Njála – The Saga of Burnt Njal

• Njala was composed around 1300, dealing with events from 930 – 1020 AD.

• It is the longest, the most sophisticated, and perhaps the finest example of saga art – considered by many the national epic of Iceland.

• Over 600 characters, from the sublime and tragic, to the sinister or simply comic.

• Author is unknown, but most evidence points to a single composer who united several oral and written sources to compose his own work of art.

Njála – Basic Information

• Njála can be divided into roughly three sections:• Gunnar’s exploits and death• Njal’s family and his death• Kari’s vengeance and reconciliation

• The saga juxtaposes a heroic, Viking age mentality with a modern, Christian ethos.

• Christian and pagan world views are balanced in the saga, as our views of liberty and law, vengeance and forgiveness, the individual and the collective.

Njála – History

• Critics have been divided whether to treat Njála as a work of history or a work of literature. Obviously it contains elements of both, but generally one can say that the author uses historical events to explore aspects of human nature.

• Some critics see Njála as a form of Historical Novel, as a work dealing indirectly with the concerns of the age in which it was created, the turbulent period when the Icelandic Republic collapsed (1262).

Njála – History

How did the saga come to be composed?•250-300 year gap between the events of the saga and its composition. Oral history.•Many events are taken from later written sources, such as the conversion of Iceland, the legal debates, the battle of Clontarf in Ireland.•The “Free Prose Theory” – traditional stories simply written down according to rules of oral narration.•The “Book Prose Theory” – a writer/editor collects oral tales and rearranges/adapts them for a written text that mirrors rules of oral narration. This theory is much more likely.

Timeline of Icelandic History

Njála – Style and Form

• Njála has been called “the finest example of art without art,” and “the despair of translators,” a masterpiece of story telling, smooth and plain.

• A narrator exists, but conceals himself behind the apparently objective portrayal of characters.

• The narrator presents no interior descriptions, explains no motivation, and provides no commentary (except that of “everyone” or “most people”).

• Characters are what they say and what they do–most scenes contain important bits of dialogue!

Njála – Genre

• Of the four great Icelandic family sagas (Egils saga, Eyrbyggja Saga, Laxdæla saga), Njála is the longest and most complicated.

• Njála contains many different themes:• Saga of constitutional history and saga of law• Saga of passion, love, and marriage• Saga of the conversion of Iceland• Saga of family feud and violent lawlessness• Saga of heroic adventure• Saga of Christian reconciliation• Saga of pagan wisdom, fate and fatality

Njála – Verisimilitude

• Njála, like all Icelandic Family Sagas, purports to represent real local history.

• People are given real names and real family ancestries, which link them to real places.

• Njal’s farm at Bergthorsknoll still exists, evidence of a burning there from the proper time.

• “Factual” evidence provides the saga with a sense of legitimacy – proof for the reader – though it is impossible to determine how much is really true.

• Sagas a form of “serious entertainment.”

Njála – Foreshadowing

• In Njála, as in most sagas, the authors are dealing with tales well-known to their audiences.

• Suspense – what will happen next? – does not exist in a modern sense.

• Elements of foreshadowing – dreams, omens, portents, etc. – remind the audience of what is to come, and they provide the saga with coherence, uniting earlier and later episodes.

• The attention of the audience is focused on how and why things happen, not on twists of the plot.

• Readers have to pay close attention!

Njála – Plot Elements

• According to scholar T.M. Anderson, there are 6 key elements to the narrative structure of family sagas:

1. Introduction2. Conflict3. Climax4. Revenge (repeat as necessary)5. Reconciliation6. Aftermath

Njála – 1.

• The saga begins with Mord Gigja (Fiddle), a powerful chieftain (goði), who lived at Rangriver Plains (Rangarvellir), in southern Iceland.

• Mord has a beautiful daughter called Unn (3).• At Breidafjord, near Laxardal in West Iceland,

lives Hoskuld Dala-Kollsson, who has a half-brother Hrut (3).

