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Muslim conquest of PersiaFrom Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
(Redirected from Islamic conquest of Persia ) Jump to:
navigation , search Muslim conquest of PersiaPart of the Muslim
conquests
Date 633-644
LocationMesopotamia , Caucasus , Persia , and Bactria
Result Rashidun victoryTerritorial
changesMesopotamia and the SassanidEmpire annexed by Muslims
BelligerentsSassanid Empire , Arab Christians Rashidun
Caliphate
CommandersEmperor Yazdegerd III Rostam Farrokhzd MahbuzanHuzail
ibn ImranHormuz AnushjanAnd arzaghar Bahman
Pirouzan
Jaban Mihran HormuzanMardan Shah BahramIsandir
Caliph Abu Bakr
Khalid ibn Walid Muthana ibn Haris Caliph Umar Abu Ubaid Saad
ibn Abi Waqqas Zuhra ibn Al- Hawiyya
Hashim ibn UthbaQaqa ibn Amr Abu Musa Ashaari Ammar ibn
Yasir
Nouman ibn Muqarrin Hudheifa ibn Al YamanMugheera ibn Shuba
Usman ibn Abi al-Aas
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Karinz ibn KarianzWahman MardanshahJalinus Beerzan
Asim ibn AmrAhnaf ibn Qais Abdullah ibn Aamir
[hide ] v d e
Muslim conquestof the Persian Empire
Chains River Walaja Ullais Hira Al-Anbar Ein-ul-Tamr
Daumat-ul-Jandal Muzayyah Saniyy Zumail Firaz Bridge al-Qdisiyyah
Ctesiphon Jalula
Nahvand Herat Rasil Oxus River
History of Greater IranKings of Persia
Pre-modernBefore Islam [show]
BCE
Prehistory Proto-Elamite civilization 3200 2800
Elamite dynasties 2800 550Bactria-Margiana Complex 2200
1700Kingdom of Mannai 10th 7th cent.Median Empire 728 550Achaemenid
Empire 550 330Seleucid Empire 330 150Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
250-125Parthian Empire 248 CE 224
CE
Kushan Empire 30 275Sassanid Empire 224 651Hephthalite Empire
425 557Kabul-Shahi dynasty 565 670After Islam [show]
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on_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushan_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushan_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanid_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephthaliteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephthaliteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushano-Hephthalitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Farvahar_background.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushano-Hephthalitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephthaliteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanid_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushan_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannaeanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactria-Margiana_Archaeological_Complexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Elamitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Oxus_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rasilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Herat_%28643%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nah%C4%81vandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Jalulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Ctesiphonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Q%C4%81disiyyahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Firazhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zumailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Saniyyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Muzayyahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Daumat-ul-jandalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ein-ul-Tamrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Al-Anbarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Al-Anbarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hirahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ullaishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Walajahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Chainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Campaignbox_Muslim_Conquest_Persia&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Muslim_Conquest_Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Muslim_Conquest_Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Aamirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahnaf_ibn_Qais
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Patriarchal Caliphate 637 651Umayyad Caliphate 661 750Abbasid
Caliphate 750 1258Tahirid dynasty 821 873
Alavid dynasty 864 928Saffarid dynasty 861 1003Samanid dynasty
819 999Ziyarid dynasty 928 1043Buyid dynasty 934 1055Ghaznavid
Empire 975 1187Ghori dynasty 1149 1212Seljuk Empire 1037
1194Khwarezmid dynasty 1077 1231
Kartids dynasty 1231-1389Ilkhanate 1256 1353Muzaffarid dynasty
1314 1393Chupanid dynasty 1337 1357Jalayerid dynasty 1339
1432Timurid Empire 1370 1506Qara QoyunluTurcomans 1407 1468
Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans 1378 1508
Safavid Empire
1501 1722*
Mughal Empire 1526 1857Hotaki dynasty 1722 1729Afsharid dynasty
1736 1750
* or 1736
