Muhammad Abduh y Abdu'L-Baha

8/14/2019 Muhammad Abduh y Abdu'L-Baha

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I NEVER UNDERSTOOD ANY OF THIS FROM ABBSEFFENDI: MUHAMMAD ABDUH'S KNOWLEDGE OFTHE BAH TEACHINGS AND HIS FRIENDSHIP WITH

ABDUL-BAH ABBS

William McCants

In the field of Islamic reform in the modern era, few figureshave commanded the prestige and scholarly attention that has beenaccorded to Muhammad Abduh (18491905). Born in Egypt in the

mid-nineteenth century, Abduh rose from humble origins to attendthe premier institution of Muslim learning, al-Azhar, engage in a

brilliant career in journalism, participate in a revolt, and attain to thehighest religious office in Egypt, that of Grand Mufti, in the twilightof his life. Many of his intellectual influences are well known,including his Sf uncle, Shaykh Darwsh, and the itineraterevolutionary Jaml ad-Dn al-Afghn. The latter enigmatic figuredirected his disciple toward a career in journalism, and only monthsafter Afghns arrival in Egypt in 1876, Abduh wrote an article forthe first issue of al-Ahrm (September 3, 1876), the prominentEgyptian periodical. Afghn also gathered a small circle of students

from al-Azhar, many of whom went on to noteworthy politicalcareers.

Abduh, the most prominent of this group, graduated from Azharin 1877 and received a teaching position at the newly opened Dral-Ulm of Al-Azhar in 1878. During this period of time KhediveTawfiq Pasha expelled Afghn from Egypt in 1879 for his politicalmachinations, and Abduh was temporarily placed under housearrest. In 1880, Abduh was appointed editor of al-Waqil-Misryya, a government journal that he infused with new life, writingnumerous essays on education and social reform. Following in histeachers footsteps, he reluctantly supported the Urb Revolt, whichwas subsequently crushed by the British, and led to foreignoccupation of Egypt and the exile of Abduh for three years. InJanuary 1883 he left Egypt for Beirut to begin his exile. After a yearin Beirut, Afghn asked Abduh to join him in Paris. Once there, thetwo formed a secret society, al-Urwa al-Wuthq, and published a

periodical by the same name, as a means of resisting colonial


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incursion into the Muslim world. Abduh penned most of the articlesat Afghns direction. The periodical lasted only seven months, butreceived a great deal of attention for its literary style and themes. Its

political radicalism and call for revolution also attracted the attentionof the British government, which blocked its import into India andEgypt.

Abduh returned to Beirut at the beginning of 1885, where heremained for three years. In 1888 Lord Cromer, the British HighCommissioner for Egypt, invited him back to the land of his birth,where he rose through a number of government posts until his finalappointment as Grand Mufti. The warm reception accorded him bythe British government was partially due to fundamental changes inhis concepts of social change. Previously, he advocated politicalrevolution as the primary vehicle of development, with educationserving a complimentary role. However, he later split with Afghnand repudiated the revolutionary doctrine of his mentor in favor ofevolutionary change predicated upon reforms in education. This was

partly due to his disillusionment with the effectiveness of politicalrevolution, which only seemed to replace one form of dictatorialgovernment with another, and his fear of revolt by the rural masses.

Democracy, Abduh felt, could only be sustained by a populationthoroughly educated in its rights and responsibilities.At the end of his life, Muhammad Abduh penned a letter in

Arabic to Leo Tolstoy. The aged savant wrote admiringly of theRussian writers efforts to reform education and religious thought,reforms that Abduh fought for in the Muslim world throughout hisentire adult life. On May 12, 1904, little over a year before the deathof Abduh, Leo Tolstoy penned his reply to the Muftis letter ofgreeting. In it, he praised the reformist efforts of his correspondentand ended it by asking the question: What do you know of the Bband Bahullh? Almost one hundred years since the question was

asked, it still remains unanswered.The emergence of several letters exchanged between Abduh

and Abdu'l-Bah, the son of Bahullh and his later designatedsuccessor, may provide a meaningful answer for the first time. Thecorrespondence and additional evidence illumines a little knownfriendship between one of the most influential Muslim intellectuals


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of the last two hundred years and the leader of a messianic religiousmovement that is considered heretical by many of the claimants toAbduhs legacy, who seek to proscribe it in national courts and thecourt of public opinion. In this paper, I discuss the role of one ofthese claimants, Muhammad Rashd Rid (18651935). Born inGreater Syria, Rid travelled to Cairo in1897 to study with Abduh.Although Rid implicitly claimed Abduhs reformist legacy afterthe death of his mentor, he became increasingly conservative, asevinced by his later embrace of the ideals of the Wahhb movement.In addition to his support for the Ottoman Caliphate and nationalistsentiments, Rid is also known for his religious journal al-Manr.As Abduhs chief disciple, he played the predominant role inshaping his mentors legacy.

In this paper, I discuss the various narrative techniques heemployed to obfuscate the relationship between Abduh and Abdul-Bah. Further, I examine the correspondence between Abduh andAbdul-Bah and illustrate the subtle manner in which the latterconveyed his fathers theophanic claims to the Muslim intellectual.Finally, I suggest further avenues of research and indicate the

possible existence of additional correspondence between the two

men that may shed further light on inter-religious dialogue in theMiddle East at the end of the 19th century.

Appearance of Abdul-Bah

It may surprise Western scholars that Rid's history of Abduhis, in reality, histories of Abduh, as it contains an amalgam ofaccounts by his associates and disciples. The challenge of judging theveracity of Rid's account, therefore, is multiplied by the presenceof numerous voices. For instance, the Muftis exile in Beirut isnarrated by three authors: Rashd Rid, Sayyid Abd al-Bsit, andShakb Arsln (two students of Abduh in Beirut). The accounts do

not differ significantly in content, recounting Abduhs lectures at theSultnyya school in Beirut, his dialogues with various religiousleaders, his writing activities, the formation of a secret society for thereconciliation between the three major monotheistic religions, and afrequent stream of visitors to his home. Only on the latter theme doesArsln diverge from the narrative of Rid and Abd al-Bsit by


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noting the appearance of Abbs Effendi (18441921) on Abduh 'sdoorstep:

None of the notables or his acquaintances journeyed toBeirut without coming to greet him [Abduh]. He honoredand exalted each one and, even if he disagreed with him in

belief, he did not cease to respect him. Foremost amongthose he honored was Abbs Effendi al-Bah, leader ofthe Bbs, even though the Bb way is different from whatthe Shaykh believes and is the creed that as-Sayyid Jamlad-Dn refuted so strongly. But he revered Abbs

Effendi's knowledge, refinement, distinction, and highmoral standards and Abbs Effendi similarly honoredAbduh ( Rid 1931:407).