• Hrut has a niece Hallgerd, who is a beautiful young girl at the time (3) – the long hair will show up again at an important juncture in the saga.

The World of the Icelandic Sagas

Map of Iceland

Most of the action in Njála takes place in southwest Iceland. Njal’s and Gunnar’s farms are near the coast, directly north of the Vestmannaeyjar. It is about a two-day horse ride to Thingvellir.

Hrútsstaðir in western Iceland. Like many of the saga locations, this farm has the same name after 1000 years.

Höskuldsstaðir, a few miles up the road from Hrut’s farm. Emily Lethbridge has documented most sites in Njála: http://sagamap.hi.is/is/

Njála – 1-2.

• Hrut makes an ominous comment about Hallgerd (4):“The child is quite beautiful, and many will pay for that; but what I don’t know is how the eyes of a thief have come into our family.”

• Hallgerd is one of the most controversial characters in the saga. She later plays a central role.

• Hoskuld and Hrut ride to the Althing, the national Assembly held at Thingvellir for two weeks in late June.

• Hoskuld suggests that Hrut marry Unn, though Hrut is unsure “whether we are meant to be happy together” (4).

• An example of second sight, ability to see the future.

Njála – 2.

• Hoskuld and Mord settle on terms to ensure that Unn will keep her wealth in her marriage (5).

• The call witnesses to seal the bargain, the wedding will take place that summer.

• Witnesses are necessary in oral cultures. They provide for the regulation of social order, for the public recognition of property rights, contracts, and relationships.

• Hrut learns that his brother Eyvind has died, and that he must go to Norway to claim his inheritance.

• Hrut meets with Mord, and they agree to postpone the wedding for 3 years.

Njála – 3.

• Harald Grey-Cloak is King of Norway (961-970 AD), and rules with his mother, Queen Gunnhild.

• In Egil’s saga, Gunnhild has the character of an ambitious and sexually voracious woman.

• Gunnhild promises Hrut her aid in recovering his money, and Ozur tells him it would be wise to accept her “generosity” (7).

• Hrut meets the king, asks to become a retainer; Gunnhild supports his request.

• That evening, Queen Gunnhild makes Hrut a proposition he cannot refuse…(cite 9)

• Hrut takes a place of honor; spends the winter.

Njála – 4-5.

• A man named Soti has stolen Hrut’s inheritance; Gunnhild and the king give Hrut ships and Ulf the Unwashed to aid his search.

• Hrut sails into the pirate Atli Arnvidarson, and they fight a Viking sea battle (cite 11).

• Hrut kills Atli, but Ulf the Unwashed dies.• Like all Icelanders in the story, Hrut finds great

success in mercenary activities in Norway.• Soti is found, arrested and hanged.• Hrut collects his inheritance, gives Queen

Gunnhild half in gratitude for her aid.

Njála – 6-7.

• Hrut wants to leave Norway; he lies to Gunnhild about the reason (12).

• She is upset and curses him for lying (cite 13).• Hrut returns to Iceland and marries Unn.• Their marriage remains unconsummated, and

eventually Unn determines to divorce Hrut.• Unn visits her father at the Althing, tells him the

reason for her marital unhappiness (cite 15f.).• Mord tells Unn the proper legal procedure for

executing a divorce (cite 16). Women have more equality in Iceland than elsewhere at this time.

Njála – 8.

• At the Althing, Mord puts forward a claim for the return of his daughter Unn’s dowry (and Hrut’s contribution to the marriage agreement!).

• Hrut refuses to pay and challenges Mord to a duel – Holmganga, or island-going – which in the early years of the Icelandic Republic was an accepted means of deciding legal disputes.

• Old Mord has no wish to fight the tough Hrut, so he lets his claim fall, earning ridicule.

• Hrut keeps the money of Unn’s dowry.• Who was right and who was wrong?

The Legal Courtsof the Althingin RepublicanIceland

Njála – 9-10.

• Hallgerd grows up to be a beautiful, but willful and impetuous woman (cite 18).

• Hallgerd has been raised by her foster-father, Thjostolf, an insanely jealous and violent man.