ModernSSR = Soviet Socialist Republic
Afghanistan [show]
Durrani Empire 1748
1823British and Russianinfluence
1826 1919
Independence and civilwar
1919 1929
Mohammedzai rule 1929 1973
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Republic of Afghanistan 1973 1978
Communist rule 1978 1992Recent history ofAfghanistan
since1992
Timeline Azerbaijan [show] Khanates of the Caucasus 1722
1828Russian Rule 1828 1917Democratic Republic 1918 1920Azerbaijan
SSR 1920 1991Republic of Azerbaijan since 1991Bahrain [show]
Portuguese rule
1521 1602British Treaty 1820 1971Kingdom of Bahrain since
1971Iran [show] Zand dynasty 1750 1794Qajar dynasty 1781
1925Pahlavi dynasty 1925 1979Iranian Revolution 1979Provisional
Government 1979
Islamic Republic of Iran
since 1979Iraq [show] Ottoman Empire 1632 1919Hashimite monarchy
1920 1958Coup and Republic 1958 2003Republic of Iraq since
2004Tajikistan [show] Emirate of Bukhara 1785 1920Bukharan / Uzbek
SSR 1920 1929Tajik Autonomous SSR 1929Tajik SSR 1929 1991Republic
of Tajikistan since 1991Uzbekistan [show] Emirate of Bukhara 1785
1920Uzbek SSR 1924 1991Independence 1991
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Republic of Uzbekistan since 1991
The Muslim conquest of Persia led to the end of the Sassanid
Empire in 644, of the Sassaniddynasty in 651 and the eventual
extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia . The
SassanidEmpire was first invaded by Muslims in present day Iraq in
633 under legendary general Khalid
ibn Walid , which resulted in Muslim conquest of Iraq. Following
the transfer of Khalid to theRoman front in the Levant , Muslims
eventually lost Iraq to Persian counter attacks. The secondinvasion
of Iraq began in 636 under Saad ibn Abi Waqqas when after a key
victory at the Battleof Qadisiyyah Sassanid control west of Persia
was permanently ended. The Zagros mountains
became a natural barrier and borders between the Rashidun
Caliphate and the Sassanid empire.Owing to continuous raids by
Persians in Iraq, Caliph Umar ordered a wholesale invasion of
theSassanid Persian empire in 642 which came to an end with
complete conquest of the Sassanids
by mid 644. The quick conquest of Persia in a series of well
coordinated multi-pronged attacks,operated by Caliph Umar from
Madinah several thousand miles from the battle fields in
Persia,
became his greatest triumph, marking his reputation among the
greatest strategists and politicalgeniuses of history .[1] Most
Muslim historians have long offered the idea that Persia, on the
verge
of the Arab invasion, was a society in decline and decay and
thus it embraced the invading Arabarmies with open arms. However
some other authors have for example used exclusively Arabsources to
illustrate that "contrary to the claims of Muslim apologists,
Iranians in fact foughtlong and hard against the invading Arabs.
"[2] This view furthermore holds that, once politicallyconquered,
the Persians began engaging in a culture war of resistance and
succeeded in forcingtheir own ways on the Arabs .[3][4]
Contents
[hide ]
1 Persia Before the Conquest o 1.1 Revolt of the Arab Client
States (602) o 1.2 Byzantine Sassanid War (612 - 629)
1.2.1 Assassination of Khosrau II o 1.3 During Prophet
Muhammad's Life
2 Rise of the Caliphate 3 First conquest of Iraq (633) 4 Second
invasion of Iraq (636)
o 4.1 Battle of Qadisiyyah 5 Conquest of Iraq (636 - 638)
o 5.1 Raids of Persians in Iraq (638 - 641) 6 Battle of Nihawand
(641) 7 Conquest of Persia (642 - 644)
o 7.1 Strategic planning for the conquest of Persia o 7.2
Conquest of central Persia (Isfahan & Tabaristan) o 7.3
Conquest of southern Persia (Fars) o 7.4 Conquest of south eastern
Persia (Kerman & Makran) o 7.5 Conquest of eastern Persia
(Sistan)
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o 7.6 Conquest of Azerbaijan o 7.7 Conquest of Armenia o 7.8
Conquest of Khurasan
8 Persian rebellion 9 End of the Sassanid dynasty
10 Persia under Muslim rule 11 See also 12 Notes &
References 13 Literature
[edit ] Persia Before the Conquest
Since the 1st century BC, the border between the Roman (later
Byzantine ) and Parthian (laterSassanid ) empires had been the
Euphrates river. The border was constantly contested. Most
battles, and thus most fortifications, were concentrated in the
hilly regions of the north, as thevast Arabian or Syrian Desert
(Roman Arabia) separated the rival empires in the south. The
onlydangers expected from the south were occasional raids by
nomadic Arab tribesmen. Bothempires therefore allied themselves
with small, semi-independent Arab principalities, whichserved as
buffer states and protected Byzantium and Persia from Bedouin
attacks. The Byzantineclients were the Ghassanids ; the Persian
clients were the Lakhmids . The Ghassanids andLakhmids feuded
constantly which kept them occupied, but did not greatly affect
theByzantines or Persians. In the 6th and 7th centuries, various
factors destroyed the balance of
power that had held for so many centuries.