Abbs Effendi, more commonly known as Abdu'l-Bah, wasthe son of the founder of the Bah religion, Mrz Husayn Al(18171892), and later designated his successor and expounder of histeachings. The religion is often regarded as a continuation of areligious movement initiated in 1844 by Sayyid Al Muhammad(18191850), surnamed the Bb (the Gate) from Shrz, Persia, who

proclaimed himself the long-awaited return of the Hidden Imam and

declared a new religious dispensation abrogating the Qurn.Throughout his prodigious writings, he wrote of a comingmanifestation of God (mazhar allh). This station was later

publicly claimed in 1863 by Husayn Al (one of his followers whoadopted the title Bahullh), who guided the nascent Bbcommunity after the execution of the Bb on July 9, 1850. Themajority of the followers of the Bb subsequently gave theirallegiance to Bahullh and became known as Bahs.

At the time of his visit to Beirut, Abdul-Bah was a prisonerof the Ottoman Empire in Akk, Palestine, as a result of his fathersclaim to be the recipient of a new revelation from God that abrogated

the laws of the Qurn. At the core of Bah'u'llh's worldview is the belief that the teachings of the various prophets represent aprogressive unfoldment of religious truth suited to the exigencies ofan ever-advancing society. Claiming to be the latest in this line of

prophets and the bearer of a new revelation from God, his teachingsemphasized the recognition of the oneness and the interdependenceof humanity, which led him to call for the creation of global,


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transnational institutions to regulate human affairs. These teachingswere later articulated by Abdul-Bah during his travels in the Westafter being freed from Ottoman imprisonment in 1908 following theYoung Turk revolution.

Although technically a prisoner, Abdul-Bah was invited toBeirut around 1879 by Midhat Psh (d. 1883), the constitutionalreformer and, at that time, governor of Syria. The date of his visitwas calculated by Hassan Balyuzi, who notes According to Britishconsular records, Midhat Psh was Governor-General in Damascusfrom November 1878 to August 1880. He visited Haifa and Akkin May 1880. Balyuzi further asserts that Abduh met Abdu'l-Bahduring the latter's visit to Beirut. (Balyuzi 1980:378).

However, Abduh was in Egypt at this time, probably living inexile in his village due to his involvement with Afghn. There islittle doubt, however, that the two actually met, as attested by bothArsln and later by Abduh in a conversation with Rid, whoasserted that Abdul-Bah visited frequently during his sojourn inBeirut (Rid 1931:930). We must assume, therefore, that Abdul-Bah visited Beirut at least a second time, between the years 18841888.

Rid's Narrative Treatment of Abdul-Bah

Not content with Arslns account of Abdul-Bah's visit,Rid informs his readers in a footnote that Abdul-Bah practicedat-taqyyah, or dissimulation, and falsely portrayed himself as aSh reformer, thereby deceiving Abduh. Further, Rid assures hisreaders that he will clarify Abduhs relationship with Abdul-Bahin a later section (Rid 1931:307, n.2). Indeed, towards the end ofhis biography, Rid fulfills his pledge by offering an account of aconversation with Abduh in the summer of 1897 (for translation, seeCole 1981). In framing the conversation, Rid again alleges that his

master was not informed of the true nature of the Bah teachings,the implication being that he would instantly have repudiatedAbdul-Bah.

In his discussion with Rid, Abduh does not focus on thereligious beliefs of Abdul-Bah but rather on his efforts to changesociety peacefully through educational reform. At the beginning oftheir conversation, he professes his ignorance of Bah teachings but


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remarks, This sect is the only sect that works diligently for theacquisition of the arts and sciences among the Muslims, the ulamaand the intellectuals (Rid 1931:930). In the course of theirconversation, Rid informs his teacher that Abdul-Bah deniedthe finality of Muhammads prophethood and affirmed the need for anew revelation from God suited to the exigencies of humanity.Abduh responds that I never understood any of this from AbbsEffendi. He only explained that they have undertaken to reform theShite sect and bring it closer to the Sunnis (Rid 1931:934,translated by Cole 1981). Even if we are reluctant to wholeheartedlyaccept Rids account, it is reasonable to presume that Abduh, as adevout Muslim, did not approve of Bah theology and eschatology.However, I will present new evidence that suggests that he was notentirely forthright with his disciple regarding his knowledge ofAbdul-Bahs heterodoxy.

In his article on Abduh and Rids conversation about theBah religion, Juan Cole contends that the Mufti was well informedof the nature of the Bah religion, although he offers no evidence(1981:8). Thankfully, new material has come to light in the lasttwenty years that supports Coles contention.

It is likely that the Mufti's initial exposure to the Bahteachings transpired prior to his meeting with Abdu'l-Bah. DuringAbduh's first period of exile to Beirut in 1883, he and Abu Turb

began to translate Afghn's Refutation of the Materialists, whichcontained a highly inflammatory reference to the Bah teachings.The Persian original contains the following characterization of theBbs (a term that Afghani used to refer to both followers of theBb and Bahullh):

Let it be noted that the Bbs, who recently appeared inIran and iniquitously spilled the blood of thousands ofGods servants, were the apprentices of those same

neicheris [naturalists] of Alamut [Ismailis] and the slaves,or bearers of begging bowls, of those men of the mountain,and their teachings are an example of btin teachings. Wemust anticipate what further effects their beliefs will haveamong the Iranian people in the future (Keddie 1968:158).


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Interestingly, Abduh and Abu Turbs translation of the Persiantext into Arabic makes no mention of the Bbs:

It is clear that a group (fiah) has appeared in recent days insome of the Eastern countries that has shed abundant bloodand murdered noble souls. It appears under a name that isnot far removed from the names of similar movements that

preceded it. They picked up the remnants of thematerialists (dahryy) of Alamut and the naturalists(Tabyy) of Kardkh and its teachings are like theteachings of the Btins. We must see what the effect is of

its innovations [bida] in the community in which itappeared (Afghn 1973:167).