• Fostering another’s child was a way to cement bonds between families; the subordinate man usually did the fostering; the father kept final authority over the child.

• Hoskuld, Hallgerd’s father, decides to marry her to Thorvald, without informing her.

• Hallgerd thinks the man beneath her, but agrees.

Njála – 10-11.

• Thjostolf comforts Hallgerd, saying that he will take care of her first marriage (20).

• The wedding is large and happy, though Hrut senses that it will have no luck.

• At the wedding, we are introduced to Svan, an evil magician related to Hallgerd.

• Hallgerd is wasteful, but blames her new husband; in fury, he strikes her in the face (21).

• Thjostolf finds Thorvald, insults him and then plants his axe in husband #1’s skull (cite 22).

• The insult provided an excuse to begin the fight.

Njála – 12.

• When Hallgerd sees his bloody axe, Thjostolf tells her that he has arranged it so that she can get a better marriage.

• Hallgerd sends him to hide with evil Svan in the hills; Svan is impressed by the murder (23).

• Osvif gathers his friends and family to seek vengeance against Thjostolf.

• Svan uses magic to send fetches (fylgja) and fog against the party, and they turn back (cite 24)

• Osvif goes to Hoskuld and asks for compensation; Hrut advises him to pay up and sets price (25).

Duty of Revenge and Right of Inheritance

Njála – 13-15.

• Glum Olafsson now wants to marry Hallgerd; his brother warns him, but he persists (27).

• Hoskuld tells Glum about all her assets and defects, and they discuss the matter with Hallgerd, who is not averse to the marriage.

• The marriage starts out well and happy, and a daughter Thorgerd is born (29).

• Thjostolf wears out his welcome at Hoskuld’s house and goes to visit Hallgerd.

• Hallgerd talks Glum into letting Thjostolf stay at their farm.

Njála – 16-17.

• Thjostolf refuses to work, and when Hallgerd defends him, Glum quarrels with her and slaps her (31).

• She is upset, but loves Glum deeply and forbids Thjostolf from doing anything.

• Thjostolf waits for a moment alone, then axes beloved Glum, husband #2 (cite 32).

• When Hallgerd sees the bloody axe, she guesses the truth and laughs!

• Hallgerd sends Thjostolf to Hrut. • What is her intention? Save him or doom him? What do

you think?

Njála – 17-18.

• Hrut does not care for Thjostolf’s madness, and kills him straight away (33).

• Brother Thorarin asks for compensation for Glum – his claim is weak because Hrut has already killed Thjostolf – but he is given compensation by Hoskuld and Hrut anyway (34).

• These gifts – and a cloak – are a sign of great nobility and generosity of spirit.

• Petite Unn, meanwhile, has squandered her wealth. Her father is dead and so she turns to assistance to another relative – Gunnar.

Njála – 19-21.

• Gunnar Hamundarson of Hlidarendi; a farmer and an ideal hero (cite 34f.).

• Njal Thorgeirsson of Bergthorshvol, wealthy and wise, and extremely skilled at law, but could not grow a beard (cite 35f.).

• Njal has a wife, Bergthora, who is courageous, but more than a little harsh-natured.

• Impoverished Unn comes to Gunnar for aid – she wants his assistance to recover her dowry from Hrut (36).

• Gunnar goes to his friend Njal for advice.

Gunnar’s Farm at Hliðarendi

Njal’s Farm at Bergþórshvoll

Bergþórshvoll – now a bed and breakfast!

Bergþórshvoll

Njála – 22-24.

• Njal instructs Gunnar how to revive the case against Hrut– basically an elaborate trick (37f.).

• Gunnar carries out Njal’s instructions.• Hoskuld has a dream of a huge bear – Gunnar’s

fetch (40). Hoskuld and Hrut realize that it must have been Gunnar, acting on the advice of Njal.

• Gunnar presents the case at the Althing, but then opts to challenge Hrut to a duel (42).

• Is it poetic justice that Hrut is humiliated at the Althing, exactly as he humiliated Mord?

