AlexanderCogut

October2016

R20REGIONSOFCLIMATEACTION

OPENBURNINGOFWASTE:AGLOBALHEALTHDISASTER

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TableofContents ExecutiveSummary….iiiAcknowledgments….vImportantAcronyms….vImportantDefinitions….viI.Introduction….7II.TypesofWasteBurning….11 ResidentialOpenBurning….11 DeliberateOpenBurninginLandfillsandOpenDumpsites….13 SpontaneousOpenBurninginLandfillsandOpenDumpsites….15 Incineration….16III.EmissionsofWasteBurningandtheirHealthImpacts….17 GreenhouseGases….19

CarbonDioxide….20 Methane….21 CarbonMonoxide….23 ParticulateMatter….24 PersistentOrganicPollutants….26

PolycyclicAromaticHydrocarbons….27 Dioxins,FuransandDioxin-LikeCompounds….28 Benzene….31 HydrogenChloride….33 Formaldehyde….34 HeavyMetals….35 PollutantOverview….37IV.RegionalPracticesandInstancesofOpenBurningandIncinerationandtheirHealthImpacts….37 UnitedStatesandCanada…39 Europe….41 MiddleEastandNorthAfrica….42 LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean….44 EastAsiaandPacific….46 SouthAsia….48 Africa….49 Summary….54V.BestPracticeRecommendations….55VI.RecommendationsforFutureStudy….58

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VII.Conclusions….59AnnexI:ImportantStatistics….61AnnexII:TableofPollutantsduetoOpenBurning….62

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ExecutiveSummary

Wasteisaworldwideissuethatisnotlikelytogoaway.Wasteproductionrates

haveincreasedinrecentyearsandareprojectedtoincreasesignificantlyinthecoming

yearsto2.2billiontonsperyearin2025,accordingtotheWorldBank.Openburningof

wasteisaprocessinwhichunwantedproducts,byproductsandmaterialsareincinerated,

typicallyatlowtemperaturesandinanuncontrolledmanner.Itisusedtoreducethe

quantityofwaste.Anestimated41%ofglobalwasteisburnedopenly.Indeveloping,low

incomecountriesthatfigureisevenhigher.Creatingawell-executedwastecollection

program,ordisposalmechanismisdifficultinlesseconomicallydevelopedcountries.The

practiceispopularbecauseitisafast,effectiveandinexpensivewaytoreducewaste.Most

openwasteburningoccursresidentially,iscompletelyunregulatedand,consequently,is

nearlyimpossibletomeasure.Anestimated620milliontonsofwasteperyearareburned

openly.Muchoftheopenwasteburningoccursindumpsitesthathavebeenfilledfar

beyondtheirmaximumcapacity.Dumpsitewastefiresareeitherstartedintentionallyto

reducewastevolumeoroccurspontaneously.

Openburningofwastereleasesavarietyoftoxicpollutantsintotheairandalsocan

exacerbatesoilpollution,waterpollutionandfoodcontamination.Openwasteburning

releasessignificantamountsofgreenhousegasesintotheatmosphere.Suchcompounds

includecarbondioxide,methaneandparticulatematter,whicharetypicallyassociated

withairpollutionandcanleadtoseverecasesofrespiratorydisease.Openburningof

wasteisespeciallyassociatedwiththeemissionofpersistentorganicpollutants.This

includespolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons,dioxinsandfurans,allofwhichare

carcinogenicandhavebeenlinkedtoavarietyofotherdiseases.Theimpactsofthese

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pollutantsareespeciallyharmfultounbornfetuses,infantsandchildrenwhocomeinto

contactwiththepollutantseitherthroughtheirmothersorthroughexposuretothe

pollutantsthemselves.Consequently,severalofthepollutantsemittedbyopenwaste

burningcancauseseveredevelopmentaldamageintheyoung.

Althoughnotcompletelyfreefromthepublichealthimpactofwasteburning,the

UnitedStates,CanadaandmostofEuropehaveminimalincidenceofopenwasteburning.

Regionsmarkedbypoorcollectioncoverageandpoorwastedisposalmethodsareusually

thepoorercountries:Africahas46%collectioncoverage,andSouthAsiahas65%

collectioncoverage.Theseregionslikelyhavethegreatestpercentageofresidentialopen

burningofwaste,whichisalmostalwayscoupledwithopenburningatdumpsites.

CountriesthatarelargegeneratorsofwastethatstillopenlyburnwastesuchasChina,

IndiaandBrazilareparticularlylargeproducersofopenwasteburningemissions.Thereis

noeasysolutiontotheglobalhealthdisasterthatisopenwasteburning.Countriesmost

negativelyaffectedbyopenwasteburningdonothavetheresourcesnecessarytostopit.

However,astheproblemisonlyprojectedtogetworseasmorewasteisproduced

worldwide,measuresmustbetakentopreventopenwasteburningwherepossiblesuchas

improvedcollection,improveddisposal,recyclingorgeneralawarenessofthedangersof

openwasteburning.