Why did Abduh edit out the specific reference to the Bbs?If, as Rid contended, he knew nothing of the movement, what

purpose would it serve to substantively alter the imprecations ofAfghani's original text? Given the date of the publication of thetranslation, 188586 (Keddie 1972:5), it is possible that Abduhalready had a favorable view of the Bahs or at least did not wish tofurther prejudice Afghns audience against them. Althoughspeculative, this helps explain the curious omission of the name of

the group.Further, Abduh characterizes the Bb teachings as bida,which literally means innovation. In an Islamic context, the wordis the closest equivalent to the English word heresy. The use of thisword is an advance on Afghani's pejorative statements, whichstopped short of accusing the movement of bida. It also indicatesthat, whether Abduh knew Abdul-Bah personally by this time ornot, he probably thought of the movement as heretical. Strikingly,it did not seem to dampen Abduh's eagerness to befriend theheretic, as we shall see in the following pages.

It is reasonable to assume, therefore, that Abduhs

characterization of the Bb and Bah teachings as bida derivedfrom knowledge of the teachings themselves. This knowledge was

probably gleaned in large part from Afghn, who nurtured a long-standing enmity toward the Bahs, as evinced by the hostile articleattributed to him in Butrus Bustanis encyclopedia (1876:416).Despite his repudiation of the teachings of the Bb and Bahullh,


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Afghn freely associated and intrigued with Azal Bbs, whorefused to recognize the claims of Bahullh and followed his half-

brother, Mrz Yahy, who named himself Subh al-Azal (Morn ofEternity). It seems very likely, therefore, that Abduh, as Afghnsclosest collaborator, was exposed to his masters prejudices towardsthe movement. It is puzzling, however, that Rid would assert theignorance of his mentor despite his knowledge of the closeassociation between Abduh and Afghn during this period of time.

In addition to Rids contention that Abduh was ignorant of thetrue nature of the Bah teachings, he also asserts that he dissuadedhis master from his favorable opinion of the Bah religion.However, he offers no evidence of Abduhs disaffection other thanhis own word. It is possible, as Cole notes, that the polemic wasintended to exonerate his teacher rather than adhere to the truth (Cole1981:89). As a claimant to Abduhs reformist legacy, the public

perception of his mentors association with and admiration for theleader of a heretical movement was anathema to Rid. Indeed,Rids hostility toward the Bah teachings was kindled as astudent in Turablus, where he had read an article on the history of theBb and Bahi movements in the secular journal al-Muqtataf

(Mrz Fadlullh, 1896)penned by Mrz Abl-Fadl (18441914),a Bah scholar who began teaching at al-Azhar around 189495.Rid was further incensed by the warm reception of Abl-Fadl's

book, ad-Durar al-Bahyyah (Glorious Pearls), by Mustaf Kmil,an Egyptian nationalist leader, and Shaykh Al Ysif, owner of thenewspaper ofal-Muayyid(Rid 1931:937). Afraid that the peoplewere being deceived by the Bahs, he later used his periodical, al-Manr, as a medium of anti-Bah polemic (Cole 1983).

Abduhs Friendship with Abdul-Bah

From the foregoing, it is clear that Rids treatment of his

mentor's relationship with Abdul-Bah must be viewed with someincredulity. Still, the nature of Abduhs friendship with Abdul-Bah and his knowledge of the teachings of the Bah religion

persists. Even though Cole has explored the subject in some detail,he admits that the matter of how intimate the two men were bearsmore investigation (Cole 1981:12). The subject may be clarified bytwo letters exchanged between Abduh and Abdul-Bah that have


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recently surfaced. According to an Egyptian Bahi, Salm Qabn,Muhammad Abduh sent a letter (kitb, which could also meanbook) to Bahullh, to which the latter instructed Abdul-Bahto reply Qabn (1932:125127). If the letter accompanied a copy ofal-Urwa al-Wuthq, then Abdul-Bah's response was written after1884. Indeed, Bahullh notes the receipt of al-Urwa in hisLawh-i Duny, so this is not an unreasonable assumption.

There are two different ways to read the letter (see fulltranslation in Appendix I). One way is to read it as a letter ofencouragement, employing typical Muslim punctilios towards thisend. For instance, Abdul-Bah opens the letter with a eulogy of theProphet and his family commonly found in many eighteenth centuryletters from one learned Muslim to another. The text is permeatedwith quotes from the Qurn, a sign of erudition and well-crafted

prose. Abdul-Bah also praises the Muftis efforts to reform Islamand counsels him to contemplate the dynamism of an earlier age andthe activities of the predecessors (al-aslf). Interestingly, Abdul-Bah, later the leader of a religious group that claimed to abrogatethe laws of Islam, seems to encourage Abduhs rationale for reform(even the word associated with Abduh 's reform movement,

salafiyyah, comes from the same root as al-aslf).The friendship between the two men is also evident, as mightbe inferred from the references to the attraction of your love anddevotion (jadhbat hubbika) and the ardor of your friendship(shiddat walika). These indicate that their friendship was alreadyestablished by the time the letter was written, although a fixed datehas yet to be determined.

There is, however, another way to read the letter. Given itsgeneral tone, repeated use of Qurnic allusions to the station of

prophethood, and the employment of uniquely Bah symbology,Abdul-Bah seems to have subtly hinted at the theophanic claims

of his father. He begins the letter with a reference to the MysticDove, (al-warq) whose tongue has been loosed by God to speakin Paradise, and to the burning of the Divine Lote-Tree (as-sidra ar-rabbniyya). In his writings, Bahullh often identified himselfwith the warq, as evident in the following tablet written during hisincarceration in Adrianople:


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Thus doth the Nightingale [al-warq] utter His call untoyou from this prison. He hath but to deliver this clearmessage. Whosoever desireth, let him turn aside from thiscounsel and whosoever desireth let him choose the path tohis Lord (Bahullh 1982:21011).

Another symbol Bahullh frequently employed to indicatehis prophetic station is that of the Burning Bush and the sidratul-muntah, the Divine Lote-Tree mentioned in the Qurn, as evincedin the following letter to one of his enemies:

Open thine eyes that thou mayest behold this WrongedOne shining forth above the horizon of the will of God, theSovereign, the Truth, the Resplendent. Unstop, then, theear of thine heart that thou mayest hearken unto the speechof the Divine Lote-Tree [sidratul-muntah] that hath beenraised up in truth by God, the Almighty, the Beneficent.Verily, this Tree, notwithstanding the things that befell it

by reason of thy cruelty and of the transgressions of suchas are like thee, calleth aloud and summoneth all men untothe sadratul-muntaha and the Supreme Horizon(Bahullh 1988:84).