Njála – 24-25.

• Hrut has no chance against Gunnar, so he gives in and pays up, seething with anger.

• Hrut and Hoskuld foresee only bad luck and trouble for Gunnar and his ill-gotten money (42).

• Gunnar gives Unn her dowry back.• Unn marries Valgard the Grey and has a son, Mord,

who is jealous, malicious and cunning (43).• Njal’s three sons are:

• Skarp-Hedin – extremely strong, scathing, and ugly• Grim – strong and handsome• Helgi – strong, handsome and even-tempered

Njála – 26-30.

• Njal marries Helgi to Thorhalla and takes her brother Thorhall as a foster son, teaches him law. (Thorhall takes over the lawsuit later).

• Gunnar and his brother Kolskegg travel abroad, leaving their farms Njal’s hands.

• Gunnar travels to Norway at the time of Earl Hakon Sigurdarson (970-995), raids in Baltic.

• They meet pirates and engage in a Viking sea battle (48).

• Gunnar attacks Vikings in a second battle (49f.), and is again victorious.

Njála – 31-32.

• Travel abroad was necessary to prove the worth of a hero. The author of Njála probably was not well acquainted with the rest of Scandinavia.

• Foreign countries have an exotic, legendary feel in this saga – magical lands of larger-than-life adventures. Gunnar’s adventures in the Baltic establish his reputation as a great warrior.

• Gunnar travels to Denmark and meets King Harald Gormsson. Exchange of gifts (50).

• Gunnar travels to Norway and meets Earl Hakon, who also gives him gifts.

Njála – 32-33.

• Gunnar returns home to Iceland a famous man – but Njal warns him that many people will be jealous of his good fortune (52).

• Gunnar will be tested again. He “wants to get along well with everyone,” but he will have to defend himself.

• Gunnar goes to the Althing against the advice of Njal. He makes a very strong impression.

• Gunnar meets Hallgerd, who speaks to him boldly, and they fall instantly in love (53). He thinks about marriage at once.

Njála – 33-34.

• Gunnar goes to his old adversaries Hrut and Hoskuld and asks for Hallgerd’s hand.

• Hrut is not averse to the match, but wants to be “entirely honest” about Hallgerd – so that he does not get Gunnar as his enemy later (54). She can be difficult…

• Njal is displeased when he hears about the plan – prophesy that she will cause trouble (54).

• A large wedding takes place; a guest, Thrain Sigfusson, is smitten by 14-year-old Thorgerd (Hallgerd’s daughter), divorces his wife and asks for Thorgerd’s hand immediately (56).

• What does this say about Thrain’s character? What will we expect from his behavior in the future?

Njála – 35-36.

• Feud: Gunnar is a guest at Njal’s farm, and their two wives start a quarrel over seating arrangements (57), but Gunnar breaks it up.

• Public displays of honor are important. Is Hallgerd being disrespected? Does she have cause for vengeance?

• First violence: while Gunnar and Njal attend the Althing, Hallgerd sends her servant Kol to kill Bergthora’s servant Svart (58f.).

• The message is sent to Gunnar at the Althing; he asks Njal to name his own compensation (59).

• When Skarp-Hedin sees the money, he says “it may turn out to be useful,” and grins (61).

• What does this say about Skarp-Hedin’s character?

Njála – 37-38.

• Retaliation I: Bergthora sends Atli to kill Kol (62). • Skarp-Hedin has his usual comment (63) – Njal pays

Gunnar the same compensation set earlier.• Atli stays despite the risk, asks only that no slave-

payment be made as compensation (63).• Compensation (Wergild) is a peaceful means of settling

disputes. There is a recognition of loss and an obligation to pay for that loss. Both sides can save face.

• Why does compensation here fail to stop the killing?• Retaliation II. Brynjolf the Unruly kills Atli (64).• Njal sets compensation here at 100 ounces of silver (up

from 12 ounces for the slaves).

Njála – 39-42.

• Retaliation III. Bergthora sends Thord Freedmansson to kill Brynjolf the Unruly (67). Thord is a peaceful man and foster-father to all of Njal’s sons. Escalation!

