1

Nationalism in West Africa revisited: a political and historical

in-depth analysis.

Isaac Owusu Nsiah

Abstract

Nationalism in West Africa is not subjected to Eurocentric or any form of western

interpretation, even though the nature of nationalism is dialectical and calls for

several positional standpoints. As this work shows, drawing inferences and thus

making a strict position on nationalism in West Africa by conducting a comparative

analyses as far as nationalism in Europe is concerned is quite problematic. West

African nationalism cannot be studied from a partial context and as a results certain

periodization associated is inconsistent. Robert Rotberg in his book makes some

expressions that in tropical Africa the descriptive usage of nationalism dates only

from 1940, and even for hostile critics it would be non-sensical to assign nationalism

in African history. This work provides an in-depth analysis on the nature of

nationalism in sub Saharan Africa(west-Africa).Based on the argument raised, there

is rejection of the periodization of west African nationalism and thus provides

counter-argument on the issues of the existence of nations in Africa with respect to

its nationalism characterization. A thorough diagnosis and prognosis of

D.D.Raphael conceptualization of the state and nation in his book problems of

political philosophy and benedict Andersons imagined communities supports the

theoretical argument this work postulates. The two forms of nationalism in West

Africa and thus a consistent periodization are identified. This paper also brings to

light the first nationalist movement in West Africa that have been sidelined by many

scholars and thus illuminates independence as an outcome of African nationalist

activities.

Key words: Nationalism, elitist politics, independence, West Africa

(Africa).

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INTRODUCTION

The politics of the continent called Africa has got certain indispensable dynamics

that need to be properly comprehended. It is worth noting that historical

background and the political developments on the continent provide a proper

comprehension of African politics. The politics of Africa and the various

compelling and challenging themes of development that range from social,

cultural and political can never be properly understood without a powerful

retrospective analysis of the general origins of how the continent has been

dominated and ruled for many years .several scholars have promoted and

enhanced the general knowledge that surrounds Africa as a continent (see

Boahen et al…1985)

For certain period the African continent had been subjugated, dominated and

controlled by alien or foreign powers for the exception of Ethiopia. Boahen (1985),

provides a very strong, thorough, and settled historical and political basis of

Africa. He elucidates further by analyzing the system of governance involving the

administration of law and justice and the organization of the economic system

in such a way that the fundamental rights of those subject to it are secondary to

that of the colonizing power. Colonialism as officially began in the 1800, crippled

the natives of the lands of Africa. Dependencies were created through which

there was restructuring of the political, economic, social and cultural aspects of

the interteritorial countries in order to serve the interest of the colonial

imperialist. By 1884, the partition of Africa had been given international legal

backing and thus the Europeans were convinced that the only way to establish

free trade was through political and military control of Africans As a results of

this, for instance in west Africa, Britain and France intensified their spheres of

influence through institution of governance, law, statutes, ordinances and

through other coercive ways.

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For about 66 years (1884-1950) of official colonial subjugation in the continent

,a state of consciousness emerged ,the oneness of the black Africans in their

various inter territorial states resisted ,opposed and thus raised a bone of

contention towards the ordinances and system of government of the foreign

imperialist. The people demanded inclusiveness as far as positions in

government were concerned, protest against obnoxious statutes and ordinances

.This was one phase of that sense of resilience. On the other hand, another state

of the mind as characterized by external manifestations which was radical,

militant, also took center stage with the aim and objective to oust the foreign

imperialist and obtain a holistic emancipation,

This paper focuses objectively what nationalism seeks to explain as far as African

history and political development is concerned. As periodization is very

indispensable, the two broad forms of nationalism are identified and elucidated.

I establish the relationship between nationalism and independence. Within this

paper I limit myself to West Africa although will touch on other African states. A

claim is then established that nationalism is not an abstract concept but a

concrete phenomenon as it the external manifestation of various activities by

scholars that brought to light what nationalism in its two broad forms came to

light. Another claim is also put forward as I attach to a significant extent

inconsistency and thus raise a critique about the periodization of nationalism by

scholars by strictly identifying 1919-1935 as the genesis of nationalism and thus

nationalist movements began in 1919. By nationalist movements I shall refer to

all the efforts made by the indigenous people and their rulers to resist the

imposition of humiliating tendencies, ordinances, bills from the colonial

leadership and all the conscious organizations and movements formed during

colonial rule with the sole objective of seeking emancipation. Attention is then

drawn to independence, how nationalism in another form and several factors led

to the ousting of the expatriate and thus obtaining self-rule. We then finally draw

some conclusions from our study.

