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1910 1915 1920 1925

NationalismAround the World

1919–1939

1923Turkish Republic isformed, ending theOttoman Empire

1917Britain issuesBalfour Declaration

Key EventsAs you read this chapter, look for the key events in the history of nationalism around

the world.• The Balfour Declaration issued by the British foreign secretary in 1917 turned Pales-

tine, a country with a 98 percent Muslim population, into a homeland for the Jews.• Chiang Kai-shek positioned his Nationalist forces against Mao Zedong’s Communists.

• Oil was discovered in the Persian Gulf area in 1938.

The Impact TodayThe events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today.

• The conflict over Palestine continues to bring violence and unrest to the region.• Today China remains a communist state, and Mao Zedong is remembered as

one of the country’s most influential leaders.• The Western world is very dependent upon oil from the Middle East.

World History Video The Chapter 25 video, “Gandhi and Passive Resis-tance,” chronicles India’s fight for independence between the two World Wars.

British enter Jerusalem,January 1918

1928Chiang Kai-shek founds a newChinese republic

Chiang Kai-shek

779

The Destruction of the Old Order by José Clemente Orozco, c. 1922

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

and click on Chapter 25–ChapterOverview to preview chapter information.

wh.glencoe.com1930 1935 1940 1945

1930Gandhi’s SaltMarch protestsBritish laws in India

1935Franklin D. Rooseveltannounces the GoodNeighbor policy

1931Japanese forces invadeManchuria

1938Oil is discoveredin Saudi Arabia

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Aramco oil refinery in Ras Tanura, Saudi Arabia

780

n 1930, Mohandas Gandhi, the 61-year-old leader of theIndian movement for independence from British rule,

began a march to the sea with 78 followers. Their destinationwas Dandi, a little coastal town some 240 miles (386 km)away. The group covered about 12 miles (19 km) a day.

As they went, Gandhi preached his doctrine of nonviolentresistance to British rule in every village through which hepassed: “Civil disobedience is the inherent right of a citizen.He dare not give it up without ceasing to be a man.” By thetime Gandhi reached Dandi, 24 days later, his small grouphad become a nonviolent army of thousands.

When Gandhi and his followers arrived at Dandi, Gandhipicked up a pinch of crystallized sea salt from the sand. Thou-sands of people all along the coast did likewise. In so doing,they were openly breaking British laws that prohibited Indi-ans from making their own salt. The British had long profitedfrom their monopoly on the making and selling of salt, anitem much in demand in India. They used coastal saltflats tocollect crystallized sea salt to sell.

By their simple acts of disobedience, Gandhi and theIndian people had taken yet another step on their long marchto independence from the British. The Salt March was one ofmany nonviolent activities that Gandhi undertook to winIndia’s national independence between World War I andWorld War II.

IGandhi’s March to the Sea

Gandhi leadingthe Salt March toDandi to protestthe Britishmonopoly on salt production

DandiArabianSea Bay of

BengalINDIA

INDIANOCEAN

Why It MattersWith Europe in disorder after WorldWar I, people living in colonies con-trolled by European countries beganto think that the independence theydesired might now be achieved. InAfrica and Asia, movements fornational independence began totake shape. In the Middle East,World War I ended the rule of theOttoman Empire and created newstates. For some Latin Americancountries, the fascist dictatorships ofItaly and Germany provided modelsfor change.

History and You You have readabout many religious conflicts. Inthis chapter, you will learn aboutthe conflict between the Muslimsand the Hindus in India. Make achart listing the differences betweenthe groups. Explain how religiousdifferences expand into other areasof conflict. How did this rivalryaffect the development of India?

1916The local governor of Makkahdeclares Arabia independent

1915Turkish governmentmassacres Armenians

Guide to Reading

Nationalism in the Middle East

Preview of Events

1932Saudi Arabia isestablished

1924Caliphate formallyabolished in Turkey

✦1910 ✦1915 ✦1920 ✦1925 ✦1930 ✦1935 ✦1940

In 1925, Hayyim Bialik, a Ukrainian Jew who had settled in Palestine the yearbefore, spoke at the opening of the Hebrew University of Palestine:

“Through cruel and bitter trials and tribulations, through blasted hopes and despairof the soul, through innumerable humiliations, we have slowly arrived at the realiza-tion that without a tangible homeland, without private national premises that areentirely ours, we can have no sort of a life, either material or spiritual. . . . We have notcome here to seek wealth, or dominion, or greatness. How much of these can thispoor little country give us? We wish to find here only a domain of our own for ourphysical and intellectual labor.”

—The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Alfred J. Andrea and James H. Overfield, eds., 1998

Bialik was a believer in Zionism, a movement that supported the establishment ofPalestine as a homeland for Jews.

Decline and Fall of the Ottoman EmpireThe empire of the Ottoman Turks—which once had included parts of eastern

Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa—had been growing steadily weakersince the end of the eighteenth century. Indeed, European nations called it “thesick man of Europe.”

Voices from the Past

CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World 781

Committee discussing plans for aJewish university in Palestine

Main Ideas• Nationalism led to the creation of the

modern states of Turkey, Iran, andSaudi Arabia.

• The Balfour Declaration made Palestinea national Jewish homeland.

Key Termsgenocide, ethnic cleansing

People to IdentifyAbdulhamid II, T. E. Lawrence, Atatürk,Reza Shah Pahlavi, Ibn Saud

Places to LocateTehran, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Palestine

Preview Questions1. What important force led to the fall of

the Ottoman Empire?2. What was the relationship between

Arab nationalism and the mandatesystem?

Reading StrategyCompare and Contrast Make a Venndiagram like the one below comparingand contrasting Atatürk’s and Reza ShahPahlavi’s national policies.

Atatürk Reza ShahPahlavi

The empire’s size had decreased dramati-cally. Much of its European territory had beenlost. In North Africa, Ottoman rule had endedin the nineteenth century when France seizedAlgeria and Tunisia and Great Britain took con-trol of Egypt. Greece also declared its inde-pendence in the nineteenth century.

In 1876, Ottoman reformers seized control ofthe empire’s government and adopted a consti-tution aimed at forming a legislative assembly.However, the sultan they placed on the throne,Abdulhamid II, suspended the new constitu-tion and ruled by authoritarian means.

Abdulhamid paid a high price for hisactions—he lived in constant fear of assassina-tion. He kept a thousand loaded revolvers hid-den throughout his guarded estate and insistedthat his pets taste his food before he ate it.

The suspended constitution became a sym-bol of change to a group of reformers namedthe Young Turks. This group was able to forcethe restoration of the constitution in 1908 andto depose the sultan the following year. How-ever, the Young Turks lacked strong supportfor their government. The stability of the empirewas also challenged by many ethnic Turks who hadbegun to envision a Turkish state that wouldencompass all people of Turkish nationality.

Impact of World War I The finalblow to the old empire came fromWorld War I. After the Ottomangovernment allied with Germany,the British sought to undermineOttoman rule in the ArabianPeninsula by supporting Arabnationalist activities there. Thenationalists were aided by theefforts of the dashing British adven-turer T. E. Lawrence, popularlyknown as “Lawrence of Arabia.”

In 1916, the local governor of Makkah, encouragedby Great Britain, declared Arabia independent fromOttoman rule. British troops, advancing from Egypt,seized Palestine. After suffering more than three hun-dred thousand deaths during the war, the OttomanEmpire made peace with the Allies in October 1918.

Massacre of the Armenians During the war, theOttoman Turks had alienated the Allies with theirpolicies toward minority subjects, especially theArmenians. The Christian Armenian minority had

782 CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

been pressing the Ottoman government for its inde-pendence for years. In 1915, the government vio-lently reacted to an Armenian uprising by killingArmenian men and expelling women and childrenfrom the empire.

Within seven months, six hundred thousandArmenians had been killed, and five hundred thou-sand had been deported (sent out of the country). Ofthose deported, four hundred thousand died whilemarching through the deserts and swamps of Syriaand Mesopotamia.

By September 1915, an estimated 1 million Arme-nians were dead. They were victims of genocide, thedeliberate mass murder of a particular racial, politi-cal, or cultural group. (A similar practice would becalled ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War of 1993 to1996.) One eyewitness to the 1915 Armenian deporta-tion wrote:

“[She] saw vultures hovering over children whohad fallen dead by the roadside. She saw beingscrawling along, maimed, starving and begging forbread. From time to time she passed soldiers drivingbefore them with whips and rifle-butts whole fami-lies, men, women and children, shrieking, pleading,wailing. These were the Armenian people setting outfor exile into the desert from which there was noreturn.”

Armenian children who have been orphaned wait to board a ship that willtake them from Turkey to Greece. The Turks killed approximately 1 millionArmenians and deported half a million.

T. E. Lawrence

which was now declared to be the Turkish Republic.The Ottoman Empire had finally come to an end.

Evaluating How did the OttomanEmpire finally end?