• Note that Bergthora’s men seem to fight more fairly than Hallgerd’s.

• Njal returns Gunnar his money as compensation.• Thord has a vision of a bloody dead goat – Njal says

that was his fetch (animal spirit), a vision that his death is now fated (69).

• One’s fetch can sense death coming; it will take its leave shortly before you die – that is when you can see it!

Njála – 39-42.

• Retaliation IV: Hallgerd sends her son-in-law Thrain Sigfusson with Sigmund and Skold to kill Thord.

• Thrain stays back while the other two slay Thord (71) – this is considered a “grave crime.”

• Why did Thrain stay back during the killing? Is he just as culpable, even if he did not participate directly in the killing? How will the Njalssons feel about him after this?

• Njal assesses Thord’s death at 200 ounces of silver, or double compensation; Gunnar pays the full amount.

• The Njalssons agree to their father’s settlement, but their tolerance has reached its limit.

Njála – 43-44.

• Insult to Injury: Hallgerd thinks up an insult to Njal and his sons, and Sigmund sets it to verse (74).

• Slander was considered a serious crime: in a sense, it is “stealing” from someone’s reputation.

• Repeating such an insult in public would absolutely demand vengeance to restore honor!

• Gunnar is furious when he hears the slander of his friends, but the Njalssons are outraged – goaded by Bergthora, they pursue Sigmund (75f.).

Njála – 45.

• Retaliation V: Skarp-Hedin kills Sigmund, while Grim and Helgi dispatch Skuld. Their half-brother Hoskuld stays back (77).

• Skarp-Hedin sends Sigmund’s head to Hallgerd!• Gunnar declares that the actions of the Njalssons were

justified and does nothing about the deaths.• Three years later, Njal insists on paying for Sigmund (200

ounces, but nothing at all for Skuld). • Paying nothing in compensation for someone means that

his life was literally not worth a damn. • Njal and Gunnar have maintained their friendship despite

their wives’ feud – this is an example of uncommon restraint!

Njála – 46-49.

• Petite Unn’s son Mord Valgardsson introduced: cunning, vicious and jealous of Gunnar (79).

• Otkel and scoundrel Skamkel refuse to sell to Gunnar in a time of famine.

• Gunnar picks up worthless slave Melkolf, whom Hallgerd sends on an errand of theft and arson at the home of Otkel and Skamkel (81).

• Gunnar is outraged to find stolen cheese at home and slaps Hallgerd – she vows vengeance! (82).

• Otkel and Skamkel go to evil Mord – who takes their money to find evidence of Hallgerd’s theft.

Mord Valgardsson’s farm at Stóra-Hof

The farmhouse was relocated in the 1700s due to soil erosion from overgrazing.

Otkell’s farm at Kirkjubær

Mt. Hekla is in the background. This farm is not far from Mord’s estate at Hof. The farm seems to still have a good amount of hay. But is it for sale?

Njála – 49-51.

• Gunnar offers Otkel generous compensation for his wife’s cheese theft, but Otkel is goaded by Skamkel into rejecting it.

• Skamkel asks Gizur the White to set the fine for Gunnar—but he returns and tells alie: he claims Gizur advised him to accuse Gunnar of theft!

• Showdown at the Althing: legal and semi-legal maneuverings by Gunnar and Njal (87ff.).

• Gunnar argues that the (knowlingly) false accusation is slander, and he demands compensation for the crime.

• Gunnar is awarded self-judgment, and declares all sins have cancelled each other out (89).

• Everything is quiet “for a while.”

Njála – 52-54.

• Otkel rides an unruly horse into Gunnar and draws blood – an inflicted wound which provides cause for retribution. Gunnar tells his neighbors so that he will have witnesses.

• Gunnar hears that Otkel is passing back nearby and has heard of insults (crying) spread by Skamkel; he takes his magic halberd and makes short work of the entire group (cite 92f.).