[edit ] Revolt of the Arab Client States (602)
Ancient Iranians attached great importance to music and poetry,
as they still do today. This 7thcentury plate depicts Sassanid era
musicians.
The Byzantine clients, the Arab Ghassanids , converted to the
Monophysite form of Christianity , which was regarded as heretical
by the established Byzantine Orthodox Church . The
Byzantinesattempted to suppress the heresy, alienating the
Ghassanids and sparking rebellions on theirdesert frontiers. The
Lakhmids also revolted against the Persian king Khusrau II. Nu'man
III (sonof Al-Monder IV), the first Christian Lakhmid king, was
deposed and killed by Khusrau II in
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After the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah in 628, the Prophet Muhammad
sent many letters to the princes, kings and chiefs of the various
tribes and kingdoms of the time inviting them to convertto Islam.
These letters were carried by ambassadors to Iran , Byzantium ,
Ethiopia , Egypt , Yemen , and Hira (Iraq) on the same day. [6]
This assertion has been cast into scrutiny by some modernhistorians
of Islam notably Grimme and Caetani .[7] Particularly in dispute is
the assertion that
Khosrau II received a letter from Muhammad, as the Sassanid
court ceremony was notoriouslyintricate, and it is unlikely that a
letter from what at the time was a minor regional power wouldhave
reached the hands of the Shahanshah .[8]
With regards to Iran, Muslim histories further re-count that at
the beginning of the seventh yearof migration, Muhammad appointed
one of his officers, Abdullah Huzafah Sahmi Qarashi, tocarry his
letter to Khosrau II inviting him to Islam:
"In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful. From
Muhammad, the Messenger of God, tothe great Kisra of Iran. Peace be
upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in God and inHis
Prophet and testifies that there is no god but God and that He has
no partner, and who
believes that Muhammad is His servant and Prophet. Under the
Command of God, I invite you toHim. He has sent me for the guidance
of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath andmay
present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that
you may remain safe.And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be
responsible for the sins of the Magi. "[9]
There are differing accounts of the reaction of Khosrau II .
Nearly all assert that he destroyed theletter in anger; the
variations concentrate on the extent and detail of his
response.
[edit ] Rise of the Caliphate
The Islamic Prophet Mohammad died in June 632, and Abu Bakr was
appointed Caliph and political successor at Medina . Soon after Abu
Bakr 's succession, several Arab tribes revoltedagainst in the
Ridda wars (Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the
Apostasy wasfought and completed during the eleventh year of the
Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on 18March 633, with Arabia united
under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina. Whether
AbuBakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to
say; he did, however, set in motion ahistorical trajectory that in
just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires
inhistory , beginning with confrontation with the Sassanid Empire
under the general Khalid ibn al-Walid .
[edit ] First conquest of Iraq (633)
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ranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophet_of_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Hudaybiyyah
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Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's conquest of
Iraq.