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Theoretical perspectives: a critical review

Nationalism has been provided with several interpretation by scholars. Also

extant theories have been provided to serve as framework for the proper

comprehension of nationalism(boahen et al 1985;Hodgkin 1956;Geiger

1990;rotberg 1966;mushkat 1971; kilson1958; Llobera 1999).The term

nationalism does not lend itself to any accepted definition.Kohn(1955),opine

that nationalism is the state of the mind in which the supreme loyalty is due a

nation state Oloruntmehin (1985) tries to identify nationalism by making a

comparative analysis of nationalism in Europe and Africa. Hodgkin (1956)

defines nationalism in abroad sense to describe any fight, claims, and

aspirations of a given African society (from the level of language group to that of

pan African) in opposition ,rebellion and resistance to European authority

whatever its institutional form and objectives.

Several western scholars assert that because the concrete evidence of nations

were absent, nationalism can’t be associated with the general historical

developments in West Africa in this context and Africa at large. Rotberg (1966),

identify certain expressions that it is nonsensical to associate nationalism to a

long African history. Again even if it can be associated with African history, the

periodization begins from 1940 and beyond. With respect to the periodization,

several scholars attach dates to West African nationalism which are inconsistent.

(Boahen 1985 ;).

Michael Crowder, argues that nationalism is a vague term and perhaps can be

applied in the African context as a feeling of national consciousness in the desire

on the part of Africans to free themselves from foreign control and exploitation

in order to embark upon a programme of economic, political and social

reconstruction.Nevertheless African nationalism specifically west Africa

supersedes several of the interpretation of the monopolized concept of

nationalism. West African nationalism can’t be studied partially, in that

nationalism in West Africa has broad constituent of two strong categories that

5

make up the full comprehension of nationalism in West Africa. Analogically, to

buttress the view of West African nationalism not subjected to any monopolized

western interpretation, lapalombara and weiner (1966) postulate a thorough and

a settled account on a comparative analytical basis with respect to the

development of political parties in Western Europe and Africa. The situational

difference and the evolution of political parties in both regions were different.

Due to this, can it be concluded that African political parties are not in good

standing because their evolution is different from that of the Western Europe?

The answer is obvious. The argument with respect to the fact that nations have

to exist before there can be nationalism does not apply to West African

nationalism. If the existence of nations alone is an ingredient for nationalism to

take place then there were nations in West Africa. But as indicated earlier Africa’s

nationalism is not subjected to the existence of nations. To prove the existence

of nations. D.D.Rapheal’s problems of political philosophy is diagnosed to

support this theoretical argument. Again to the effect that nations are not

requirement for nationalism and thus nations are just imagined communities is

also supported by Benedict Anderson’s work.

Raphael (1999) argues and bring forth that it seems best to regard the state as

an association and a nation as a community. He asserts that a nation as a

community here is the feeling of belonging to a group which the inhabitants

shares a common language and a common tradition has a common history and

looks forward to a common future. He establishes facts with illustrations in his

book. Due to this nations are found in states. Within the African context based

on the theory by Raphael, there were nations. The Asante nation (kingdom), Fate

nation in Ghana, the Sokoto caliphate in Nigeria, the Buganda, the kikuyu in

Kenya and the Zulu in South Africa. Even though the argument built here refutes

several arguments for the existence of nations, West African nationalism and

Africa at large does not lend itself to the existence of nations. To add Anderson

(2002), argues strongly that nationalism is not about the state of national

consciousness and thus there must be necessarily a nation before nationalism.

6

He argues that nations are ‘imagined communities’, that is nations are just

imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never most of

their members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the mind of each lives

the image of their communion. He goes on further to explain the specific origins

of nationalism. He also postulates that the idea of imagining nations only arose

historically when all the three fundamental cultural conceptions all of great

antiquity lost their axiomatic grip on men’s attitude. Also the nature of

nationalism in Africa was parked by the general interest and wellbeing of the

indigenes of the various African communities. West African nationalism is not

subjected to the existence or nonexistence of nations, but the concrete evidence

of external manifestations of several output by nationalists.

As the rest of the sections will show, West African nationalism is in two folds and

thus partial approach to understanding this event will be problematic. Again

periodization inconsistency is rectified by this work. Also the genesis of West

African nationalism is isolated by several scholars. This work shines the spot

light on the first nationalist movement in West Africa. This work also denies that

even though the formation of nationalist movement were in the various

countries, there were existence of movements formed on interterritorial basis.