• Brother Kolskegg arrives to kill one of the eight.• Gunnar unsure if he is less manly than others

because he is so reluctant to kill (93)!

Njála – 55-58.

• Njal gives Gunnar good advice at “the start of his career of killing” (94).

• Geir the Priest prepares a court case against Gunnar for the slaying of his relative Otkel.

• Gunnar declares the actions null and void (Otkel was outlaw); accuses Geir of misuse of the law!

• Njal persuades them to reach a settlement (97).• New Conflict:

• Starkad wants to pit his Red Stallion against Gunnar’s Black Stallion, but Hildigunn warns him about Gunnar’s “good luck” (99).

Njála – 58-61.

• Gunnar agrees to the horse-fight, but Njal warns him that it will have consequences.

• Horse-fight leads to a real fight; Thorgeir knocks out Black’s eye, and Gunnar puts Black down.

• Gunnar challenges Ulf Uggason at the Althing and thus wins a case for his friend Asgrim – Gunnar is earning more and more enemies!

• Njal warns Gunnar to be cautious and to take the Njalssons with him to prevent any attack (102f.).

• Gunnar visits Asgrim without the Njalssons; Starkad gets a posse of 30 men for ambush.

Njála – 62-67.

• Gunnar has a dream of fighting a pack of wolves; sees his youngest brother Hjort fall (105). Fate.

• Knafahills Ambush: 30 vs. 3, but the odds are not good enough: 14 attackers perish, Hjort falls at the hands of the Easterner Thorir (106f.).

• Njal plans a legal defense for Gunnar – assign counter-claims for those he has killed (108).

• Showdown at the Althing: Njal outmaneuvers his opponents, eventually Hjalti Skeggjason arranges a settlement to avoid bloodshed (112).

• Evil Mord Valgardsson plots to defeat Gunnar.

Njála – 67-70.

• Mord’s jealousy (and knowledge of Njal’s omens) lead him to manipulate others against Gunnar – especially sons of the slain: Thorgeir Otkelsson and Thorgeir Starkadsson.

• Both Thorgeirs plot an ambush of Gunnar, but Njal has a vision of sleeping fetches (115). He scares them away and threatens a court case!

• Njal arbitrates that case at the next Althing– famous quote about law in Iceland (cite 117).

• Njal wins the dispute and takes the money – in case Gunnar needs to pay it back later… (117).

Njála – 70-73.

• Olaf the Peacock gives his friend Gunnar three gifts, including the dog, Sam (117).

• Evil Mord Valgardsson and both Thorgeirs plot again – seduce Gunnar’s relative Ormhild to get his threats (and thus justify retaliation)!

• Ambush at Rang River: Gunnar & Kolskegg kill several, including Thorgeir Otkelsson (119f.).

• Njal warns Gunnar that he has violated his warning not to kill twice in the same family!(120).

• Gizur the White charges Gunnar with Full Outlawry! (cite 121)

Njála – 74-75.

• Njal manages to arrange a settlement through arbitration (see p. 122):• Compensation determined and paid (same amount

previously paid to Gunnar!)• Gunnar and Kolskegg sentenced to Lesser Outlawry –

leave for three years, or else!

• Njal reminds Gunnar that he must leave Iceland or bad things will happen (cite 122).

• Gunnar makes plans to leave, but finds himself too homesick to leave (cite 123).

• Gizur the White proclaims Gunnar a Full Outlaw.

Hlidarendi

Njála – 75-77.

• Gunnar’s enemies now make open plans to attack him – no fear of retribution since he is outlawed.

• They threaten a neighbor of Gunnar’s to lure out his dog Sam, which they kill (126). Gunnar hears the howl and prepares for a fight.

• Black Humor: “Is Gunnar at home?” (126).• Gunnar thinks of humiliating them while besieged

in his own home! (127).• An attacker severs his bow string – he asks

Hallgerd for some hair, but she refuses, citing his previous slap (128).

Njála – 77-79.

• “…until at last they killed him.” (128)• “The slaying was spoken badly of in all parts of the

land, and his death brought great sorrow to many.”• People hear singing in Gunnar’s burial mound;

Skarp-Hedin and Hogni Gunnarsson investigate and watch him singing triumphantly inside (130).