The Modernization of TurkeyPresident Kemal was now popularly known as

Atatürk (AT•uh•TUHRK), or “father Turk.” Over thenext several years, he tried to transform Turkey intoa modern state. A democratic system was put in

place, but the president did not tolerate opposi-tion and harshly suppressed his critics.

Atatürk’s changes went beyond politics.Many Arabic elements were eliminated from theTurkish language, which was now written in theRoman alphabet. Popular education was intro-duced. All Turkish citizens were forced to adopt

family (last) names, in the Europeanstyle.

Atatürk also took steps to modernizeTurkey’s economy. Factories were estab-lished, and a five-year plan provided for state direction over the economy.

Reading Check

783CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

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Middle East, 1919–1935

By 1918, another four hundred thousand Armeni-ans had been massacred. Russia, France, and Britaindenounced the Turkish killing of the Armenians as“against humanity and civilization.” Because of thewar, however, the killings went on.

Emergence of the Turkish Republic At the end ofWorld War I, the tottering Ottoman Empire col-lapsed. Great Britain and France made plans todivide up Ottoman territories in the Middle East.Only the area of present-day Turkey remained underOttoman control. Then, Greece invadedTurkey and seized the western parts of theAnatolian Peninsula.

The invasion alarmed key elements inTurkey, who were organized under theleadership of the war hero Colonel MustafaKemal. Kemal resigned from the army andsummoned a national congress callingfor the creation of an elected govern-ment and a new Republic of Turkey.His forces drove the Greeks from theAnatolian Peninsula. In 1923, the last ofthe Ottoman sultans fled the country, Kemal Atatürk

Boundary of the Ottoman Empire, 1914British mandate, colony, or influenceFrench mandateJewish settlementsOil-producing areas

Nationalist movementsemerged after World War I,leading to the creation ofnew states in the MiddleEast.

1. Interpreting MapsStudy the map’s key.What does the shadingon the map indicate?What do the red lines onthe map represent?

2. Applying GeographySkills Identify the coun-tries on the map that arecontrolled by the Britishand the French. How didEuropean control ofthese areas impact Arabnationalism?

Atatürk also tried to modernize farming, although hehad little effect on the nation’s peasants.

Perhaps the most significant aspect of Atatürk’sreform program was his attempt to break the powerof the Islamic religion. He wanted to transformTurkey into a secular state—a state that rejects reli-gious influence on its policies. Atatürk said, “Reli-gion is like a heavy blanket that keeps the people ofTurkey asleep.”

The caliphate was formally abolished in 1924. Menwere forbidden to wear the fez, the brimless capworn by Turkish Muslims. When Atatürk beganwearing a Western panama hat, one of his criticsremarked, “You cannot make a Turk into a Westernerby giving him a hat.”

Women were forbidden to wear the veil, a tradi-tional Islamic custom. New laws gave women mar-riage and inheritance rights equal to men’s. In 1934,women received the right to vote. All citizens werealso given the right to convert to other religions.

The legacy of Kemal Atatürk was enormous. Inpractice, not all of his reforms were widely accepted,especially by devout Muslims. However, most of thechanges that he introduced were kept after his deathin 1938. By and large, the Turkish Republic was theproduct of Atatürk’s determined efforts.

Identifying What radical step didAtatürk take to modernize Turkey?

The Beginnings of Modern IranA similar process of modernization was underway

in Persia. Under the Qajar dynasty (1794–1925), thecountry had not been very successful in resolving itsdomestic problems. Increasingly, the dynasty hadturned to Russia and Great Britain to protect itselffrom its own people, which led to a growing foreignpresence in Persia. The discovery of oil in the south-ern part of the country in 1908 attracted more foreigninterest. Oil exports increased rapidly, and most ofthe profits went to British investors.

The growing foreign presence led to the rise of anative Persian nationalist movement. In 1921, RezaKhan, an officer in the Persian army, led a militarymutiny that seized control of Tehran, the capitalcity. In 1925, Reza Khan established himself as shah,or king, and was called Reza Shah Pahlavi. Thename of the new dynasty he created, Pahlavi, wasthe name of the ancient Persian language.

During the next few years, Reza Shah Pahlavitried to follow the example of Kemal Atatürk inTurkey. He introduced a number of reforms to

Reading Check

strengthen and modernize the government, the mili-tary, and the economic system. Persia became themodern state of Iran in 1935.

Unlike Kemal Atatürk, Reza Shah Pahlavi did nottry to destroy the power of Islamic beliefs. However,he did encourage the creation of a Western-style edu-cational system and forbade women to wear the veilin public.

Foreign powers continued to harass Iran. To freehimself from Great Britain and the Soviet Union,Reza Shah Pahlavi drew closer to Nazi Germany.During World War II, the shah rejected the demandsof Great Britain and the Soviet Union to expel a largenumber of Germans from Iran. In response, theSoviet Union and Great Britain sent troops into thecountry. Reza Shah Pahlavi resigned in protest andwas replaced by his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.

Comparing How was Reza ShahPahlavi’s modernization of Persia different from Atatürk’s trans-formation of Turkey?

Arab NationalismWorld War I offered the Arabs an opportunity to

escape from Ottoman rule. However, there was aquestion as to what would replace that rule. TheArabs were not a nation, though they were united bytheir language and their Islamic cultural and religiousheritage.

Because Britain had supported the efforts of Arabnationalists in 1916, the nationalists hoped this sup-port would continue after the war ended. Instead,Britain made an agreement with France to create anumber of mandates in the area. These mandateswere former Ottoman territories that were now super-vised by the new League of Nations. The league, in

Reading Check

784 CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

Sultan Ibn Saud, whoestablished the kingdomof Saudi Arabia

turn, granted league members the right to governparticular mandates. Iraq and Jordan were assignedto Great Britain; Syria and Lebanon to France.

For the most part, Europeans created these MiddleEastern states. The Europeans determined thenations’ borders and divided the peoples. In general,the people in these states had no strong identificationwith their designated country. However, a sense ofArab nationalism remained.

In the early 1920s, a reform leader, Ibn Saud,united Arabs in the northern part of the ArabianPeninsula. Devout and gifted, Ibn Saud (from whomcame the name Saudi Arabia) won broad supportamong Arab peoples. He established the kingdom ofSaudi Arabia in 1932.

At first, the new kingdom, which consisted mostlyof the vast desert of central Arabia, was desperatelypoor. Its main source of income came from the Mus-lim pilgrims who visited Makkah and Madinah.

During the 1930s, however, U.S. prospectorsbegan to explore for oil. Standard Oil made a suc-cessful strike at Dhahran, on the Persian Gulf, in1938. Soon, an Arabian-American oil company, pop-ularly called Aramco, was created. The isolated king-dom was suddenly flooded with Western oilindustries that brought the promise of wealth.

Examining How were many MiddleEastern states created after World War I?

The Problem of PalestineThe situation in Palestine made matters even more

complicated in the Middle East. While Palestine had

Reading Check

785CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

Checking for Understanding1. Define genocide, ethnic cleansing.

2. Identify Abdulhamid II, T. E. Lawrence,Atatürk, Reza Shah Pahlavi, Ibn Saud.

3. Locate Tehran, Iran, Saudi Arabia,Palestine.

4. Explain why the British supported Arabnationalist activities in 1916.

5. List the mandates assigned to GreatBritain and France.

Critical Thinking6. Evaluate Why was it difficult for the

Arab peoples to form one nation?

7. Summarizing Information Make adiagram like the one below showingeight aspects of the modernization ofTurkey.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photo on page 782 show-

ing Armenian children who lost theirparents. Why were hundreds of thou-sands of Armenians killed or drivenfrom their homes by the Turks?

9. Expository Writing Locate informa-tion regarding the current politicalpolicies of Iran. Write two para-graphs comparing this informationwith the policies of Reza ShahPahlavi. Document your sources.

Modernizationof Turkey

been the home of the Jews in antiquity, few had livedthere for almost two thousand years. While someChristians and Jews did live in Palestine, it wasinhabited primarily by Muslim Palestinians. Britain,however, stated its intention to support a nationalhome for the Jews in the 1917 Balfour Declaration:“His Majesty’s Government views with favor theestablishment in Palestine of a national home for theJewish people.”

The British promised that the Balfour Declarationwould not undermine the rights of the non-Jewishpeoples living in the area. Still, Arab nationalistswere angered. They questioned how a national homefor the Jewish people could be established in a terri-tory that was 98 percent Muslim.

In the meantime, the promises of the Balfour Dec-laration drew Jewish settlers to Palestine. The Zionistmovement (see Chapter 20) had advocated the returnof Jews to Palestine since the late 1890s. During the1930s, tensions increased between the new arrivalsand the existing Muslim residents. At the same time,the rising persecution of Jews in Nazi Germanycaused many European Jews to flee to Palestine. By1939, there were about 450,000 Jews in Palestine.

The British, fearing aroused Arab nationalism,tried to restrict Jewish immigration into the territory.In 1939, the British declared that only 75,000 Jewishimmigrants would be allowed into Palestine over thenext five years. After that, no more Jews could enterthe country. This decision would eventually producesevere conflicts in the region.