After the Ridda Wars, a tribal chief of north eastern Arabia,
Misnah ibn Haris, raided the Persiantowns in Iraq. With the success
of the raids, a considerable amount of booty was collected.Misnah
ibn Haris went to Medina to inform Caliph Abu Bakr about his
success and wasappointed commander of his people, after which he
begun to raid deeper into Iraq. Using themobility of his light
cavalry he could easy raid any town near the desert and within
momentscould disappear again in to the desert, into which the
Sassanid army was unable to chase them.Misnahs acts made Abu Bakr
think about the expansion of the Rashidun Empire .[10]
Abu Bakr started with the invasion of Iraq. The problems faced
by Abu Bakr were that the Arabsfeared the Persians with a deep,
unreasoning fear which ran in the tribal consciousness as a
racialcomplex and was the result of centuries of Persian power and
glory. In return the Persianregarded the Arab with contempt. It was
important not to suffer a defeat, for that would confirmand
strengthen this instinctive fear. To make certain of victory, Abu
Bakr decided on twomeasures; that the invading army would consist
entirely of volunteers; and he put in command ofthe army his best
general Khalid ibn al-Walid. After defeating the self-proclaimed
prophetMusaylimah in the Battle of Yamama, Khalid was still at
Al-Yamama when Abu Bakr sent himorders to invade the Sassanid
Empire. Making Al-Hirah the objective of Khalid, Abu Bakr
sentreinforcements and ordered the tribal chiefs of north eastern
Arabia, Misnah ibn Haris, Mazhur
bin Adi, Harmala and Sulma to operate under the command of
Khalid along with there men. Inabout third week of March 633 (first
week of Muharram 12th Hijrah) Khalid set out from Al-Yamama with an
army of 10,000 .[10] The tribal chiefs, with 2,000 warriors each,
joined Khalid;Thus Khalid entered the Persian Empire with 18,000
troops. After entering Iraq with his army of18,000, Khalid won
decisive victories in four consecutive battles: Battle of Chains ,
fought inApril 633 A.D; Battle of River , fought in the 3rd week of
April 633 A.D; Battle of Walaja , fought in May 633 A.D (where he
successfully used a double envelopment manoeuvre), andBattle of
Ullais , fought in the mid of May, 633 A.D. By now the Persian
court already disturbed
by the internal problems, was down and out. In the last week of
May 633 A.D, Hira capital cityof Iraq fell to the Muslims after
resistance in the Siege of Hira . After resting his armies, in
June633 A.D Khalid laid siege of Al Anbar , which resisted and was
eventually surrendered after asiege of a few weeks in July 633 A.D
after the Siege of Al-Anbar . Khalid then moved towardsthe south,
and conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr after the Battle of Ein ut
Tamr in the last weekof July, 633 A.D. By now, almost the whole of
Iraq (Euphrates region) was under Islamiccontrol. Khalid got a call
of help from northern Arabia at Daumat-ul-Jandal, where
anotherMuslim Arab general, Ayaz bin Ghanam, was trapped among the
rebel tribes. Khalid went to
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Daumat-ul-jandal and defeated the rebels in the Battle of
Daumat-ul-jandal in the last week ofAugust, 633 A.D. Returning from
Arabia, he got news of the assembling of a large Persian army.He
decided to defeat them all separately to avoid the risk of defeat
to a large unified Persianarmy. Four divisions of Persian and
Christian Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel,Sanni
and Muzieh. Khalid devised a brilliant plan to destroy the Persian
forces. He divided his
army in three units, and attacked the Persian forces in
brilliantly coordinated attacks from threedifferent sides at night,
starting from the Battle of Muzieh , then the Battle of Sanni , and
finallythe Battle of Zumail during November 633 A.D. These
devastating defeats ended Persian controlover Iraq, and left the
Persian capital Ctesiphon unguarded and vulnerable for Muslims
attack,
before attacking the Persian Capital Khalid decided to eliminate
all Persian forces from southand west, he accordingly marched
against the border city of Firaz, where he defeated thecombined
forces of the Sassanid Persians , Byzantine Romans and Christian
Arabs in the Battleof Firaz in December 633 A.D. This was the last
battle in his conquest of Iraq. While Khalid wason his way to
attack Qadissiyah, a key fort in the way to Persian Capital
Ctesiphon, he receivedthe letter of Caliph Abu Bakr and was sent to
Roman front in Syria to assume the command ofMuslim armies to
conquer Roman Syria. [11]
[edit ] Second invasion of Iraq (636)
Main article: Battle of Qadisiyyah
According to will of Abu Bakr, Umar was to continue the conquest
of Syria and Iraq. On northeastern borders of Empire, in Iraq the
situations were deteriorating day by day. During AbuBakr s Era
Khalid ibn al-Walid who conquered Iraq was sent to Syrian front to
command theIslamic armies there, as soon as Khalid left Iraq with
his half army of 9000 soldiers Persiansdecided to take back there
lost territory. Muslim army there in Iraq was forced to leave
theconquered areas and concentrate on the border areas. Umar
immediately sent reinforcement toaid Misna ibn Haris in Iraq under
the command of Abu Ubaid al Saqafi .[12] Persian forcesdefeated Abu
Ubaid in the Battle of Bridge , however later Persian forces was
defeated byMisnah bin harisah in the Battle of Baiyoub . In 635
Yazdgerd III sought alliance with EmperorHeraclius of Eastern Roman
Empire . Heraclius married his daughter ( according to traditions,
his
grand daughter ) to Yazdegerd III, an old Roman tradition to
show once allaince. WhileHeraclius prepared for a major offense in
Levant, meanwhile Yazdegerd ordered concentrationof massive armies
to pull back Muslims from Iraq for good, this was suppose to be a
wellcoordinated attacks by both emperors, Heraclius in Levant and
Yazdegerd in Iraq, to annihilatethe power of their common enemy
Caliph Umar. Fate, however had decided otherwise .[13]
[edit ] Battle of Qadisiyyah
Main article: Battle of Qadisiyyah
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Ishtar gate in Babylon , Iraq.