With respect to inferences drawn from several scholarly works I provide a

working definition for West African nationalism. I define nationalism in a

concrete context which evident as far as African history on nationalism is

concerned. “I define nationalism in the African(west African) context as that

conscious effort of self-assertion, interest and movements(nationalist or political)

to agitate, protest, revolt against the political authority of the colonizing power, its

statutes, obnoxious laws, humiliating tendencies and finally to demand

emancipation in order to obtain self-rule”.

The evidence of the conceptualization of nationalism in West Africa is presented

in the following sections.

7

Nationalism before 2nd world war (proto): an in-depth and definitional

analysis with a consistent periodization.

In 1884, there was an official and international (legal) backing of the Europeans

scrambling for Africa and thus partitioning the continent to establish a legal

sphere of influence .as a matter of fact dependencies were created within the

continent, the African states were restructured, that is their political, social,

economic and cultural foundational principles in order to serve the interest of

the colonizing power. Political authority was established, administration of law

and justice: the indirect rule, the crown colony system, the policy of assimilation

in the West African states to be precise. Throughout the political and military

subjugation of the expatriates in West Africa, there were series of agitations,

resistance, articulation of sentiments and grievances by the indigenes of the

various inter territorial regions. During the period of colonization there was the

emergence of educated elites, intelligentsia who spearheaded this concrete

resistance.

It is very clear that two forms of nationalism emerged: nationalism before 2nd

world war and nationalism after Second World War. This phase of the paper

deals with nationalism before the 2nd world war. (Proto nationalism).Several

scholars periodize 1919-1935 as the period of proto nationalism. As far as

operationalization of the (passive) proto nationalism is concerned the

periodization is inconsistent. Nationalism in general and as a matter of fact proto

nationalism is not an abstract concept but a concrete phenomenom.That is it

was due to the various activities and movements that led to the proper

understanding of nationalism. Nationalism before the Second World War has an

objective underpinnings that characterize the concept. Atiemo (1995), postulates

that A. nationalism before the 2nd world war was not radical or militant

and thus there was nothing like independence on the minds of the

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Africans. B .reforms/ resistance to obnoxious statutes, ordinance and bills

Protection of the political and constitutional rights of the natives’ D .spirit

of inclusiveness or inclusion in the management of the economy. The elites

wanted to be part of the British or French administration or government.

This means that all the movements that emerged during this period exhibited

these underpinnings.

Elitist politics: This phase although a continuation of the paper identifies that

this period of nationalism saw the emergence of educated elites, intelligentsia or

professionals. They spearheaded the whole movement of nationalism before the

world war 2.’ Elite ‘ was a group of people who were set form the rest of the

society and superior because of certain qualities which they possess by virtue of

ascription or achievement.an achievement or modern elite was based on such

personality acquired tracts as further education,proffessonal occupation, wealth

or superior standard of living.doctors,lawyers,merchants ,engineers ,to mention

few.in British west Africa ,some of these elites were J .E Casely Hayford, John

Mensah Sarbah ,E.J.Pbrown, I.T Wallace Johnson, Herbert Macaulay , J. W de

Graft Johnson, George Huge, and Kobina sakyi. In French West Africa, there

were also numerous elites. Some of them were Blaise Diagne, Prince Kojo Tovalou

Houenou, and Lamine Senghor to mention few. During this period of proto

nationalism, their objectives were not to overthrow the colonial system but rather

its improvement and above all for an increase and meaningful role of the African

in the system. Also methods such as rebellions, violent revolts and activities were

completely abandoned in favour of more peaceful methods of petition, newspaper

campaigns and delegations .The proto nationalism also saw the formation of

large number of elitist clubs, societies and religious groups. There was nothing

like political parties with the sole aim of wrestling power from the imperialist.

There were several movements that were formed during this period of

nationalism. Some of these movements were the West African youth

League(1935),West African students union (1925),Nigeria Youth Movements

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(1934), Gold coast youth conference (1936)national congress of British west

Africa(NCBW) 1917.These groups and many others were formed by elites across

British colonies in west Africa,; Ghana,Nigeria,sierra Leone, and the Gambia.