Explaining Why did the Balfour Dec-laration produce problems in Palestine?

Reading Check

1920Marcus Garvey issues Declaration of theRights of the Negro Peoples of the World

Guide to Reading

Nationalism in Africa and Asia

Preview of Events

1938Japan passes militarydraft law

1935Government of IndiaAct is passed

✦1915 ✦1920 ✦1925 ✦1930 ✦1935 ✦1940 ✦1945

Jomo Kenyatta, an advocate of independence in Kenya, wrote:

“By driving the African off his ancestral lands, the Europeans have reduced him to a state of serfdom incompatible with human happiness. The African is conditioned, by the cultural and social institutions of centuries, to a freedom of whichEurope has little conception, and it is not in his nature to accept serfdom forever. Herealizes that he must fight unceasingly for his own complete emancipation [freedom];for without this he is doomed to remain the prey of rival imperialisms, which in everysuccessive year will drive their fangs more deeply into his vitality and strength.”

—Facing Mount Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta, 1959

Between 1919 and 1939, leaders emerged in Africa and Asia who sought to freetheir people from the power of the West. While none of these nationalist movementswere successful before World War II, they did begin the journey toward independence.

Movements toward Independence in AfricaBlack Africans had fought in World War I in British and French armies. Many

Africans hoped they would be rewarded with independence after the war. As onenewspaper in the Gold Coast argued, if African volunteers who fought on Euro-pean battlefields were “good enough to fight and die in the Empire’s cause, theywere good enough to have a share in the government of their countries.”

Voices from the Past

786 CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

Jomo Kenyatta

Main Ideas• Peoples in Africa and Asia began to agi-

tate for independence.• Japan became an aggressive military

state.• Soviet agents worked to spread commu-

nism around the world.

Key TermsPan-Africanism, Mahatma, civil disobedi-ence, zaibatsu

People to IdentifyW.E.B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, Mohandas Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Ho Chi Minh

Places to LocateKenya, Manchuria

Preview of Events1. What different forms did protest

against Western rule take?2. How was communism received in

Asia?

Reading StrategyContrasting Information Using a tablelike the one below, contrast the back-grounds and values of Gandhi and theyounger Nehru.

Mahatma Gandhi Jawaharlal Nehru

The peace settlement after World War I was a greatdisappointment. Germany was stripped of itsAfrican colonies, but these colonies were awarded toGreat Britain and France to be administered as man-dates for the League of Nations. Britain and Francenow governed a vast portion of Africa.

African Protests After World War I, Africansbecame more active politically. Africans who hadfought in World War I had learned new ideas aboutfreedom and nationalism in the West. In Africa itself,missionary schools taught their pupils about libertyand equality. As more Africans became aware of theenormous gulf between Western ideals and practices,they decided to seek reform.

Reform movements took different forms. In Kenyain 1921, the Young Kikuyu Association, organized byHarry Thuku, a telephone operator, protested thehigh taxes levied by the British rulers. His messagewas simple: “Hearken, every day you pay . . . tax to

the Europeans of Government. Where is it sent? It istheir task to steal the property of the Kikuyu people.”Thuku was arrested. When an angry crowd stormedthe jail and demanded his release, governmentauthorities fired into the crowd and killed 50 people.Thuku was sent into exile.

A struggle against Italian rule in Libya alsooccurred in the 1920s. Forces led by Omar Mukhtarused guerrilla warfare against the Italians anddefeated them a number of times. The Italians reactedferociously. They established concentration campsand used all available modern weapons to crush therevolt. Mukhtar’s death ended the movement.

Although colonial powers typically responded tosuch movements with force, they also began to makesome reforms. They made these reforms in the hope ofsatisfying African peoples. Reforms, however, weretoo few and too late. By the 1930s, an increasing num-ber of African leaders were calling for independence,not reform.

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Africa, 1919–1939

BelgianBritishFrenchItalianPortugueseSpanishIndependent

Active nationalistresistance toEuropean rule

Mandate for theLeague of Nations

Between 1919 and 1939,African peoples called forreforms and independencefrom the colonial powersthat ruled them.

1. Interpreting MapsHow many Europeancountries have colonies inAfrica during this period?Which African country isindependent?

2. Applying GeographySkills Pose and answertwo questions about patterns of resistance toEuropean rule shown onthe map.

New Leaders Calls forindependence came froma new generation of youngAfrican leaders. Manyhad been educated abroad,in Europe and the UnitedStates. Those who hadstudied in the UnitedStates were especially in-fluenced by the ideas ofW.E.B. Du Bois and Mar-cus Garvey.

Du Bois, an African American educated at Har-vard University, was the leader of a movement thattried to make all Africans aware of their own culturalheritage. Garvey, a Jamaican who lived in Harlem inNew York City, stressed the need for the unity of allAfricans, a movement known as Pan-Africanism.His Declaration of the Rights of the Negro Peoples of theWorld, issued in 1920, had a strong impact on laterAfrican leaders.

Leaders and movements in individual Africannations also appeared. Educated in Great Britain,Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya argued in his book FacingMount Kenya that British rule was destroying the traditional culture of the peoples of Africa. LéopoldSenghor, who had studied in France and writtenpoetry about African culture, organized an inde-pendence movement in Senegal. Nnamdi Azikiwe, ofNigeria, began a newspaper, The West African Pilot, in1937 and urged nonviolence as a method to gainindependence. These are but three of the leaders whoworked to end colonial rule in Africa. Success, how-ever, would not come until after World War II.

Analyzing Why did many Africansbecome more politically active after World War I?

The Movement for Indian Independence

As you read, you will learn howMohandas Gandhi called on Indians to protest Britishlaws by using the technique of civil disobedience. Gandhiwas one leader in India’s independence movement. Mohandas Gandhi had become active in the

movement for Indian self-rule before World War I. Bythe time of World War I, the Indian people hadalready begun to refer to him as India’s “Great Soul,”or Mahatma. After the war, Gandhi remained animportant figure, and new leaders also arose.

Reading Check

Protest and Reform After Gandhi’s return to Indiafrom South Africa in 1913, he began to organize massprotests to achieve his aims. A believer in nonvio-lence, Gandhi protested British laws by using themethods of civil disobedience—refusal to obey lawsconsidered to be unjust.

In 1919, the protests led to violence and a strongBritish reaction. British troops killed hundreds ofunarmed protesters in the city of Amritsar, in north-western India. Horrified at the violence, Gandhibriefly retreated from active politics. He was laterarrested for his role in the protests and spent severalyears in prison.

In 1935, Great Britain passed the Government ofIndia Act. This act expanded the role of Indians in thegoverning process. Before, the Legislative Councilhad only given advice to the British governor. Now,it became a two-house parliament. Two-thirds of itsIndian members were to be elected. Similar bodieswere created at the provincial level. Five million Indi-ans (still only a small percentage of the total popula-tion) were given the right to vote.

A Push for Independence The Indian NationalCongress (INC) was founded in 1885 to seek reformsin Britain’s government of India (see Chapter 21).Reforms, however, were no longer enough for manymembers of the INC. Under its new leader, MotilalNehru, the INC wanted to push for full independence.

Gandhi, now released from prison, returned to hisearlier policy of civil disobedience. He worked hardto inform ordinary Indians of his beliefs and meth-ods. It was wrong, he said, to harm any living being.Hate could only be overcome by love, and love,rather than force, could win people over to one’sposition.

Nonviolence was central to Gandhi’s campaign ofnoncooperation and civil disobedience. To protestunjust British laws, Gandhi told his people: “Don’tpay your taxes or send your children to an English-supported school. . . . Make your own cotton cloth byspinning the thread at home, and don’t buy English-made goods. Provide yourselves with home-madesalt, and do not buy government-made salt.”

Britain had introduced measures increasing thesalt tax and prohibiting the Indian people from man-ufacturing or harvesting their own salt. In 1930,Gandhi protested these measures. Accompanied by supporters, he walked to the sea on what becameknown as the Salt March. On reaching the coast,Gandhi picked up a pinch of salt. Thousands of Indi-ans followed his act of civil disobedience. Gandhi

788 CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

HISTORY

Web Activity Visitthe Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

andclick on Chapter 25–Student Web Activity to learn more aboutnationalist movements.

wh.glencoe.com

and many other members of the INC were arrested.; (See page 999 to read excerpts from Gandhi Takes the Path ofCivil Disobedience in the Primary Sources Library.)

New Leaders and New Problems In the 1930s, anew figure entered the movement. JawaharlalNehru, the son of Motilal Nehru, studied law inGreat Britain. The younger Nehru was an example ofa new kind of Indian politician. He was upper classand intellectual.

The independence movement split into two paths.The one identified with Gandhi was religious,Indian, and traditional. The other, identified withNehru, was secular, Western, and modern. The exis-tence of two approaches created uncertainty aboutIndia’s future path.

In the meantime, another problem had arisen inthe independence movement. Hostility between Hin-dus and Muslims had existed for centuries. Muslimswere dissatisfied with the Hindu dominance of theINC and raised the cry “Islam is in danger.”