• Skarp-Hedin takes the song as a portent – Gunnar wants vengeance! He and Hogni set out at once.

• More pagan imagery: magic halberd sings, talk of Valhalla, two ravens accompany the heroes. (131).

• They kill many, Mord the Coward begs for mercy.

Njála – 80-86.

• Kolskegg travels abroad, has a dream that leads to his conversion to Christianity. He travels to Constantinople, becomes leader of the Varangian Guard, and “is now out of this saga” (133).

• Thrain Sigfusson (who married 14-year-old Thorgerd) goes to Norway and wins glory at court.

• Grim and Helgi Njalssons go to the Orkneys, fight in unequal battle against Vikings, but are rescued by Kari Solmundarson (137f.).

• They serve Earl Sigurd of Orkney: Helgi has second sight like Njal. Battles in Scotland.

Njála – 87-88.

• Hrapp the Scoundrel travels from Iceland to Norway, stays with Earl Gudbrand, seduces and impregnates his daughter, kills an overseer, and flees into the woods.

• Hrapp the Killer visits the daughter, raids and desecrates the pagan temple. He flees to the Njalssons; they refuse help, but Thrain Sigfusson decides to hide him (146f.).

• Thrain takes Killer-Hrapp back to Iceland, where he lives near Hallgerd (“some say that he seduced her…”) – two evil characters together.

Thrain’s farm at Grjótá

This farm lies a few miles to the west of Gunnar’s farm, along the same ridge.

Njála – 89-91.

• Earl Hakon chases the Njalssons believing they were party to Hrapp’s escape; he captures them alive after a difficult fight (150).

• Helgi and Grim escape and find Kari who protects them from the Earl; his son Eirik offers a settlement and the Icelanders feast for a winter and then go raiding in Scotland.

• Back in Iceland, Kari marries Helga Njalsdottir and settles near the Njalssons.

• The humiliation by the Earl hurts their pride and leads to a desire for vengeance against those who caused the problem.

• Njalssons are upset with Thrain and Hrapp for getting them in trouble with the Earl.

Njála – 91-92.

• Njalssons want compensation for their injuries, but Thrain–with his friends Killer-Hrapp and Grani Gunnarsson (who takes after his mother Hallgerd) –escalates his abuse of the Njalssons (155).

• Kari and 4 Njalssons visit Thrain and trade insults instead of a settlement (155f.).

• Skarp-Hedin does not bother to name witnesses to the insults – he intends to answer with weapons!

• Bergthora hears that Thrain will be traveling and tells her sons, who attack despite the odds (159).

• Skarp-Hedin’s famous ice attack (cite 159f.).

Rauðaskriður

Rauðaskriður

Rauðaskriður – view down the hill

Skarphedinn kills Thrain

Njála – 92-94.

• Kari and the Njalssons kill Hrapp and a few others, but spare the lives of the “puppies” – a biting insult to the young men.

• Ketil of Mork is in an impossible situation: He is Njal’s son-in-law but also Thrain’s brother. He arbitrates a settlement between the families: Njal pays the entire amount.

• Ketil takes Hoskuld Thrainsson (son of 14-year-old-bride Thorgerd) as foster-son.

• Njal is desperate to resolve this conflict and heal the hurt feelings on both sides.

• Njal adopts Hoskuld as his own son – an attempt to create bonds of family to undo enmity of feud (162).

Njála – 94.

• Hoskuld Thrainsson grows up to be a fine man, gentle and generous, kind and skillful (162).

• Hoskuld enjoys the friendship of the Njalssons, even though Skarp-Hedin killed his father, Thrain. Somewhat artificial brotherly love.

• Njal’s wisdom and foresight – and especially his willingness to seek a settlement and pay generously for the deeds of his sons – leads to a period of peace in the saga.

• A change of emphasis from a code of vengeance to a code of forgiveness coinciding with the conversion of Iceland to Christianity?