Also in francophone West Africa, there were movements that were very active.as

the outcome of the movement led Blaise Diagne to become the first black to be

elected a deputy to French national assembly for Senegal. Some of these

movements were ligue universelle pour la defence de la race noire which was

founded by prince Kojo Tovalou Houenou, in 1924(Benin).Another group was the

comite de la defense de la merge, formed by Lamine Senghor (Boahen 1985)

Blaise Diagne did not advocate for self-government but proposed and agitated

for constitutional and political rights for the people of French colonies.

African women were major contributors to resistance to colonial rule and the

promotion of nationalism. Many argued that women feared the worst under

colonial rule. Governments such as those in Rhodesia, Kenya and Africa sought

to restrict women’s movement and even banned them from urban areas .in rural

areas ,they often expected to maintain food production and raise children while

their husbands rotted in jail, migrated to other areas in search of wage labour,or

fought in wars .these women did not idly sit back and allow colonial governments

to impinge on their rights and in response to their harsh situation under colonial

rule ,they organized protest ,boycotts, workers strikes and demonstrations.in

Kenya, Zimbabwe and other west African states ,areas that attempted armed

struggle, women as well as men carried messages ,spied and played their part in

the resistance. Overall their impact on anticolonial and nationalist movements

throughout Africa was profound. Women in Nigeria also protested during the

proto nationalism era. The women in who were located in the provinces of calabar

and owerri in the southeastern Nigerian November and December of 1929which

became known as the” aba”women riots and as the women’s war in Igbo history.

Thousands of women organized a massive revolt against the policies imposed by

the British colonial administration .the Aba women war prompted the colonial

10

authority to drop their plans to impose a tax on the market women and to curb

the power of the warrant chiefs.(Allen 1971).

But there is a sidelined protest proto nationalist movement that was formed

during the political establishment of control by the Europeans. Several scholars

who have written about nationalism in West Africa do not talk about this

movement. As I have identified earlier that it is well noted that periodization in

political and historical context and analysis counts and thus this movement is

very important and contributes much to history a

Recorded as the first nationalist movement in west Africa. Due to this, there is a

general inconsistency in the periodization by several scholars.

Table 1

List of nationalist movements in West Africa (1884-1939): Proto-nationalism

Names of nationalist country leader(s) (Year formed)

Movement

1. Aborigines rights protection Gold coast J.W Sey (1897)

Society (ARPS)

2. National congress of British Gold coast, Nigeria, J.E. Casely Hayford (1917)

West Africa (NCBWA) Sierra Leone and the Gambia Dr.akiwade savage

3. West African students union (WASU) Gold coast, Nigeria Dr. Bankole Bright (1925)

Sierra Leone and the Gambia Chief Ladipo Solanke

4. Nigeria youth movement (NYM) Nigeria Herbert McCauley (1934)

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5. West Africa youth league (WAYL Gold coast, Nigeria I.T.A Wallace Johnson (1934)

Sierra Leone and the Gambia

6. Gold coast youth conference (GCYC) Gold coast J.B Danquah (1929)

7. Ligue universelle pour la defence Benin Prince Kojo Tovalou Houenou (1924)

de la race noire

8. Comite’ de la defense de la merge, Senegal Lamine Senghor (1927)

Source: compiled by author Gold coast*- now Ghana

ABORIGINES RIGHTS PROTECTION SOCIETY (ARPS), THE GENESIS

OF NATIONALISM IN WEST AFRICA: (1897-1939) as a consistent

periodization of proto nationalism

The creation of the ARPS in 1897 was the first organized protest movement on

anything approaching the national scale in the Gold coast.it was the first clearly

nationalist organization in the gold coast and thus West Africa. It was formed in

1897 at cape coast by john Mensah Sarbah to protect the rights of Ghanaians or

Africans.it provided a forum within major policies affecting the country could be

discussed and brought to the attention of the colonial authorities. The occasion

for its birth was the passage of the land bills of 1894 and 1897 in the legislative

council on 10th march 1897.The bill was aimed at empowering the colonial

government to claim the ownership of land in the gold coast. The bill was

vehemently opposed because according to the culture of the people of Gold coast,

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land belonged to the community that is the living, the dead and those yet unborn

have a share in the community. The land bill was aroused the opposition of both

the elite and traditional elite in Ghana because they feared that Africans would

lose the ownership of much of their lands. Following the protest a delegation was

send to London, the office of the secretary of states to withdraw that obnoxious

bills. Membership of this nationalist group were: john Wilson Say (president),

John Mensah Sarbah, Jacob Peter Brown, Joseph Caseley Hayford, J. W de Graft

Johnson and John Huge, to mention few. Through the societys effort several

legilations were introduced, such as the concessions ordinance. (Okyere 2000).