In 1930, the Muslim League, under the leadershipof Muhammad Ali Jinnah, called for the creation of aseparate Muslim state of Pakistan (meaning “the

land of the pure”) in the northwest. Conflict betweenMuslims and Hindus grew.

Identifying What three non-Britishconflicts affected the Indian independence movements in the1930s?

The Rise of a Militarist JapanDuring the first two decades of the twentieth cen-

tury, Japanese society developed along a Westernmodel. The economic and social reforms launchedduring the Meiji Era led to increasing prosperity andthe development of a modern industrial and com-mercial sector.

A Zaibatsu Economy In the Japanese economy,various manufacturing processes were concentratedwithin a single enterprise called the zaibatsu, a largefinancial and industrial corporation. These firmsgradually developed, often with government help,into vast companies that controlled major segmentsof the Japanese industrial sector. By 1937, the fourlargest zaibatsu (Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, andYasuda) controlled 21 percent of the banking

Reading Check

789CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World 789CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity 789CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity

Paths to ModernizationAfter World War I, new states in the Middle East and

Asia sought to modernize their countries. To many peo-ple, modernization meant westernization, the adoptionof political and economic reforms based on Westernmodels. These models included government based ondemocratic principles and a free-market, or capitalist,economic system based on industrialization.

After the success of the Communist revolution inRussia, however, a second model for modernizationappeared. To some people, a Marxist system seemed to

offer a better and quicker wayto transform an agriculturalstate into a modern industrialstate. The new system wouldbe a socialist model in whichan authoritarian state, not pri-vate industry, would own andcontrol the economy.

Between World War I and World War II, some newrepublics combined features of both systems. In Turkey,Kemal Atatürk, creator of the new Turkish republic, setup a national assembly but ruled with an iron fist. Hiseconomic modernization combined private industrieswith state direction of the economy.

In China, the Nanjing Republic under Chiang Kai-shek supported the idea of democracy but maintainedthe need for dictatorial government as a first stage toprepare the Chinese people for democracy. Economicmodernization in the new Chinese republic combined amodern industrial state with the traditional Chinese val-ues of hard work and obedience.

� Dubai, United Arab Emirates,a thriving, modern port city

Using outside sources, research the current govern-ment of Turkey. How has the government developedsince the rule of Kemal Atatürk? Does the currentgovernment reflect the influence of Western princi-ples or has it evolved according to a Marxist model?

industry, 26 percent of mining, 35 percent of ship-building, and over 60 percent of paper manufactur-ing and insurance.

The concentration of wealth led to growing eco-nomic inequalities. City workers were poorly paidand housed. Economic crises added to this problemshortly after World War I when inflation in foodprices led to food riots. A rapid increase in popula-tion led to food shortages. (The population of theJapanese islands increased from 43 million in 1900 to73 million in 1940.) Later, when the Great Depressionstruck, workers and farmers suffered the most.

With hardships came calls for a return to tradi-tional Japanese values. Traditionalists especiallyobjected to the growing influence of Western ideasand values on Japanese educational and political sys-tems. At the same time, many citizens denouncedJapan’s attempt to find security through cooperation

with the Western powers. Instead, they demandedthat Japan use its own strength to dominate Asia andmeet its needs.

Japan and the West In the early twentieth century,Japanese leaders began to have difficulty findingsources of raw materials and foreign markets for thenation’s manufactured goods. Until World War I,Japan had dealt with the problem by seizing territo-ries—such as Formosa, Korea, and southernManchuria—and making them part of the growingJapanese Empire. That policy succeeded but arousedthe concern of the Western nations.

The United States was especially worried aboutJapanese expansion. The United States wanted tokeep Asia open for U.S. trading activities. In 1922, theUnited States held a major conference of nations withinterests in the Pacific. The major achievement of thisconference was a nine-power treaty that recognizedthe territorial integrity of China and the maintenanceof the Open Door policy. Japan accepted the provi-sions in return for recognition of its control of south-ern Manchuria.

During the remainder of the 1920s, the Japanesegovernment tried to follow the rules established bythe Washington Conference. This meant using diplo-matic and economic means to realize Japanese inter-ests in Asia. However, this approach did not provepopular.

Japanese industrialists began to expand into newareas, such as heavy industry, mining, chemicals, andthe manufacturing of appliances and automobiles.These industries desperately needed resources notfound in abundance in Japan. The Japanese govern-ment came under increasing pressure to find newsources for raw materials abroad.

The Rise of Militarism During the first twodecades of the twentieth century, Japan movedtoward a more democratic government. The parlia-ment and political parties grew stronger. The influ-ence of the old ruling oligarchy, however, remainedstrong. At the end of the 1920s, new problems led tothe emergence of militant forces that encouragedJapan to become a militaristic state.

The rise of militant forces in Japan resulted whena group within the ruling party was able to gain con-trol of the political system. Some of the militantswere civilians convinced that the parliamentary sys-tem had been corrupted by Western ideas. Otherswere members of the military who were angered bythe cuts in military spending and the government’spacifist policies during the early 1920s.

790 CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

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Karafuto

FORMOSA

KOREA JAPAN

Japanese Expansion,1910–1933

Japanese territory, 1910Japanese acquisitions to 1933

The Japanese Empire expanded during the early twentiethcentury.

1. Interpreting Maps How did Japan’s territory changebetween 1910 and 1933?

2. Applying Geography Skills Describe Japan’s geo-graphical features. How was geography a factor inJapanese expansion?

During the early 1930s, civilians formed extremistpatriotic organizations, such as the Black DragonSociety. Members of the army and navy created sim-ilar societies. One group of middle-level army offi-cers invaded Manchuria without governmentapproval in the autumn of 1931. Within a short time,all of Manchuria had been conquered.

The Japanese government opposed the conquestof Manchuria but the Japanese people supported it.Unable to act, the government was soon dominatedby the military and other supporters of Japaneseexpansionism.

Japanese society was put on wartime status. A mil-itary draft law was passed in 1938. Economicresources were placed under strict government con-trol. All political parties were merged into the Impe-rial Rule Assistance Association, which called forJapanese expansion abroad. Labor unions were dis-banded. Education and culture were purged of mostWestern ideas. Militant leaders insisted on the needfor stressing traditional Japanese values instead.

Examining How did the Japanesegovernment change from the 1920s to the 1930s?

Nationalism and Revolution in AsiaBefore World War I, the Marxist doctrine of social

revolution had no appeal for Asian intellectuals.After all, most Asian societies were still agriculturaland were hardly ready for revolution.

That situation began to change after the revolutionin Russia in 1917. The rise to power of Lenin and theBolsheviks showed that a revolutionary Marxist party

Reading Check

could overturn an outdated system—even one thatwas not fully industrialized—and begin a new one.

The Spread of Communism In 1920, Leninadopted a new revolutionary strategy aimed at soci-eties outside the Western world. The chief means ofspreading the word of Karl Marx was the Commu-nist International, or Comintern for short. Formed in1919, the Comintern was a worldwide organizationof Communist parties dedicated to the advancementof world revolution.

At the Comintern’s headquarters in Moscow,agents were trained and then returned to their owncountries to form Marxist parties and promote thecause of social revolution. By the end of the 1920s,practically every colonial society in Asia had a Com-munist party.

Communist Parties in Asia How successful werethese new parties? In some countries, the local Com-munists were briefly able to establish a cooperativerelationship with existing nationalist parties in acommon struggle against Western imperialism. Thiswas true in French Indochina, where VietnameseCommunists were organized by the Moscow-trainedrevolutionary Ho Chi Minh in the 1920s. Thestrongest Communist-nationalist alliance wasformed in China (see Section 3). In most colonialsocieties, though, Communist parties had little suc-cess in the 1930s. They failed to build a secure baseof support among the mass of the population.

Evaluating What was the relation-ship between communism and imperialism?

Reading Check

791CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

Checking for Understanding1. Define Pan-Africanism, Mahatma, civil

disobedience, zaibatsu.

2. Identify W.E.B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, Mohandas Gandhi, JawaharlalNehru, Ho Chi Minh.

3. Locate Kenya, Manchuria.

4. Explain the goals of the Comintern andhow it pursued these goals.

5. List at least three leaders who workedto end colonial rule in Africa.

Critical Thinking6. Compare What did young black lead-

ers who wanted independence in Africahave in common?

7. Sequencing Information On asequence chain like the one below,show five events that contributed toJapan’s becoming a military state in the 1930s.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photo of Dubai in the

feature on page 789. What do you seein the picture that tells you this is amodern port city?

9. Expository Writing Research con-temporary Japanese conglomerates(zaibatsu) such as Mitsubishi andSony. How are their operations dif-ferent from those of American indus-tries? Write two paragraphs anddocument your sources.

Japan as military

state

792

The Path to LiberationTHE VIETNAMESE REVOLUTIONARY

Ho Chi Minh learned about therevolution in Bolshevik Russia in1919 while living in France. Hebecame a dedicated follower ofLenin and eventually became aleader of the Vietnamese Commu-nist movement. In the followingpassage, Ho Chi Minh talks abouthis reasons for becoming a Communist.