Sometimes both symbols are used in conjunction, asdemonstrated in the colophon to his most noted doctrinal work, theKitb-i-qn (The Book of Certitude):

Revealed [al-manzl] by the Ba and the Ha' [ie.Bah].

Peace be upon him that inclineth his ear unto

the melody of the Mystic Bird [al-warq] calling from the

sidratul-muntah (Bahullh 1970:257)

Bahullh often resorted to prophetic symbology to

communicate his theophanic claims, particularly early in his ministrywhen he did not feel that the Bb community and the wider Muslimpopulace were capable of sustaining the weight of an explicit claimto prophethood. It is evident that Abdul-Bah still employed thissame practice in relating his fathers claims to prominent Muslims, asevinced by the use of these same symbols in his letter to MuhammadAbduh. Abdul-Bah further writes of the universal and


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transcendent Reality (al-haqqa al-kulliyya al-fiqa) which israised up in the august station, (al-maqm al-mahmd) anddescribed as the Outstretched Shadow in the Perspicuous Day [al-

yawm al-mashd]. In common Muslim parlance, the PerspicuousDay is a clear reference to the Day of Judgment when the soul will

be asked to stand before God and account for its deeds (see Qurn11:103). In Bah eschatology, however, the appearance of theuniversal and transcendent reality, or the Messenger of God, in theaugust station is the Day of Judgment; once again further evidencethat Abdul-Bah was attempting to subtly communicate hisfathers claims to prophethood. Read in light of the foregoing, themundane introduction is now transformed into a poetic elucidation,however hidden, of his fathers theophanic claims.

In the main body of the text, Abdul-Bah continues to hint athis fathers identification with the Semitic prophets through repeatedQurnic allusions to the revelatory experience. For instance, Abduhis instructed to proceed to the Vale of Towa, the site where Godspoke to Moses (see Qurn 20:12, 79:16), where he will hear theguidance from God emanating from the Burning Bush.

Towards the end of the letter, Abdul-Bah reaffirms that

nothing but a new revelation from God is capable of regenerating theMuslim community. As noted above, this too is done subtly.Abdul-Bah first counsels Abduh to continue on his path ofreform, but leaves the choice of the method to Abduh. However, hethen proceeds to inform Abduh that only a divine power (quwwatmalaktiyya ilhiyya) is capable of regenerating Islam. Given his

background and the repeated allusions to Bahullhs claims to anew revelation, there is little doubt as to the source of the divine

power in the mind of Abdul-Bah.Granted, Abduh may not have understood Abdul-Bah's

allusions, despite his religious training and appreciation for veiled

messages (see Malcolm Kerrs Islamic Reform 1966:105, 111).Unfortunately, Abduh's reply to the letter is missing, so it isimpossible to gauge his response. Rid mentions that he possessesseveral letters from Abdul-Bah to his teacher, which might clarifyhis reaction, but he fails to reproduce them in the voluminous historyof his mentor (Rid 1931:930). A letter written by Abduh to


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Abdul-Bah on the 29th of Muharram, 1305 (October 17, 1887)may explain why Rid did not publish their correspondence (seeAppendix II for full translation).

In the letter, Abduh's admiration of Abdu'l-Bah is evident.He begins with the standard praise of Muhammad, his family, and hiscompanions. But he also addresses Abdul-Bah as the perfectmaster (al-mawl al-kmil) and the proof that the latter generationsurpasses its forebears (hujjat al-awkhir al al-awil). As furtherevidence of his high esteem for Abdul-Bah, he also addresses himas the spirit of peace (rh as-salm) and admits that words cannotcontain the depth of his feeling for him. While it could be argued thathe was merely engaging in hyperbole (not uncommon in letters of thetime), this level of praise in Abduhs writings was unusual. Forexample, compare the letter with the opening passages from a letteraddressed to the English clergyman Isaac Taylor. As a member ofMuhammad Abduhs secret society for the reconciliation of thethree major monotheistic faiths, Taylor was impressed with theShaykhs presentation of Islam and wrote several articles in Englishnewspapers in praise of the religion (much to the chagrin of hisfellow missionaries in the Middle East). Reciprocally, Abduh so

respected Taylor for his courage and insight that he had one of hisarticles translated and published in the journal Thamart al-Funn.The letter is useful for comparison since there are several parallelswith his letter to Abdul-Bah: 1) Abduh did not agree with manyof Taylors beliefs, 2) he admired Taylor, and 3) the letter waswritten in Beirut around the same time that Abduh wrote to Abdul-Bah. Below are excerpts from his letter to Taylor that are similar in

purpose to phrases found in his letter to Abdul-Bah, but differentin tone:

This is my letter to him who is inspired with truth andspeaks with sincerity the revered, respected minister, Isaac

Taylor. News has reached us of that which youpresented to the religious assembly in the city of Lndr[London?] concerning the religion of Islam. If it is true,then light is radiating from within your words by whichdiscernment knows true insight and to which the eyes ofluminous minds are inclined (Rid 1906:513).


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Abduh continues to extol Taylors efforts to dispelmisconceptions about Islam, but nowhere in the letter does his praisefor the minister reach the level of that found in his letter to Abdul-Bah. Perhaps a more worthwhile comparison would be with one ofhis letters to a close, unidentified friend written in Beirut, whichRid includes in his collection of Abduhs letters of friendship(risiluhu al-widdiyya) published in the second volume of thehistory of his teacher (1906):

The affection for you in our heart blazes forth by your

radiance and the praise in our speech is inspired by yourperfection and the respect in our breast is upraised by yoursplendor (Bahuka). Time can never dissolve ourfriendship nor create its like. We preserve it from the needfor renewal and growth. No communication increases itand no delay weakens it. Truly, your place in [our] soul is amanifestation of your bounty (tajall fadlika) andrepresents your loftiness and nobility. This immortality

bequeaths everlastingness to the souls and eternality in theself-sacrifice of the spirits.

