

include a one-page executive summary of a long report. When you communicate with them, give them specific questions you

want answered.

Do Top-Down Reading - SQ3Ro You'll get more out of what you read if you literally produce meaningful

connections between what you already know and what you're reading.o This leads to what she calls a "top-down" strategy for reading, a variant on the

SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review) method Rate reasons to read

Will reading it contribute to my goals? Question and predict answers.

Formulate specific questions you want the reading to answer. This will give you reasons for reading-to get answers to your

questions. Survey the big picture.

Survey the material to be read so you can get a sense of the whole.

Take a few minutes to get an overview so that you'll be better able to read with purpose.

Skim for main ideas. Skimming the material is similar to surveying, except it's on a

smaller scale. You look for the essence of each subsection or paragraph.

Summarize. Summarize as you skim. Verbally restate or write notes of the main points, using your

own words. Visualize or sketch the main points. Answer your initial questions as you skim the material.

Being an Effective Writer

Writing is an essential management skill, all the more so because e-mail and texting has replaced the telephone in so much of business communication.

Don't Show Your Ignoranceo E-mail correspondence and texting have made people more relaxed about

spelling and grammar rules.o But as a manager you'll need to create a more favorable impression in your

writing, hence the need for spelling and grammar checks, as well as proofreading.

Understand Your Strategy before You Writeo Most important to least important.o Least controversial to most controversial.o Negative to positive.

Start with Your Purposeo start your writing by telling your purpose and what you expect of the reader

Write Simply, Concisely, & Directlyo Keep your words simple and use short words, sentences, and phrases.o Be direct instead of vague, and use the active voice rather than the passive

Telegraph Your Writing with a Powerful Layouto Make your writing as easy to read as possible, using the tools of highlighting and

white space. Highlighting

Highlighting consists of using boldface and italics to emphasize key concepts and introduce new concepts, and bullets to emphasize list items.

White space White space, which consists of wide margins and a break

between paragraphs, produces a page that is clean and attractive.

Being an Effective Speaker

The biggest problem most people have with public speaking is controlling their nerves

Tell Them What You're Going to Sayo The introduction should take 5%-15% of your speaking time, and it

should prepare the audience for the rest of the speech.o Because everything in your speech should be relevant, try to go right to the

point. Say It

o The main body of the speech takes up 75%-90% of your time.o The most important thing to realize is that your audience won't remember more

than a few points anyway.o Thus, you need to decide which three or four points must be remembered

Tell Them What You Saido The end might take 5%-10% of your time.o Many professional speakers consider the conclusion to be as important as the

introduction, so don't drop the ball here.o You need a solid, strong, persuasive wrap-up.