“After World War I, I made my liv-ing in Paris, now as a retoucher at aphotographer’s, now as a painter of‘Chinese antiquities’ (made inFrance!). I would distribute leafletsdenouncing the crimes committedby the French colonialists in Vietnam.

At that time, I supported the Russian Revolutiononly instinctively, not yet grasping all its historicimportance. I loved and admired Lenin because hewas a great patriot who liberated his compatriots;until then, I had read none of his books.

The reason for my joining the French SocialistParty was that these ‘ladies and gentlemen’—as Icalled my comrades at that moment—had showntheir sympathy toward me, toward the struggle ofthe oppressed peoples. But I understood neitherwhat was a party, a trade-union, nor what wasSocialism nor Communism. . . . A comrade gave meLenin’s ‘Thesis on the National and Colonial Ques-tions’ to read.

There were political terms difficult to understandin this thesis. But by dint of reading it again andagain, finally I could grasp the main part of it. Whatemotion, enthusiasm, clear-sightedness, and confi-dence it instilled in me! I was overjoyed to tears.Though sitting alone in my room, I shouted aloud

as if addressing large crowds. ‘Dear martyrs, com-patriots! This is what we need, this is the path toour liberation!’

After that, I had entire confidence in Lenin.”—Ho Chi Minh,

The Path which Led Me to Leninism

� Communist Party meetingin Hanoi, April 2001

Ho Chi Minh, leader �

of the VietnameseCommunist movement

Analyzing Primary Sources

1. Why was Ho Chi Minh living in France?2. What were Ho Chi Minh’s feelings toward

Lenin?3. Why did Ho Chi Minh join the French

Socialist Party?

1921Chinese Communist Partyis formed in Shanghai

1923Nationalists and Communistsform an alliance

1933Mao’s troops begin Long March

Guide to Reading

Revolutionary Chaosin China

Preview of Events✦1921 ✦1923 ✦1925 ✦1927 ✦1929 ✦1931 ✦1933

In the fall of 1926, the young Communist Mao Zedong submitted a report to theChinese Communist Party Central Committee calling for a massive peasant revoltagainst the ruling order:

“In a very short time, in China’s Central, Southern, and Northern provinces, severalhundred million peasants will rise like a mighty storm, like a hurricane, a force so swiftand violent that no power, however great, will be able to hold it back. They will smashall the restraints that bind them and rush forward along the road to liberation. Theywill sweep all the imperialists, warlords, corrupt officials, local tyrants, and evil gentryinto their graves. . . . In force and momentum the attack is tempestuous; those whobow before it survive and those who resist perish.”

—Selected Works of Mao Tse-Tung, 1954

The report shows Mao’s confidence that peasants could play an active role in a Chi-nese revolution.

Nationalists and CommunistsRevolutionary Marxism had its greatest impact in China. By 1920, central

authority had almost ceased to exist in China. Two political forces began toemerge as competitors for the right to rule China: Sun Yat-sen’s Nationalist Party,which had been driven from the political arena several years earlier, and the Chi-nese Communist Party.

Voices from the Past

CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World 793

Mao Zedong (at left)

Main Ideas• Internal tensions led Chiang Kai-shek to

violently end the Communist-Nationalistalliance.

• Mao Zedong believed revolution inChina would be led by peasants, not the urban working class.

Key Termsguerrilla tactics, redistribution of wealth

People to IdentifySun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek, Mao Zedong

Places to LocateShanghai, Chang Jiang, Nanjing

Preview Questions1. Against whom were the Nationalist

and Chinese Communist Partiesaligned?

2. What obstacles did Chiang Kai-shekface in building a new China?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Make acluster diagram like the one below show-ing the Confucian values that Chiang Kai-shek used to bring modern Western ideasinto a culturally conservative population.

New LifeMovement

794 CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

In 1921, a group of young radicals, including sev-eral faculty and staff members from Beijing Univer-sity, founded the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) inthe commercial and industrial city of Shanghai.Comintern agents soon advised the new party to joinwith the more experienced Nationalist Party.

Sun Yat-sen, leader of the Nationalists (see Chap-ter 22), welcomed the cooperation. He needed theexpertise that the Soviet Union could provide. Hisanti-imperialist words had alienated many Westernpowers. One English-language newspaper in Shang-hai wrote, “All his life, all his influence, are devotedto ideas that keep China in turmoil, and it is utterlyundesirable that he should be allowed to prosecutethose aims here.” In 1923, the two parties—Nationalists and Communists—formed an allianceto oppose the warlords and drive the imperialistpowers out of China.

For three years, the two parties overlooked theirmutual suspicions and worked together. They mobi-lized and trained a revolutionary army to march northand seize control over China. This Northern Expedi-tion began in the summer of 1926. By the followingspring, revolutionary forces had taken control of allof China south of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze), includ-ing the major river ports of Wuhan and Shanghai.

Tensions between the two parties eventually roseto the surface. Sun Yat-sen died in 1925 and was suc-ceeded as head of the Nationalist Party by the gen-eral Chiang Kai-shek (JEE•AHNG KY•SHEHK).

Chiang pretended to support the alliance with theCommunists. In April 1927, however, he struckagainst the Communists and their supporters inShanghai, killing thousands in what is called theShanghai Massacre. The Communist-Nationalistalliance ceased to exist.

In 1928, Chiang Kai-shek founded a new Chineserepublic at Nanjing. During the next three years, heworked to reunify China. Although Chiang sawJapan as a serious threat to the Chinese nation, hebelieved that Japan was less dangerous than his otherenemy, the Communists. He once remarked that “theCommunists are a disease of the heart.”

Explaining How did Chiang Kai-shekchange the Communist-Nationalist alliance?

The Communists in HidingAfter the Shanghai Massacre, most of the Commu-

nist leaders went into hiding in the city. There, theytried to revive the Communist movement among theworking class. Shanghai was a rich recruiting groundfor the party. People were discontented and lookingfor leadership.

Some party members fled to the mountainousJiangxi (jee•AHNG•SHEE) Province south of theChiang Jiang. They were led by the young Commu-nist organizer Mao Zedong (MOW DZUH•DOONG). Unlike most other leading members of theCommunist Party, Mao was convinced that a Chineserevolution would be driven by the poverty-strickenpeasants in the countryside rather than by the urbanworking class.

Reading Check

Members of the Communist forces prepare toevacuate Shanghai during the Nationalists’ takeoverin 1927. Why did Chiang Kai-shek initiate thismilitary action against the Communists?

History

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Nanjing

Wuhan

Moving on foot through mountains, marshes, anddeserts, Mao’s army traveled almost 6,000 miles(9,600 km) to reach the last surviving Communistbase in the northwest of China. His troops had tofight all the way. Many froze or starved. One sur-vivor remembered, “As the days went by, there wasless and less to eat. After our grain was finished, weate the horses, and then we lived on wild vegetables.When even the wild vegetables were finished, we ateour leather belts. After that we had to march onempty stomachs.”

One year later, Mao’s troops reached safety in thedusty hills of North China. Of the ninety thousandtroops who had embarked on the journey, only nine

Northern Expedition againstimperialist powers (1926–1928)

Long March led by CommunistMao Zedong (1934–1935)Area controlled by Chiang Kai-shek'sNationalist government, 1937

Communist base

China, 1926–1937

Chiang Kai-shek now tried to root the Commu-nists out of their urban base in Shanghai and theirrural base in Jiangxi Province. He succeeded in thefirst task in 1931. Most party leaders in Shanghaiwere forced to flee to Mao’s base in South China.

Chiang Kai-shek then turned his forces againstMao’s stronghold in Jiangxi Province. Chiang’sforces far outnumbered Mao’s, but Mao made effec-tive use of guerrilla tactics, using unexpectedmaneuvers like sabotage and subterfuge to fight theenemy. Four slogans describe his methods: “Whenthe enemy advances, we retreat! When the enemyhalts and camps, we trouble them! When the enemytries to avoid battle, we attack! When the enemyretreats, we pursue!”

Identifying Which group did Maobelieve would start the Communist revolution in China?

The Long MarchIn 1933, Chiang’s troops, using their superior mil-

itary strength, surrounded the Communist base inJiangxi. However, Mao’s army, the People’s Libera-tion Army (PLA), broke through the Nationalist linesand began its famous Long March.

Reading Check

CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World 795

Communists and Nationalists fought imperialist powers andeach other for control of China in the 1920s and 1930s.

1. Interpreting Maps Study the path of the arrows repre-senting the Northern Expedition. Using the scale on themap, estimate the distance in miles and kilometers cov-ered by the Northern Expedition.

2. Applying Geography Skills Use this map and othersof China in this text to identify the mountains, rivers, anddeserts Mao’s army crossed during the Long March.

thousand remained. In the course of the Long March,Mao Zedong had become the sole leader of the Chi-nese Communist Party. To people who lived at thetime, it must have seemed that the Communist threatto the Nanjing regime was over. To the Communists,however, there remained hope for the future.