A letter has arrived from you divulging the secret of loveand unfolding concealed friendship. In it is a

demonstration of your emotion due that which we feel andyour sympathy on account of our bereavement. We arealready informed of the news [in the letter] and the fate ofthat which we decided, but we thank you for the favor of[your] letter and your friendliness. May God redeem yourdebt as recompense for your fidelity (Rid 1906:5312)

Like Abduhs letter to Abdul-Bah, this missive is filled withSufi imagery and hyperbolic expressions of friendship. At the veryleast, therefore, his letter to the Bah leader should be read in asimilar light. Still, Abduhs praise of Abdul-Bah finds few

parallels, save in his letters to Afghn. Below is Elie Kedouries

partial translation of one of his letters to his mentor that was writtenin 1883 during Abduhs first sojourn in Beirut, some portions ofwhich were edited out of Rid's reproduction of the letter in hisTarkh (Kedourie 1966:66):

My Exalted Lord (mawly al-muazzam), whom Godpreserve and second in his purpose! Would that I knew


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what to write to you. You know what is in my soul, as youknow what is in yours. You have made us with your hands,invested our matter with its perfect form [and created us inthe best shape]. Would that I knew what to write to you.Through you have we known ourselves, through you havewe known you, through you have we known the wholeuniverse. Your knowledge of us is, as will not be hiddenfrom you, a necessary knowledge; it is the knowledge youhave of yourself, your confidence in your power and will;from you have we issued and to you, to you do we return.

I have been endowed by you with a wisdom whichenables me to change inclinations, impart rationality toreason, overcome great obstacles, and control theinnermost thoughts of men. I have been given by you a willso powerful as to move the immovable, deal blows to thegreatest of obstacles, and remain firm in the right untiltruth is satisfied. I used to imagine that my power [throughyour power] was limitless and my capacity infinite, but lo,the days have brought me endless surprises. I have takenup the pen to show you that in my soul with which you aremore than myself familiar, but I have found myselfdefeated, with a paralyzed heart, a trembling hand, quaking

limbs and distracted thoughts, [your] mind mastering me asthough, O my lord (mawlyy), you have given me a kind of

power which, to indicate the potency of your dominion(sultn), you have made to extend over individuals, butyou excepted from its sway that which relates tocommunication with you, and the approach to yourmajestic abode (il maqmika al-jall) ( Rid 1925: 599603).

Evidence that Abduh was not typically prone to this type ofextreme mystical praise in the openings of his letters can be deduced

by the reaction of Rashd Rid to the above quoted letter to Afghn.

In his introduction to the letter, Rid writes:It is the strangest (aghrab) of his letters, or rather odd(ash- shdh) in that he describes the Sayyid with wordsthat resemble those of the Sufis and the proponents ofexistential monism (wahdat al-wujd) ( Rid 1925: 599).


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In his letter to the Bah leader, Abduh repeatedly speaks of hislonging (shawq) for Abdul-Bah, indicating that their friendshipwas already well established by the time the letter was written.Further, he notes the receipt of a letter from Abdul-Bah. Finally,and most significantly, Abduh expresses his desire to visit Abdul-Bah in Haifa due to his need to be illumined by your light [hjatlakali-istida bi-nrikum].

Although Abduh ends the letter by expressing his desire to visitAbdul-Bah in Akk, there is no substantial evidence that he wasable to carry out his wish. There is, however, evidence that he visitedPalestine during his second exile in Beirut and he may have stoppedin Akk to visit the prisoner. In a letter to Isaac Taylor, Abduhmentions his trip to Jerusalem:

I was recently in Jerusalem for a visit of the holy lands,which the three major religions revere. Here, the visitor isstruck by the impression that the true religion is as amighty tree from which numerous branches have spreadout. The presence of differing leaves and branch networksin no way detracts from its unity of kind and species. It iscorrect that its resemblance in fruit, both in color andflavor, is condensed in the religion of Islam, which has

been nourished by its roots and veins. Islam is its epitome,and the objective of its growth. For [Islam] affirms thewhole and magnifies all while calling to unity and union.For this is the destiny of all creatures though theirdifferences have attained a number, which is beyond alllimits (Abduh, 1972:365; translated by Kuhn, 1993:50).

As further corroboration, Shakb Arsln wrote that Abduh not onlyvisited Jerusalem, but also Damascus, Tarablus, Sidon, and Balabek(Rid 1931:405). It is quite possible, then, that he was able to carryout his desire.

Concealed History

Although I have established that a friendship existed betweenMuhammad Abduh and Abdul-Bah and that the Mufti may haveknown more about the movement than he related to Rid, theinfluence of the two men upon one another is still an open question.Further, the course of their friendship after Abduh's return to Egypt


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remains unresolved due to a dearth of information. There is a lengthyarticle on the Bb and Bah movements published in al-Ahrm onJune 18, 1896 that is attributed to Abduh in a Bah source (Qabn1932:122123), although no name is attached. Further, the author ofthe article particularly focuses on challenges to Abdul-Bahsleadership of the Bah community by members of his family, atactic Rid would later employ in his anti-Bah polemic. Based onthis, I am inclined to credit Rid, rather than Abduh, withauthorship of the article.

Sometime during this same period, Abdul-Bah wrote a letterto a Hjj Mrz Hasan-i Khursn that included a message toAbduh (Abdul-Bah c. 1903). Although the letter was undated, itseems to have been written between 1898 (the establishment of al-Manr) and 1905 (Abduhs death). The most significant period ofBah persecutions in Yazd during this period of time took place in1903, so we can tentatively fix this date to the letter. In the letter,Abdul-Bah mentions that Rid and Shaykh Al Ysuf (18631913), published a report in their respective journals concerning themurder of 200 Bahs in the Persian city of Yazd.

Rids journal, al-Manr(lighthouse or minaret) began its

publication on March 17, 1898. Abduh chose its name and outlinedits policies. In 1901, Rid began publishing installments of theTafsr al-Manr, a well-known Qurnic commentary composed byAbduh and Rid. The latter continued to write and publish thetafsrafter Abduh's death. Although Rid maintained that the ideasexpressed in the commentary were Abduh's, it is difficult to discernthe demarcation between Abduh and Rid. (as-Sw 1954:38). Al-Muayyad was a daily paper established by Shaykh Al Ysuf inCairo in 1889. In 1900, it published six articles of Abduh refutingthe arguments put forward by French Cabinet Minister, GabrielHanotaux, who had published an article in the Journal de Paris in

which he wrote at length on the fatalistic Muslim mentality (as-Sw 1954:37).