Umar ordered his army to retreat to the bordering areas of Iraq
near Arabian desert and startedraising armies to for the Persian
campaign. Iraq was to be conquer once again from the
beginning. Armies were concentrated near Madinah and owning to
critical situation Umardecided to command the army in person. The
idea was discouraged by the members of Majlis al
Shura at Madinah . Muslims were engaged on both fronts and
Umar's presence in Madinah wasnecessary, and only this way he could
handle the critical situation. Umar appointed Saad ibn AbiWaqqas as
commander for campaign in Iraq who left Madinah with his army in
May 636 andcamped at Qadisiyyah in June. While Heraclius launched
his offense in May 636, Yazdegerd,
probably owning to exhausted conditions of his government, could
not coordinate with Heracliusin that offense and a would be
decisive plan missed the mark. Umar having alleged intelligenceof
this alliance, devised his own genius plan. As battle was imminent
with Byzantines in Syria,and Umar did not wanted to risk a decisive
battle at a time with two great power, as in case ofdefeat on
either front, Muslim empire could be paralyzed, which had already
employed all of itsavailable men power for this crucial moment of
history. He wanted to finish off business firstwith Byzantines and
thus reinforced Muslim army at Yarmouk sending 6000 soldiers as
areinforcement in small bands, thus giving impression of a
continuous stream of reinforcement.Meanwhile Umar engaged Yazdegerd
III in deception tactics, ordering Saad to enter in
peacenegotiations with Yazdegerd III apprantly inviting him to
Islam . Heraclius had instructed hisgeneral Vahan , about not to
engage in battle with Muslims until he orders. But fearing
morereinforcement for Muslims from Madinah and their growing
strength, Byzantines were left withno choice but to attack the
Muslim forces before they get more stronger. Heraclius's
imperialarmy was annihilated at Battle of Yarmouk in August 636
three months before Qadisiyyah,ending the power of the Roman
Emperor for good. Yazdegerd III nevertheless continued toexecute
his offensive plan and concentrated armies near his capital
Ctesiphon .[14] . With situationsat ease at Syrian front, on Umar's
instruction negotiations were halt as an open signal to Persiansfor
Battle. Saad defeated the powerful Persian army in the Battle of
al- Qdisiyyah fought in 636A.D the battle proved to be a key to
Iraq. It marked the end of Sassanid rule west of Persia
proper .[15] The battle is regarded as one of the most decisive
battle of Islamic and world history.The battle also achieved the
achieved death of the famed Persian general Rostam Farrokhzd .
Later Saad conquered Babylon , Koosie, Bahrahsher and Madein and
the capital city of SassanidEmpire Ctesiphon fell in March 637
after a siege of three months .[16] Iranian historian Kaveh
Farrokh , in his book Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at
War , describes the event of fall ofCtesiphon as:
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The local inhabitants made a desperate last stand at Veh
Ardashir against the Arabswho finally broke into all of Ctesiphon
in 637. For the first time the Arabs witnessedthe riches ,luxuries
, arts architecture and sophistication of one of the worlds
greatempires. Looting reached epic proportions. One fifth of the
looted goods were sentfrom Ctesiphon to Caliph Omar at Medina . So
great was the haul of booty that everyArab soldier was able to
appropriate 12000 Dirhams worth of goods roughly theequivalent of
250,000 US Dollars at the time of writing. Nearly 40,000
capturedSassanian noblemen were taken to Arabia and sold as slaves
.[17]
[edit ] Conquest of Iraq (636 - 638)
Remains of Taq-i Kisra , palace of Sassanid Kings , Ctesiphon ,
Iraq.
After the conquest of Ctesiphon , several detachments were
immediately sent west to captureQarqeesia and Heet the forts at the
border of the Byzantine Empire. Several fortified Persianarmies
were still active north-east of Ctesiphon at Jalula and north of
the Tigris at Tikrit andMosul . After withdrawal from Ctesiphon,
the Persian armies gathered at Jalaula north-east ofCtesiphon.