Explaining Why did it seem thatcommunism was no longer a threat to China after the Long March?

The New China of Chiang Kai-shekIn the meantime, Chiang Kai-shek had been trying

to build a new nation. Chiang had publicly declaredhis commitment to the plans of Sun Yat-sen, whichcalled for a republican government. First, however,there would be a transitional period. In Sun’s words:

“China . . . needs a republican government just asa boy needs school. As a schoolboy must have goodteachers and helpful friends, so the Chinese people,being for the first time under republican rule, musthave a farsighted revolutionary government for theirtraining. This calls for the period of political tutelage,which is a necessary transitional stage from monar-chy to republicanism. Without this, disorder will beunavoidable.”

In keeping with Sun’s program, Chiangannounced a period of political tutelage (training) to prepare the Chinese people for a final stage of constitutional government. In the meantime, the

Reading Check

Nationalists would use their dictatorial power to carryout a land-reform program and to modernize industry.

It would take more than plans on paper to create anew China, however. Years of neglect and civil warhad severely weakened the political, economic, andsocial fabric of the nation. Most of the people wholived in the countryside were drained by warfare andcivil strife. The peasants there were still very poorand overwhelmingly illiterate, and they made up 80percent of China’s population.

A westernized middle class had begun to form in the cities. It was there that the new Nanjing gov-ernment found much of its support. However, thenew westernized elite pursued the middle-class val-ues of individual advancement and material accumu-lation. They had few links with the peasants in thecountryside.

Chiang Kai-shek was aware of the problem ofintroducing foreign ideas into a population that wasstill culturally conservative. Thus, while attemptingto build a modern industrial state, he tried to bringtogether modern Western innovations with tradi-tional Confucian values of hard work, obedience,and integrity. With his U.S.-educated wife Mei-lingSoong, Chiang set up a “New Life Movement.” Itsgoal was to promote traditional Confucian socialethics, such as integrity, propriety, and righteousness.

796 CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

Chinese Communists gather in North China followingthe year-long, 6,000-mile (9,600-km) Long March.Describe the difficulties Mao Zedong’s forces had to overcome to reach safety in North China.

History

At the same time, it rejected what was viewed as theexcessive individualism and material greed of West-ern capitalist values.

Chiang Kai-shek faced a host of other problems aswell. The Nanjing government had total control overonly a handful of provinces in the Chang Jiang Val-ley. As we shall see in the next chapter, the Japanesethreatened to gain control of northern China. TheGreat Depression was also having an ill effect onChina’s economy.

In spite of all of these problems, Chiang did havesome success. He undertook a massive road-buildingproject and repaired and extended much of the coun-try’s railroad system as well. He also established anational bank and improved the education system.

In other areas, Chiang was less successful andprogress was limited. For example, a land-reformprogram was enacted in 1930, but it had little effect.Because Chiang’s support came from the rurallanded gentry, as well as the urban middle class, hedid not press for programs that would lead to aredistribution of wealth, the shifting of wealth froma rich minority to a poor majority.

The government was also repressive. Fearing Com-munist influence, Chiang suppressed all oppositionand censored free expression. In so doing, he alienatedmany intellectuals and political moderates.

Identifying What was the intendedfinal stage of Chiang Kai-shek’s reform program?

Reading Check

797CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

Checking for Understanding1. Define guerrilla tactics, redistribution

of wealth.

2. Identify Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek,Shanghai Massacre, Mao Zedong, PLA,New Life Movement.

3. Locate Shanghai, Chang Jiang,Nanjing.

4. Explain why the Communist Partyaligned with the Nationalist Party.

5. List the external problems that threat-ened Chiang Kai-shek’s regime.

Critical Thinking6. Analyze What did Mao’s Long March

accomplish? Why was it successful?

7. Summarizing Information Use adiagram like the one below to showChiang Kai-shek’s successes during the 1930s.

Analyzing Visuals8. Describe the action taking place in the

photo on page 794. What clues in thephoto indicate the different kinds ofwarfare undertaken by soldiers duringthis time?

9. Persuasive Writing Conductresearch to learn how the UnitedStates supported Chiang Kai-shekand why. Write an editorial for oragainst United States interventionin China.

Chiang Kai-shek’ssuccesses

Mao Zedong1893–1976—Chinese leader

Mao Zedong was the creator of thePeople’s Republic of China. The sonof a prosperous peasant, he insistedthat the Communist Party supportpeasant demands for land reform. In1949, Communist forces under Mao droveout Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalists and assumed com-plete control of China. Mao’s sayings were collected inQuotations from Chairman Mao Zedong, which came tobe known simply as The Little Red Book.

Chiang Kai-shek1887–1975—Chinese general

Chiang Kai-shek became theleader of the Chinese NationalistParty in 1925 and established aNationalist government over Chinathree years later. After the defeat ofJapan in 1945, Chiang became presidentof China, but his forces lost to the Communistsin a civil war in 1949. Chiang fled with his forces to Tai-wan, where he established a dictatorship, claiming all thewhile to be the only legitimate ruler of China.

798

Using an Electronic SpreadsheetWhy Learn This Skill?

Electronic spreadsheets can help people managedata quickly and easily. For example, if you wantto know your grade average throughout the year,you could create a spreadsheet in which you enteryour latest test and homework scores.

Learning the SkillA spreadsheet is an electronic worksheet.

All spreadsheets follow a basic design of columnsand rows.

• Each column (vertical) is assigned a letter or number.

• Each row (horizontal) is assigned a number.

• A cell is where a column and row intersect.

• A cell’s position on thespreadsheet is labeledaccording to its correspond-ing column and row—Column A, Row 1 (A1);Column B, Row 2 (B2); and so on (see diagram).

Spreadsheets use standard formulas to calculatethe numbers. You create a simple mathematicalequation that uses these standard formulas and thecomputer does the calculations for you.

You can make changes in the spreadsheet byusing the mouse or cursor to move to the appropri-ate cell. If you change any number in the cell, thecomputer will automatically recompute the totals.The computer will even copy a formula from onecell to another.

Practicing the SkillSuppose you want to know the population densi-

ties (populations per square mile or square kilome-ter) of the countries in South Asia. Use these steps tocreate a spreadsheet.

1 In cell A1 type Country, in cell B1 type Popula-tion, in cell C1 type Land Area, and in cell D1type Population Density.

2 In cells A2–A5 type India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,and Sri Lanka. In cell A6, type Total for SouthAsia.

3 In cells B2–B5, enter the population of eachcountry shown in cells A2–A5.

4 In cells C2–C5, enter the land area (square milesor square kilometers) of each country.

5 In cell D2, use the mathematical formula(B1÷C1) to calculate the population density ofeach country. Copy this formula into cells D3–D5, changing the cell numbers in the formula asyou enter each row.

6 In cell B6, create a formula to calculate the totalpopulation of South Asia (B2+B3+B4+B5).

7 In cell C6, create a formula to calculate the totalland area of South Asia (C2+C3+C4+C5).

8 For cell D6, create a formula to calculate thetotal population density of South Asia (B6÷C6).

A B C D

1 A1 B1 C1 D1

2 A2 B2 C2 D2

3 A3 B3 C3 D3

Applying the Skill

Use a spreadsheet to enter your test scores and yourhomework grades for each of your classes. Calculateyour average grade in each class, and then calculateyour average grade in all your classes.

Nationalism in Latin America

1930Latin American exportsdecrease by 50 percent

1920United States becomes the maininvestor in Latin America

1938Getúlio Vargas establishes his New State in Brazil

Guide to Reading

Preview of Events✦1915 ✦1920 ✦1925 ✦1930 ✦1935 ✦1940

In July 1938, Getúlio Vargas spoke to the Brazilian nation to explain his dictatorialregime, which he called the New State:

“If you would ask me what is the program of the New State, I would tell you that itsprogram is to crisscross the nation with railroads, highways, and airlines; to increaseproduction; to provide for the workers and to encourage agriculture; to expandexports; to prepare the armed forces; to organize public opinion so that there is, bodyand soul, one Brazilian thought . . . finally [that] the preparation of internal and exter-nal defense by the rearmament of our brave armed forces and the simultaneous edu-cation of the new generations [is] inculcating [implanting] in them the spirit and love of the fatherland.”

—A Documentary History of Brazil, Bradford E. Burns, 1966

Vargas’s New State drew much of its inspiration from the Fascist regimes of Mussolini and Hitler.

The Latin American EconomyAt the beginning of the twentieth century, the Latin American economy was

based largely on the export of foodstuffs and raw materials. Some countries reliedon only one or two products for sale abroad. Argentina, for example, sent beefand wheat; Chile, nitrates and copper; Brazil and Caribbean nations, sugar; and

Voices from the Past

CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World 799

Getúlio Vargas

Main Ideas• Before the Great Depression, the United

States was the foremost investor inLatin America.