In their articles concerning the murder of the Bahis in Yazd,Rid and Al Ysuf contended that they were killed for slanderingthe prophets of the Qurn. Abdul-Bah maintained that Abduhwas well aware of the Bahs willingness to sacrifice themselves for


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the prophets and, therefore, would never have consented to thedissemination of the erroneous articles. Further, he contended thatthey were only published on account of Abduhs absence fromEgypt during a trip overseas. Although Abdul-Bah expressed histrust in the Muftis continuing goodwill, the exact nature of Abduhsfeelings towards the Bahs at the end of his life is unknown.

The reason that the matter is shrouded in mystery is related tothe handling of a letter from Abduh to Leo Tolstoy that was writtenin Arabic at the end of his life. Murd Wahba has recently written anarticle in Arabic detailing the correspondence between the two men.He relates that Abduhs letter was relayed to Tolstoy by an EnglishOrientalist named S. K. Kkrl on May 2, 1904. This is probablySydney Cockerell who served Abduhs English acquaintance andfellow political intriguer Wilfred Blunt as a private secretary for twoyears and then became director of the Fitzwilliam Museum atCambridge. Kkrl wrote Tolstoy and told him that he andAbduh had a number of mutual interests. He also attached a copy ofAbduh 's letter rendered into English by Wilfrid Blunts wife, Anne.Wahba managed to recover Tolstoys copy of the Arabic letter anddiscovered a postscript that was omitted from Uthmn Amn's 1955

and 1965 printings of his book Muhammad Abdu, Essai sur sesIdes Philosophiques et Religieuses and from an English translationappended by Blunt to the second volume of his Diaries: If you

prefer to respond, O wise one, it can be in French, as it is the onlyEuropean language I know (Wahba 1994:121). Despite Wahbasclaims to have discovered the postscript, however, MuhammadImrah had already produced a copy of the complete original (1972,vol. 1:269).

Wahba contends that the deletion of the postscript wasintentional (mutaammad), as it would indicate the existence of aresponse from Tolstoy in French containing information that would

tarnish Abduhs reputation in the Middle East as an orthodoxMuslim. Indeed, Wahba reproduces Tolstoy's response written inFrench on May 12, 1904 in which he praised the reformist efforts ofAbduh and asked about the secret of creation. As mentioned in theintroduction, Tolstoy ended the letter by asking the question: What


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do you know of the Bb and Bahullh? (for information onTolstoys interest in the Bahi religion see Stendardo 1985).

Internal evidence in the letters suggests that Rashd Ridworked assiduously to ensure that the question remainedunanswered; an action that is commensurate with the patterndemonstrated in the forgoing. It seems that he deleted the postscriptwhen he first published the letter in his Tarkh, twenty years prior toAmn (Rid, 1925:623624). But this in itself is proof of little morethan editorial efficiency.

Following the reproduction of the letter in the biography ofhis mentor, however, Rid adds a short message from Abduh toTolstoy, although it is unclear if the original was in French or Arabic.It is apparently an excerpt from a second letter, as it ends abruptlyand contains no signature or traditional ending of as-salm, asfound in the first letter. Rid, however, does not indicate that it is

part of a larger letter, merely labeling it He also wrote to him[Tolstoy]. The subject of the extract is quite interesting, as it iswritten in response to Tolstoy's question regarding the secret ofcreation:

O sinless spirit! You have proceeded from an exalted

station to the terrestrial world and assumed the corporealform known as Tolstoy. My might [qawyy] is in you,

joined to your spirit in its belief [mabda]. Your bodilyneeds have not kept you from that which you have aspiredto. You have not been afflicted with that which hath

befallen most of the people due to their obliviousness tothat which separates them from the world of light. Youwere continuing to contemplate it with contemplation uponcontemplation and [your] insight is returning to it time andagain. In this regard, you have inquired about the secret ofcreation [ sirr fitra]. You have comprehended that the

person is created in order to know and then to do and not

created to be ignorant, idle and negligent (Rid 1925:624).

Given the brevity of the response, the abrupt ending, theabsence of an as-salm indicating a termination of the main bodyof the letter, and the subject matter, I believe this letter to be anincomplete excerpt from Abduhs response to Tolstoys letter. Fromthe preceding pages, one might deduce the reasons for Rids


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deletion of the rest of the letter, as it was likely a response toTolstoys second query concerning the Bah religion. The exactnature of Abduh's feelings towards the Bah teachings at the endof his life, therefore, was known only to Rid. If it was negative, itis hard to believe that Rid would have left it unpublished, as hetried assiduously to distance his teacher from the Bahs. Althoughone can conclude that Abduhs final thoughts on the Bahteachings may have been positive, their exact nature remains hidden,either destroyed or part of a larger collection of Abduhscorrespondence with Abdul-Bah left unpublished and in privatehands.

What is clear, however, is the danger of giving too muchcredence to Rid's narrative, which was subject to distortion when itsuited his ideological agenda. As demonstrated, the friendship

between Abduh and Abdul-Bah was far more meaningful thanportrayed by Rid, as it was based upon mutual admiration fororthopraxis not orthodoxy. Perhaps with the discovery of additionalcommunication between the two men, a more nuanced intellectualhistory of Abduh can be composed.

Although the existence of a strong friendship has been

established, however, the intellectual implications of this relationshipstill need more exploration. In his earlier article, Cole suggested twosuch avenues of investigation that rely on the establishment of anintellectual genealogy connecting the two men (Cole 1981:9). Inaddition to his earlier view that Abdul-Bah may have influencedAbduh's arguments on polygamy, Cole also suggests that his ideason progressive revelation and the fundamental unity of religionsgleaned from his father may have also influenced Abduh. In hismost recent book, however, Cole has inexplicably altered his

previous conclusion concerning polygamy (Cole 1998:181).Intellectual genealogies, however, are notoriously difficult to

prove, as attempts to construct the relationships of cause and effect,or even adequately encapsulate the thought of the subject are oftenfrustrated by the biases of the author and by inconclusive evidence.The study of 19th century Muslim intellectuals living in the MiddleEast is further complicated by several factors that limited theexpression of their thought, including the presence of totalitarian


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regimes, foreign control, and a dominant Muslim discourse oftenhostile to foreign knowledge and religious innovation. Indeed, onemight well question the feasibility of writing standard biographiesgiven these constraints.