Jalaula was a place of strategically importance from where routes
led to Iraq,Khurasan and Azerbaijan . The Persian forces at Jalula
were commanded by General Mihran. Hisdeputy was General Khurrazad a
brother of General Rustam, who commanded Persian forced atBattle of
al-Qadisiyyah . As instructed by the Caliph Umar, Saad reported all
the matter to Umar.Caliph decided to deal with Jalula first, his
plan was first to clear the way to north before anydecisive action
against Tikrit and Mosul. Umar appointed Hashim ibn Uthba to the
expedition ofJalula and Abdullah ibn Mutaam to conquer Tikrit and
Mosul . In April 637, Hashim led 12,000troops from Ctesiphon to win
a victory over the Persians at the Battle of Jalula , he then laid
siegeto Jalula for seven months. After seizing a victory at Jalula,
Abdullah ibn Mutaam marchedagainst Tikrit and captured the city
after fierce resistance and with the help of ChristianArabs
.[citation needed ] He next sent an army to Mosul which surrendered
on the terms of Jizya . Withvictory at Jalula and occupation of the
Tikrit-Mosul region, Muslim rule in Iraq was established.
After the conquest of Jalula, a Muslim force under Qa'qa marched
in pursuit of the Persians. ThePersian army that escaped from
Jalaula took its position at Khaniqeen fifteen miles from Jalulaon
the road to Iran, under the command of General Mihran. Qaqa
defeated the Persian forces atBattle of Khaniqeen and captured the
city of Khaniqeen. Persians withdrew to Hulwan . Qaqamoved to
Hulwan and laid siege to the city which was captured in January 638
.[18] Qaqa sought
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permission for operating deeper into Persian land, the main land
Iran, but Caliph Umar didntapproved the proposal and wrote a
historic letter to Saad saying:
"I wish that between the Suwad and the Persian hills there were
walls which would prevent them from getting to us, and prevent us
from getting to them .[19] The fertileSuwad is sufficient for us;
and I prefer the safety of the Muslims to the spoils of war."
[edit ] Raids of Persians in Iraq (638 - 641)
Winged sphinx from the palace of Darius the Great at Susa ,
captured by Rashidun general AbuMusa in 641.
By February 638 there was a lull in fighting on the Persian
front. The Suwad, the Tigris valley,and the Euphrates valley were
now under the complete control of the Muslims. The Persians
hadwithdrawn to Persia proper , east of Zagros mountains . Persians
kept on raiding Iraq, whichremained political unstable.
Nevertheless it appeared as if this was going to be the dividing
line
between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sassanids. In later part
of the year 638 Hormuzan , whocommanded one of the Persian corps at
Battle of Qadisiyyah and was one of the seven greatchiefs of
Persia, intensified his raids in Iraq, Saad according to Umars
instructions tookoffensive against Hormuzan and Utbah ibn Ghazwan
aided by Nouman ibn Muqarin attacked
Ahwaz and forced Hormuzan to enter into a peace treaty with
Muslims according to whichAhwaz will remain Hormuzans estate and he
will rule it as a vassal of Muslims and will paytritube .[20]
Hormuzan broke the treaty and revolted against the Muslims, Umar
sent Abu MusaAshaari , governor of Busra to deal with Hormuzan.
Hormuzan was defeated and sought onceagain for peace, Umar accepted
the offer and Hormuzan was again made vassal of Muslims. This
peace also proved short termed and once Hormuzan was reinforced
by the fresh Persian troopssent by Emperor Yazdgerd III in late
640. The troops concentrated at Tuster north of Ahwaz,Umar sent
Governor of Kufa , Ammar ibn Yasir , governor of Busra Abu Musa,
and Nouman ibn
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Muqarin towards Tustar where Hormuzan was defeated, captured and
sent to Madinah to CaliphUmar, where he apparently converted to
Islam. He remained a useful adviser of Umar throughout the campaign
of conquest of Persia. He is also considered to be master mind
behind theassassination of Caliph Umar in 644. After victory at
Tustar , Abu Musa marched against Susa , a
place of military importance, in January 641, which was captured
after a siege of couple of
months. Next Abu Musa marched against Junde Sabur, the only
place left of military importancein the Persian province of
Khuzistan which surrender to Muslims after the siege of few weeks
.[21]
[edit ] Battle of Nihawand (641)
Main article: Battle of Nahavand
![Muslim Conquest - 7th Century AD [1]. Banu’Ajal Azd ‘Akka](https://img.pdfslide.net/doc/110x75/6157095aa097e25c7650659d/muslim-conquest-7th-century-ad-1-banuajal-azd-akka.jpg)