Again the ARPS put pressure on the colonial administration to suspend the poll

tax and cancelled the forest ordinance of 1910.most importantly through the

Gold coast aborigines its publications, it became the channel through which

African opinion was heard. Irrespective of certain failures, the Arps still remains

the genesis of West African nationalism.

Post World War II, nationalism in Africa (radical/militant): 1945-

independence

The Second World War served as an impetus or catalyst which spurred the

existing force basically social, economic and political factors.it should be

observed that these problems were already in existence .the war only acted as a

catalyst in speeding up these economic and social problems which arouse out of

the very nature of the colonial system. Before the outbreak of World War II in

1939, nationalist activities were limited to the demand for participation of

nationalist in the government of their countries, Africanization of the civil service

13

and abolition of all forms of racial discrimination. Their battle cry was for reforms

and not self-government though that could have their ultimate goal. Immediately

after the end of the Second World War, there was the upsurge in nationalist

activities, the nationalist were not demanding mere participation and reforms of

the colonial system but immediate self-government. The war shifted the whole

basis of politics in West Africa. The introduction of mass political parties and the

emergence of radical leaders with the demand for immediate self-government

and independence ,for example the Nkrumah and the CPP preferred self-

government with danger to servitude in tranquility, in sierra Leone, the SLPP

and Milton margay,Houphouet Boigny and the Parti Democratique de la

cote d’voire (PDCI), Northern people’s congress in Nigeria formed in 1949,

democratic party in Gambia formed in 1951,and several other political

parties in other west African countries. Nationalist sentiments became radical

and militant because several factors; of these afro Americans.

Most writers express that one of the most influential factors that promoted

radicalism in Africa and West Africa was African Americans that is the African

descendants of slaves in North America and the Caribbean islands. The various

situations of slavery and racism sharpened the consciousness. So in Africa

colonialism made Africans understand that they shared a common identity and

were not just a member of a small tribe or ethnic group. This factor did not only

strengthened but also radicalized African nationalism.in 1945 a conference and

congress was held in Manchester by several leaders to rise against foreign

domination and exploitation. There were inspirations from African leaders and

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African Americans especially african-americans especially W.E du Bois (1868-

1963), Edward Blyden, Marcus Garvey (1887-1940), George Padmore who helped

to encourage the nationalist leaders to struggle harder for an eventual

independence for the colonies. Among other things several political parties were

formed in the West Africa to grab independence from the foreign imperialist. Pan

Africanism proved very popular among nationalist African leaders because it

offered a way for them to overcome both regionalism and ethnic divides by

stressing commonalities and a common oppression.by the 1950s ,pan

Africanism had profoundly influence almost every African nationalist leader;

Kwame Nkrumah ,Jommo Kenyatta, Kenneth Kaunda, Haile Selassie ,albert

Luthuli, and Nnamdi Aazikiwe .

The Atlantic/UN charter which was signed made several declaration of

principles, whereby all allies began to defend rights and virtues .the un charter

article 55, made all member nations pledge to ensure political, social, and

economic developments of all people, especially countries under colonial rule

.one important article talked of the “the right of all people to choose the form of

government under which they will live. The charter gave African nationalist the

impetus and authority to demand freedom from colonial rule.

The return of the ex-service men after the Second World War were deprived of

the benefits that was promised by the colonial governments, and thus the

15

government remerged on their promises. These men through personal experience

in war had seen that the white were not superior to the Africans .they therefore

supported nationalist aspirations movements and then called for self-rule.

Furthermore the influence of Asian nationalism and independence of other

previously colonized countries that is the influence of political developments

from sub Asian continent of India and Burma. During the course of the war

Britain and France were forced to abandon many of their colonies in Asia, but

with the defeat of the axis (japan, Italy and Germany) the colonies were again

taken back by them., again within few years at the end of the war, a lot of Asian

countries had either gained independence of were at the verge of it. The

independence of India, Sri lanker Burma and others inspired the African

nationalist that self-government would not be handed on a silver platter, only

determination and hard work could send them there. Africans also asked why

they could not also follow the Asians states significant group depicted to anti

colonialism. These and many others were the factors that influenced the

nationalism after the Second World War and thus lead to independence.