Perhaps a more fruitful enterprise would be to consider thesocial problems both men grappled with and the divergent paths theytrod in search of solutions. After all, Abduh called for a return to therational elements of early Islam, as embodied in the Mutaziliteschool, while Abdul-Bah stressed the need for a new revelationfrom God. Further, it was their mutual pursuit of religious reformthat caused them to cross paths in the first place and develop afriendship that transcended the boundaries of orthodoxy. Theanswers produced by the two men are still relevant, as the Islamarticulated by the former and his rational apologetics have beenappropriated by a number of Muslim thinkers, while the teachings ofthe latter hold a pivotal position in the corpus of writings that guideone of the fastest growing religious groups in the world.

APPENDIX I

Abdul-Bah's Letter to Muhammad Abduh , c. 1885 ADHe is God!Praise be to God Who hath caused the tongue of the Mystic

Dove [al-warq] to speak with the best of words in the Garden ofthe All-Merciful upon the boughs with the most wondrous ofmelodies. Whereupon the holy, detached and pure realities, uponwhich were imprinted the luminous rays from the sun of Truth andwhich blazed with the kindled fire from the Divine Lote-Tree [as-

sidra ar-rabbniyya] in the reality of man, were stirred, gladdened,quickened and attracted by its fragrances. At this, they rejoiced with

praise and glorification in commemorating their Lord, the Mighty,

and the Powerful. And they loosed their tongues and proclaimed,Praise be the One who hath caused it to speak of Gods praise in thegarden of existence with the psalms of the family of David and Whohath taught it His wisdom and His mysteries and Who hath made itthe repository of His inspiration and the dawning-place of His lightsand the dayspring of His signs. All necks are brought low through the


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power of His utterance and are made to bow through the appearanceof His proof. I give praise and salutations to the universal andtranscendent Reality, subsisting from the beginning of existence,which is inundating [al-fida] all existent things, raised up in theaugust station [al-maqm al-mahmd], described as the OutstretchedShadow [see Qurn 56:30] in the Perspicuous Day, the greatestmeans and mightiest instrument [of the grace of God]. The blessingsof God be upon Him and His family in this world and the next.

O learned man of distinction endowed with deep-rootednobility!

If you desire to ascend unto the highest apex in the circle ofexistence, then you must have keen perception in this majestic age,so that you might behold the light of guidance shining above theexalted horizon: the earth shall shine with the light of her Lord[39:69]. Seek, then, to inhale the fragrances of God, which areverily wafting from the meads of holiness, the Garden of Paradise.Direct your footsteps to the Vale of Towa [see Qurn, 20:12, 79:16]with a heart attracted to the heavenly realm, and you will find theMost Great Guidance in the kindled fire in the Blessed Tree thatspeaks upon Mount Sinai. Draw forth then your hand, white and

glistening with lights, amongst the concourse of the righteous.By your life, O erudite one! For a discerning critic likeyourself, it is seemly to ascend unto the highest sphere of theheavens. Remove this tattered and threadbare garment, don thevestments of sanctity, spread out the wings of inner vision and betakeyourself to the Kingdom of the All-Merciful and hearken unto themelodies of the birds of holiness perched upon the highest boughs ofthe Lote-Tree beyond which there is no passing. By your life! Theygive life to the moldering bone and restore the breasts that have beendilated through the love of God; and for them is a great fortune[Qurn 41:35]. Abandon this mortal life and all its concerns, which

are destined to pass into extinction. I swear by your Lord, the MostHigh! They are dreams, nay, vain imaginings in the sight of those

possessed of understanding. Rather, true life is the life of the spirit,adorned with virtues whose lamp is lit and shines forth in theKingdom of creation. God is to be likened to whatever is loftiest[Qurn, 16:60], so if you desire a goodly life, scatter the seeds of


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wisdom in good, pure earth, in order that they may yield for you inevery grain seven ears of blessed corn [See Qurn 2:216]. If youwish to rear a structure in the contingent world, erect a majesticedifice, strongly buttressed, its foundation immovable in the centre-most point of attraction, the lowest nadir, and raise up its chambersin the sublimest zenith of the ether. Quaff the exquisite wine ofmystic meanings from the chalice in the Realm on High, the Centreof the Circle of the Most Mighty Bestowal, the Pole of the sphere ofthe Most Great Bounty and the Dawning-place of guidance and theDayspring of the lights of your Lord, the Most Exalted.

I swear by my longing for you! It was naught but theattraction of your love and devotion and the ardor your friendshipthat prompted this discourse. I have the highest hopes for you, the

benefits of which my hand is incapable of obtaining. Reproach menot for having removed the veil from the Face of the bestowal ofyour Lord, for not to any shall the gifts of thy Lord be denied[Qurn 17:20].

Contemplate with penetrating vision the bygone centuries;and their circumstances; and their traces and conditions; and theirluminaries; and the marvels that occurred and their wondrous

conditions; and the profound secret they contained and the variationsamong the schools of thought; and the different philosophies currentamongst its leaders; and the diverse tastes of its luminaries. Truly,the annals of our predecessors are a reminder and a lesson to thosewho come after. Choose for yourself whatsoever you desire. Whatyou need is something that is possessed of a firmer foundation,clearer elucidation, a greater proof, a more powerful sovereignty, a

brighter light, a greater happiness, a sweeter subsistence, a deeperlonging, a swifter remedy, a sounder method, a more radiant lamp, agreater gift, and a more perfect bestowalnay that is more potent in itslife-force and more redeeming in spirit for the body of mankind. By

your life! Whosoever is against it, the Face of God is abiding, thePossessor of majesty and honor. And if you are able to remain in theshelter of the Divine Countenance, then you will be preserved fromextinction, attain immortality, and become radiant in the manifesthorizon with a light illuminating the Kingdom of the heavens and theearth. The panoply of acceptance is rolled up and the cover of


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oblivion will be spread out. And the floods leave nothing behindexcept traces. And the rich will come down from the palaces to thegraves and the throes of death will seize them and regrets will pileupon them. It is too late to escape. No sound will you hear from themor any stir [see Qurn 19:98]. And as for the dross, it will pass awayuselessly. And as for that which benefits the people, it remainshidden. The former generations are for us a clear example.

And if God were to assist you with correct judgment andforceful sagacity, consider that which will return this noblecommunity to its first beginning and exalted rank. I swear by theraising of its standard, the sun of its appearance, the light of itsguidance and the foundation of its structure! Nothing save a divine

power can renew its tattered garment, bring forth its profuselygrowing root and raise it up from the decay of its downfall and theh of its decline [hubtih] to the mm of its station [markazih]and the summit of its Mirj. Verily, that is the remedy that is theremedy, that is the remedy and peace be upon whosoever shallfollow the guidance.