• The Great Depression created instabilityin Latin America, which led to militarycoups and the creation of military dicta-torships.

Key Termsbanana republic, oligarchy

People to IdentifyJuan Vicente Gómez, Hipólito Irigoyen,Getúlio Vargas, Lázaro Cárdenas

Places to LocateArgentina, Chile, Brazil, Peru, Mexico

Preview Questions1. What was the Good Neighbor policy?2. How did the Great Depression affect

the economies of Latin America?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Make a chartlike the one below listing the mainexports of Latin America.

Country Exports

Argentina

Chile

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oceanPacific

Ocean

Central America, bananas. A few reaped large profitsfrom these exports. For the majority of the popula-tion, however, the returns were small.

Role of the United States Beginning in the 1920s,the United States began to replace Great Britain asthe foremost investor in Latin America. Britishinvestors had put money into stocks and other formsof investment that did not give them direct control ofLatin American companies. Unlike British investors,U.S. investors put their funds directly into produc-tion enterprises and ran companies themselves. Inthis way, large segments of Latin America’s exportindustries fell into United States’s hands. A numberof Central American countries became bananarepublics (a term applied to small countries depend-ent on large, wealthy nations). The U.S.-ownedUnited Fruit Company, for example, owned land,packing plants, and railroads in Central America.American firms also gained control of the copper-mining industry in Chile and Peru, as well as of theoil industry in Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia.

The fact that investors in the United States con-trolled many Latin American industries angeredLatin Americans. A growing nationalist conscious-ness led many of them to view the United States as animperialist power. It was not difficult for Latin Amer-ican nationalists to show that profits from U.S. busi-nesses were sometimes used to keep ruthlessdictators in power. In Venezuela, for example, U.S. oilcompanies had a close relationship with the dictatorJuan Vicente Gómez.

The United States had always cast a large shadowover Latin America. It had intervened militarily inLatin American affairs for years. This was especiallytrue in Central America and the Caribbean. ManyAmericans considered both regions vital to the secu-rity of the United States.

The United States made some attempts to changeits relationship with Latin America, however. In 1935,President Franklin D. Roosevelt announced theGood Neighbor policy. This policy rejected the useof U.S. military force in Latin America. Adhering tohis word, the president withdrew the last UnitedStates Marines from Haiti in 1936. For the first time in30 years, there were no U.S. troops in Latin Americancountries.

Impact of the Great Depression The Great Depres-sion was a disaster for Latin America’s economy. The weakening of the economies in the United States and Europe led to a decreased demand for Latin

800 CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

Latin America,1939

American foodstuffs and raw materials, especiallycoffee, sugar, metals, and meat. The total value ofLatin American exports in 1930 was almost 50 per-cent below the figures for the years between 1925 and1929. The countries that depended on the export ofonly one product, rather than multiple products,were especially damaged.

The Great Depression had one positive effect onthe Latin American economy. With a decline inexports, Latin American countries no longer had therevenues to buy manufactured goods. Many LatinAmerican governments encouraged the develop-ment of new industries that would produce goodsthat were formerly imported. This process of indus-trial development was supposed to achieve greatereconomic independence for Latin America.

The economic and political stability of Latin America wasstrongly affected by World War I and the Great Depression.

1. Interpreting Maps How many countries made upLatin America in 1939?

2. Applying Geography Skills What evidence of theEuropean occupation of Latin America can you find onthis map? What inferences can you draw about thisoccupation by looking at northern South America?

Often, however, the new industries were notstarted by individual capitalists. Because of a short-age of capital in the private sector, governments fre-quently invested in the new industries. This led togovernment-run steel industries in Chile and Brazil,along with government-run oil industries inArgentina and Mexico.

Comparing How did the UnitedStates’s method of investing in Latin America differ from that of Britain?

The Move to AuthoritarianismMost Latin American countries had republican

forms of government. In reality, however, a relativelysmall group of church officials, military leaders, andlarge landowners dominated each country. This elitegroup controlled the masses of people, who weremostly poverty-stricken peasants. Military forceswere crucial in keeping these special-interest groupsin power. Indeed, military leaders often took controlof the government.

This trend toward authoritarianism increased dur-ing the 1930s, largely because of the impact of theGreat Depression. Domestic instability caused byeconomic crises led to the creation of many militarydictatorships at the beginning of the 1930s. This trendwas especially evident in Argentina, Brazil, and Mex-ico. Together, these nations possessed over half of theland and wealth of Latin America.

Argentina Argentina was controlled by an oli-garchy, a government where a select group of peopleexercises control. This oligarchy of large landownerswho had grown wealthy from the export of beef andwheat failed to realize the growing importance ofindustry and cities in their country. It also ignoredthe growing middle class, which reacted by formingthe Radical Party in 1890.

In 1916, Hipólito Irigoyen (ee•PAW•lee•TOH

IHR•ih•GOH•YEHN), leader of the Radical Party, waselected president of Argentina. The Radical Party,however, feared the industrial workers, who wereusing strikes to improve their conditions. The partythus drew closer to the large landowners and becamemore corrupt.

The military was also concerned with the risingpower of the industrial workers. In 1930, the Argen-tine army overthrew President Irigoyen and reestab-lished the power of the large landowners. Throughthis action, the military hoped to continue the oldexport economy and thus stop the growth of

Reading Check

working-class power that would come with moreindustrialization.

During World War II, restless military officersformed a new organization, known as the Group ofUnited Officers (GOU). They were unhappy with thegovernment and overthrew it in June 1943. Threeyears later, one GOU member, Juan Perón, seized solepower of the country (see Chapter 29).

Brazil In 1889, the army had overthrown the Brazilian monarchy and established a republic. The republic was controlled chiefly by the landedelites, who had become wealthy by growing coffeeon large plantations.

By 1900, three-quarters of the world’s coffee wasgrown in Brazil. As long as coffee prices remainedhigh, the ruling oligarchy was able to maintain itspower. The oligarchy largely ignored the growth ofurban industry and the working class that camewith it.

The Great Depression devastated the coffee indus-try. By the end of 1929, coffee prices had hit a recordlow. In 1930, a military coup made Getúlio Vargas, awealthy rancher, president of Brazil. Vargas ruledBrazil from 1930 to 1945. Early in his rule, heappealed to workers by instituting an eight-hour dayand a minimum wage.

Faced with strong opposition in 1937, Vargas madehimself dictator. Beginning in 1938, he established hisNew State. It was basically an authoritarian state withsome Fascist-like features. Political parties were out-lawed and civil rights restricted. A secret police usedtorture to silence Vargas’s opponents.

801CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

The price of coffee has had a major impact on almost every aspect of life in Brazil.

802 CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

Out

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g Fo

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Lead

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untr

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Argentina Brazil Mexico Kenya Libya India Turkey NorthernArabian

Peninsula Persia

Latin America Africa and Asia Middle East

Selected Nationalist Movements in the Early Twentieth Century

Fear of workers; dissatisfac-tion with government

Argentine army; Group of United Officers

New governments(1930, 1943)

Getúlio Vargas

Bad economy

Vargas’s New State (1938)

Lázaro Cárdenas

Foreign control of oil industry

Seizure of oil and property (1938); PEMEX

Harry Thuku (Young Kikuyu Association); Jomo Kenyatta

High taxes; British rule

Exile of Thuku (1922)

Omar Mukhtar

Italian rule

Revolt crushed (1920s)

Mohandas Gandhi

British rule

Government of India Act (1935)

Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk)

Turkish Republic (1923)

Greek seizure of Anatolian Peninsula

Reza Khan (Reza Shah Pahlavi)

Iran (1935)

British and Soviet presence

Ibn Saud

Saudi Arabia (1932)

European creation of states

Vargas also pursued a policy of stimulating newindustries. The government established the Braziliansteel industry and set up a company to explore foroil. By the end of World War II, Brazil had becomeLatin America’s chief industrial power. In 1945, thearmy, fearing that Vargas might prolong his powerillegally after calling for new elections, forced him to resign.

Mexico Mexico was not an authoritarian state, butneither was it truly democratic. The Mexican Revolu-tion of the early twentieth century had been the firstsignificant effort in Latin America to overturn thesystem of large landed estates and raise the livingstandards of the masses (see Chapter 21). Out of therevolution had emerged a relatively stable politicalorder.

The government was democratic in form. How-ever, the official political party of the Mexican Revo-lution, known as the Institutional RevolutionaryParty, or PRI, controlled the major groups withinMexican society. Every six years, party bosses of thePRI chose the party’s presidential candidate. Thatcandidate was then dutifully elected by the people.

A new wave of change began with Lázaro Cárde-nas (KAHR•duhn•AHS), president of Mexico from

1934 to 1940. He moved to fulfill some of the originalgoals of the revolution. His major step was to distrib-ute 44 million acres (17.8 million ha) of land to land-less Mexican peasants, an action that made himenormously popular with the peasants.