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CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

This work has contributed to the general discourse on the dialectical nature of

nationalism and with respect to this wok West African nationalism. As

periodization is key in political and historical analysis this paper has objectively

identified critical analysis of nationalism in west Africa with a consistent

periodization of 1897 as the beginning of nationalism and thus raise a critique

to many literature for capturing 1919 as the period that spearheaded the

nationalist aggression in west Africa. The paper has explained the two broad

forms of nationalism and identify what constituted the underpinnings and

characterization of what nationalism before the second world was and the nature

of nationalism after the second world war and thus saw independence in many

African states as a whole and precisely west Africa. Also nationalism has been

brought to light as not a mere abstract in concept but a concrete one due to the

external manifestations of the uprisings .protests, movements, articulation of

grievances to the colonial authority before and after the Second World War.

Elitist politics was a major development in proto nationalism that is it was these

intelligentsia, professionals, merchants, educated sect who fueled the ignition of

opposition in respect to the administration of the colonial authority.

Within the literature, the main argument is that periodization for the genesis of

nationalism in Africa has been silent in several works. Periodization is key, so

this work identified the aborigine right protection society (ARPS), which was

formed in the gold coast in 1897 as the genesis of nationalism or any

organization approaching the national scale in Africa. The argument that this

17

organization was the first nationalist movement fit into the underpinnings given

as what constitute nationalism and nationalist agitation in Africa before the

second world war in . A. nationalism before the 2nd world war was not

radical or militant and thus there was nothing like independence on the

minds of the Africans. B .reforms/ resistance to obnoxious statutes,

ordinance and bills Protection of the political and constitutional rights of

the natives’ D .spirit of inclusiveness or inclusion in the management of

the economy. The elites wanted to be part of the British or French

administration or government. Also after the Second World War the nature of

nationalism changed to radicalism and thus saw many African countries to

independence.

Rotberg(1966),and several other scholars raise the point that nationalism in

Africa is seen as a confusion ,in that African states were not nations as

nationalism has its roots from a nation and that there was no nationalism in

Africa as established by other scholars. But what these writers fail to

comprehend is that there is no conventional universally accepted definition for

nationalism. Also when the issue of comparative analysis about the nationalism

in Western Europe and Africa is raised then Africa’s nationalism becomes

meaningless.

In response to some expressions in rotbergs literature as this work has shown,

with the definition of nation states given his literature, there is a counter

argument in the sense that there were nation states in Africa. Per the definition

18

of nation, similar historical background, similar customs, language and other

ethical principles that chgarateriszres what a nation is, Africa fits into this

categorization. In Ghana there were nation states, the Ashanti (Asante) kingdom

was one of the largest nation states in Ghana (gold coast) and Africa at large, in

i844, the British governor signed treaties with the Fante states in gold coast, the

Zulu kingdom in South Africa is also a very strong example of nation states that

existed in Africa.

In addressing the issue of nationalism with respect to the idea that there was no

nationalism in Africa because there were no nation states. With nationalism,

Anderson (2002), argues strongly that nationalism is not about the state of

national consciousness and thus there must be necessarily a nation before

nationalism. He argues that nations are ‘imagined communities’, that is nations

are just imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never

most of their members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the mind of each

lives the image of their communion. He goes on further to explain the specific

origins of nationalism. He also postulates that the idea of imagining nations only

arose historically when all the three fundamental cultural conceptions all of great

antiquity lost their axiomatic grip on men’s attitude. Also the nature of

nationalism in Africa was parked by the general interest and wellbeing of the

indigenes of the various African communities. A typical example provided in this

work as the first nationalist movement and agitation ,the aborigines rights

protection society(ARPS) ,which was formed to safeguard the interest specifically

to protect the communal rights and safeguard the lands of the natives

19

Again the comparative analysis of nationalism in Africa and in Europe can’t be

substantive in the sense that, the conditions that existed in Europe and Africa

were different, issue of colonialism and other conditions in Africa was not the

same as that which persisted in Europe and thus the argument becomes

inconsistent. So the primacy of nationalism of the western countries over the

African continent and with this proposing a claim that there was no nationalism

in Africa is a fallacy and illusive argument while a country such as Britain or

France is viewed as one nation, in reality each contains a variety of nations of

people. Uniting these various groups creates a nation the study has also shown

the interval and periods independence was achieved by some of the African

countries. Women also contributed a lot to African nationalism (proto) as the

paper has elucidated.

Africans had their versions of nationalism that need to be critically appreciated

and comprehended because Africans were able to resist oppressors rule due to

this concrete phenomenon.

20

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