APPENDIX II

Muhammad Abduh 's Letter to Abdul-Bah,

29 of Muharram, 1305 (October 17, 1887)

Perfect master and energetic savant, proof that the lattergeneration surpasses its forebears, may God support you. Praise be toGod, the beginning of perfection and its end, and peace and blessings

be upon the essence of existence [Muhammad] and his wisdom andhis family and the inheritors of his exalted station and hiscompanions, those who preserve his guidance and are the lodestars ofhis command.

Peace be upon your lofty station, O spirit of peace. Andbeneath your beauty, O high-minded one, the rulers bow their heads.If God could make concrete form to encapsulate the mystic spirit orexpression to relate the conditions of the inmost heart, I would tellyou the best of stories and recount unto you the grandest ofnarratives so that I might express my longing for you and lamentyour absence. However, no narrative can encapsulate the feelings I


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have for you in my soul and no story can relate the place I hold foryou in my heart. I trust that the brilliance of your vision will bringthem to light and I am content that the radiance of your soul willillumine them.

My longing for you is the longing of souls for perfection and mypreoccupation with you is the preoccupation of hearts with theiraspirations. But what am I to do? Obstacles are erected and barriersforce me to remain far from you. When I returned to Beirut, I found aletter [kitb] from you awaiting me that contained an abundance ofchapters and sections. In it, you clothed me in the beauty of yourthoughts and placed the collars of your grace around my neck by thedescent of your good pleasure. I am nothing like what youmentioned. Rather, you illumined your own attributes by mentioningthese things. That is how God uplifts the perfect people, so they

become even more exalted, and how He teaches them through hisgrace, so they become humble. May God increase your loftiness andexaltedness and upraise your high rank, sinless [isma] andinvincible.

As for coming to Akk, my longing for you draws me unto itand my need to be illumined by your light impels me to come. I will

make every effort and do whatever is in my power to realize thisdesire. I ask God to facilitate it and not to make us satisfied withhope over actual measures. In your love, He bestows a blessing uponme and with nearness He eliminates my sorrow at your remoteness.He, verily, is the Lord of the truthful and the Protector of the pure inheart.

BibliographyJune 18, 1896. al-Firqa al-Bbiyya, al-Ahrm.Abduh, Muhammad 19721974. al-Aml al-Kmilah (The

Complete Works). Muhammad Imra, ed., 6 vols. al-

Mu'assast al-arabiyyah lil-dirst wa an-nashr, Beirut.Abdul-Bah c. 1903. Letter to Hj Mrz Hasan-i-Khursn,

provided by the Bah World Centre.

Afghn, Jaml ad-Dn. 1973. ar-Radd ala ad-dahriyyn, translatedinto Arabic from the Persian by Muhammad Abduh [andAb Turb], Cairo, Dr al-Hill.


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. 1968. The Truth about the Neicheri Sect and an Explanation of theNeicheris,An Islamic Response to Imperialism, trans. NikkiKeddie and Hamid Algar. Berkeley, University of CaliforniaPress,.

Afshr, raj and Asghar Mahdav eds. 1963. Majmeh-yi asnd vamadrik-i chp nashudeh dar breh-yi Sayyid Jaml ad-Dnmashhr bi Afghn, Tehran, Chpkhnah-yi Dnishgh-iTihrn.

Bahullh. 1982. Bah Prayers. Wilmette, Bah PublishingTrust.

. 1988. Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, translated by Shoghi EffendiRabbani Bah Publishing Trust, Wilmette.

. 1995.Kitb-i Aqdas (Arabic). Haifa, Bah World Centre

. 1970. The Kitb-i-qn, translated by Shoghi Effendi Rabbani.Wilmette: Bah Publishing Trust.

. 1987. Prayers and Meditations, translated by Shoghi EffendiRabbani. Wilmette, Bah Publishing Trust.

Balyuzi, H. M. 1980. Bah'u'llh: The King of Glory. Oxford,George Ronald.

Blunt, Wilfred. 1921. My Diaries: Being a Personal Narrative of

Events, 18881914 . 2 vols. New York, A. A. Knopf.Bustn, Butrus. 1876. Dir Marif al-Qarn al-Asharn, vol. 2,Beirut.

Cole, Juan R. I. 1998. Modernity and the Millennium: The Genesis ofthe Bah Faith in the Nineteenth-Century Middle East. NewYork, Columbia.

. 1981. Muhammad Abduh and Rashd Rid: a Dialogue on theBah Faith, World Order, vol. 15, nos. 34(Spring/Summer 1981): 716.

. Rashd Rid on the Bah Faith: A Utilitarian Theory of theSpread of Religions. Arab Studies Quarterly 5, 3 (Summer

1983): 27629.Keddie, Nikki R. 1972. Sayyid Jaml ad-Dn al-Afghn: A

Political Biography. Berkeley, University of California Press.Kedourie, Elie. 1966. Afghani and Abduh: An Essay on Religious

Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam. London.


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Kerr, Malcolm. 1966. Islamic Reform: The Political and LegalTheories of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida. Berkeley,University of California Press.

Kuhn, Michael F. 1993. The Practical Apologetic of MuhammadAbduh with a View Toward His Approach to Christianity.M.A. thesis. American University in Cairo.

Mrz Fadlullh al-rn. 1896. al-Bb wal-Bbiyya, al-Muqtataf,20, No. 9 (September): 65057.

Qabn, Salm. 1932. Abdul-Bah wal-Bahyya, Cairo.Rid, Muhammad Rashd. 1931. Tarkh al-Ustdh al-Imm ash-

Shaykh Muhammad Abduh, vol. 1, Cairo, al-Manr Press;vol. 2 1906, 1925.

as-Sw, Ahmad Husayn. 1954. Muhammad Abduh and al-Waq'ial-Misriyah, Masters thesis. McGill University.

Stendardo, Luigi. 1985.Leo Tolstoy and The Bah Faith, translatedfrom French by Jeremy Fox. Oxford, George Ronald.

Wahba, Murd. 1994. Madkhl il at-Tanwr. Cairo, Dr al-lamath-Thlith.


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Documents

Muhammad Abduh y Abdu'L-Baha