Cárdenas also took a strong stand with the UnitedStates, especially over oil. By 1900, Mexico wasknown to have enormous oil reserves. Over the next30 years, foreign oil companies from Britain and, inparticular, the United States, made large investmentsin Mexico. After a dispute with the foreign-owned oilcompanies over workers’ wages, the Cárdenas gov-ernment seized control of the oil fields and the prop-erty of the oil companies.

Between World War I and World War II, many coun-tries around the world struggled to achieve inde-pendence and national identity.

1. Analyzing What was the most frequent motiva-tion for revolt in the countries identified above?

2. Summarizing How successful were those whosought to create a new nation or a new form ofgovernment? Using the information above and inthis chapter, write a paragraph that summarizesthe attempts at independence and nationalismmade by the above countries.

The U.S. oil companies were furious and askedPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt to intervene. Herefused, reminding them of his promise in the GoodNeighbor policy not to send U.S. troops into LatinAmerica. Mexicans cheered Cárdenas as the presi-dent who had stood up to the United States.

Eventually, the Mexican government did pay the oilcompanies for their property. It then set up PEMEX, anational oil company, to run the oil industry.

Examining How was the Mexicangovernment democratic in form but not in practice?

Culture in Latin AmericaDuring the early twentieth century, European

artistic and literary movements began to penetrateLatin America. In major cities, such as Buenos Airesin Argentina and São Paulo in Brazil, wealthy elitesexpressed great interest in the work of modern artists.

Latin American artists went abroad and broughtback modern techniques, which they often adaptedto their own native roots. Many artists and writersused their work to promote the emergence of a newnational spirit. An example was the Mexican artistDiego Rivera.

Rivera had studied in Europe, where he was espe-cially influenced by fresco painting in Italy. After hisreturn to Mexico, he developed a monumental stylethat filled wall after wall with murals. Rivera’s wallpaintings can be found in such diverse places as theMinistry of Education, the Chapel of the AgricultureSchool at Chapingo, and the Social Security Hospi-

Reading Check

803CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World

Checking for Understanding1. Define banana republic, oligarchy.

2. Identify Juan Vicente Gómez, GoodNeighbor policy, Hipólito Irigoyen,Getúlia Vargas, Lázaro Cárdenas,PEMEX.

3. Locate Argentina, Chile, Brazil, Peru,Mexico.

4. Explain how Vargas’s dictatorshipended.

5. List some of the industries the UnitedStates owned in Latin America.

Critical Thinking6. Examine Why did the Great Depres-

sion cause many Latin American coun-tries to improve their economic systemsand gain more independence from for-eign economic dominance?

7. Compare and Contrast Make a chartlike the one below comparing and con-trasting political struggles in Argentinaand Brazil.

Analyzing Visuals8. Analyze the photo on page 801. What

does this photo reveal about whatworking conditions were like on Brazil-ian coffee plantations?

9. Descriptive Writing Using outsidesources, find one or two examples of Diego Rivera’s murals. In anessay, compare Rivera’s paintings to the frescoes of medieval Italianpainters like Giotto. How do Rivera’smurals reflect the influence of Italianfrescoes? How are they different?

Argentina Brazil

tal. His works were aimed at the masses of people,many of whom could not read.

Rivera sought to create a national art that wouldportray Mexico’s past, especially its Aztec legends, aswell as Mexican festivals and folk customs. His workalso carried a political and social message. Rivera didnot want people to forget the Mexican Revolution,which had overthrown the large landowners and theforeign interests that supported them.

Examining How did Diego Riverause his artistic talent as a political tool?

Reading Check

History through Art

The Arrival of Cortez at Veracruz(detail) by Diego Rivera, 1929–1935In this mural, what is Rivera saying aboutthe impact of Europeans on Mexico’s past?

804

Using Key Terms1. The name given by his followers to Mohandas Gandhi was

, which means “great soul.”

2. Serbian forces in the recent war in Bosnia followed a policycalled when they tried to eliminate Muslims fromtheir land.

3. A policy of killing people of a particular ethnic or racialgroup is called .

4. An advocate of nonviolence, Gandhi urged as a pow-erful method to achieve justice and bring an end to oppres-sive British rule in India.

5. When Mao Zedong’s forces were outnumbered at their ruralbase in Jiangxi Province, they used such as sabotageand subterfuge to fight Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist troops.

6. Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico were controlled by , orgovernments where only a select group of people exercisescontrol.

7. Many Central American states became when U.S.companies gained control of export industries.

8. The concentration of various manufacturing processes withina single Japanese industry is called a , or large finan-cial and industrial corporation.

9. was a movement stressing unity of all Africans.

Reviewing Key Facts10. Citizenship Why were many Arabs opposed to the Balfour

Declaration?

11. Government Identify the Comintern and explain why it wasformed.

12. Government What reforms did Atatürk implement to trans-form the Turkish Republic into a modern and secular state?

13. History What happened to cause Chinese Communists toundertake the Long March in 1933?

14. History What did the United States hope to accomplishthrough its Good Neighbor policy toward Latin America?

15. History Why did the Nationalists and Communists in Chinaform an alliance in 1928?

16. Economics Explain an import-export economy.

17. Government What did the British do to make Indian peopleless opposed to their colonial government in 1935?

18. Citizenship Why do people in some apparently democraticLatin American nations have little voice in their country’sgovernment?

19. Economics Explain how the entrenched system of zaibatsucontributed to increased nationalism and a move towardmilitarism in Japan.

20. Citizenship What message did Jomo Kenyatta use as thebasic theme of his book Facing Mount Kenya?

Critical Thinking21. Cause and Effect How did harsh treatment of Jewish

people in Europe create problems for Arab people in theMiddle East?

22. Evaluating How did Chiang Kai-shek’s fear of commu-nism cause him to alienate many intellectuals and politicalmoderates?

23. Making Generalizations What was the cultural impact ofWorld War I on Africans? How did the political status ofAfrica change after the war?

Between the two World Wars, a growing sense of nationalism inspired many countriesto seek their independence from foreign rulers, as shown in the chart below.

Middle East The decline of the Ottoman

Empire results in theemergence of many newArab states.

Africa and AsiaBlack Africans who foughtin World War I become more politically active. Theyorganize reform movements then call for independence.

China In 1923, the Nationalists

and the Communistsform an alliance to oppose the warlords and drive the imperialist powers out of China.

Latin AmericaAfter the Great Depression,Latin American countries work to become economically independent by creating new industries to produce goods that were formerly imported.

Analyzing Maps and ChartsUse the map above to answer the following questions.

30. Near what latitudes are the cities of Beijing and Tokyolocated?

31. Name the bodies of water that separate Japan from NorthKorea and South Korea, and Japan from China.

32. List three geographical features of China.

33. Compare this map to the map shown on page 790. Whatmajor territory did Japan acquire between the date indicatedon the above map and 1933?

Self-Check QuizVisit the Glencoe World History Web site at

and click on Chapter 25–Self-CheckQuiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.wh.glencoe.com

HISTORY

Directions: Choose the best answer to thequestion below.

Which of the following is a true statement about therelationship between World War I and nationalism?

A World War I brought nationalist movements to a standstill.

B Most nationalist movements had reached their goals by the conclusion of World War I.

C The weakening of European countries fostered nationalindependence movements.

D World War I helped the European economy, whichfueled nationalist movements.

Test-Taking Tip: Read each answer choice carefully andeliminate any statements that you know are false. Gettingrid of these wrong answer choices will help you find thecorrect answer.

CHAPTER 25 Nationalism Around the World 805

Writing about History24. Expository Writing Nationalism first became a significant

political force in the movement against Napoleon. Write anessay comparing the early nationalist movements to thelater battles against imperialism discussed in this chapter.

Analyzing SourcesChiang Kai-shek declared his commitment to Sun Yat-sen’s plansfor building a new nation. Chiang announced a period of politicaltraining, as described by Sun in the following quote.

“China . . . needs a republican government just as a boy needs school. As a schoolboy must have goodteachers and helpful friends, so the Chinese people,being for the first time under republican rule, musthave a farsighted revolutionary government for theirtraining. This calls for the period of political tutelage,which is a necessary transitional stage from monar-chy to republicanism. Without this, disorder will beunavoidable.”

25. What did Chiang Kai-shek mean when he compared Chinato a boy in school?

26. What does the quote seem to say, compared to what youthink it really means? Is there a self-serving bias in Sun’sstatement? If so, explain.

Applying Technology Skills27. Using the Internet Use the Internet to determine how

the contemporary governments of Argentina and Brazil compare with the dictatorships that ruled these countries in the 1930s.

28. Using the Internet Use the Internet to learn more aboutJomo Kenyatta, Léopold Senghor, Nnamdi Azikiwe, or othernationalist leaders who worked to end colonial rule in Africa.What methods did they use and how successful were they?

Making Decisions29. Imagine that you are a female American foreign exchange

student. Which Middle Eastern country would you choose tolive in for a year? Discuss the reasons for your choice andalso the concessions that would be required of you.

600 kilometers0Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

600 miles0

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110°E100°E 120°E 130°E

TROPIC OF CANCER

Taklimakan Desert

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StandardizedTest Practice