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Acknowledgments

ThankyoutoR20advisorsandstafffortheirguidanceandedits:Mr.TerryTamminen,Mr.ChristopheNuttall,Ms.DeniseWelch,Mr.DavidAlbertani,Ms.NatashaPatelInaddition,thankyoutothefollowingWHOexperts,whowerekindenoughtomeetwithmeandprovidetheirinsights:Mr.DiarmidCampbell-Lendrum,Mr.CarlosDora,Ms.ElaineFletcher,Ms.HeatherAdair-Rohani,Ms.MarinaMaiero,Mr.Michael-OliverHinsch ImportantAcronyms AFR:AfricaBC:BlackCarbonDLC:Dioxin-likeCompoundEAP:EastAsiaandPacificGHG:GreenhouseGasIARC:InternationalAgencyforResearchonCancerIPCC:IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeLAC:LatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanMENA:MiddleEastandNorthAfricaMSW:MunicipalSolidwasteOC:OrganicCarbonOECD:OrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopmentPAH:PolycyclicAromaticHydrocarbonPBDD/F:PolybrominatedDibenziodioxin/furanPCB:PolychlorinatedBiphenylPCDD/F:PolychlorinatedDibenziodioxin/furanPM:ParticulateMatterPM2.5:FineParticulateMatterPM10:CoarseParticulateMatterPOP:PersistentOrganicPollutantPVC:PolyvinylChlorideSAR:SouthAsiaRegionSLCP:Short-livedClimatePollutantTEQ:ToxicEquivalentsWEEE:WasteElectricalandElectronicEquipment/E-WasteWHO:WorldHealthOrganization

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ImportantDefinitionsE-waste:E-Wasteorwasteelectricalandelectronicequipment(WEEE)iswasteconsistingofusedelectricalandelectronicproductssuchascomputers,televisions,refrigeratorsandcircuitboards.E-wasteisoftenexportedfromdevelopedcountriestodevelopingcountriestobedisposedof.GreenhouseGases:Greenhousegases(GHGs)areairbornepollutantsprimarilyassociatedwithclimatechangedefinedbytheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)ThirdAnnualReportas“thosegaseousconstituentsoftheatmosphere,bothnaturalandanthropogenic,thatabsorbandemitradiationatspecificwavelengthswithinthespectrumofinfraredradiationemittedbytheEarth’ssurface,theatmosphereandclouds.”AbsorbedradiationisemittedbyexcessGHGsleadingtotheGreenhouseEffectandconsequentglobalwarmingoftheearththatcanhavedisastrouseffectsontheenvironmentandonhealth1HeavyMetals:Heavymetalsarehigh-densitymetalsthataretoxicwheningested.Theyincludemercury,lead,arsenicandcadmium,amongothers.Landfill:Anyareaoflanddesignatedasawastedisposalarea.Landfillscanbecontrolledor,ideally,sanitary,withmethodsusedtoreduceenvironmentalandhealthimpactsofdisposedwaste.However,manylandfillsareuncontrolled,andfunctionasopendumpsites,especiallyinpoorcountries.Standardsforcontrolledandsanitarylandfillsvarysignificantlyfromcountrytocountry.OpenDumpsite:Anopendumpsiteisanysitewherewasteisindiscriminatelydumped.Inmostdevelopingcountries,opendumpsitesconstitutethemajorityofwastedisposal.ParticulateMatter:ParticulateMatter(PM)isairborneparticlesreleasedduringcombustionandaprimarycomponentofairpollution.Manydifferenttoxicpollutantscanbefoundinparticulatematter.PersistentOrganicPollutants:Persistentorganicpollutants(POPs)arepollutantsthatdonotdegradequicklyintheatmosphereand,consequently,canaccumulatetoproducetoxiceffects.SeveralPOPssuchasdioxinsandfuransarereleasedduringopenburningofwasteandcanhaveverytoxichealtheffects.Short-livedClimatePollutants:Short-livedclimatepollutants(SLCPs)arepollutantsthatremainintheatmosphereforrelativelyshortperiodsoftimewhentheycanbeingestedandharmthehealthofthoseexposed.

1ClimateChange2001:TheScientificBasis,IPCC,791.

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I.INTRODUCTION

Wasteisanissuethatimpactsthosefromallsocioeconomicgroups,allregionsand

allcultures.MunicipalSolidWaste(MSW),acategorythatisdefinedbyeverydaysolid

waste,isthelargestsourceofwastegloballyandoftenincludeshazardousandnon-

hazardousindustrial,medicalandagriculturalwasteinitsdefinition.Accordingtothe

WorldBank,theamountofMSWproducedgloballyhasincreasedfrom0.68billiontonsper

yearin2002to1.3billiontonsperyearin2012,andisprojectedtoincreaseto2.2billion

tonsby2025.Giventhesefigures, waste(andespeciallyMSW)isasubstantialissuethat

seemspoisedtobecomeevenmorethreateningintheyearstocome.2Wastemanagement

isimportantasimproperlyhandledwastecanhavedevastatingeffectsonboththe

environmentofitssurroundingsasawhole,andonthehealthofpeopleinplaceswhere

poorwastemanagementoccurs. Althoughdevelopingcountriestypicallyproducesignificantlylesswastethan

developedcountries(duetothelargeincreaseinwastethatindustrializationproduces),

developingcountriesoftenhavemorechallengingwasteproblemsthandeveloped

countries.Manydevelopingcountrieshaveaninabilitytoproperlymanage,collectand

disposeofwasteforfinancial,technologicalorinfrastructuralreasons.Wastecollectionin

developingcountriescanbeverypoor.Whilehigh-incomecountriestypicallyhavewaste

collectionefficiencyratesbetween90percentand100percent,low-incomecountries

typicallyhavelessthan50percentefficiencyandreachratesaslowas41percentinsome

2DanielHoornwegandPerinazBhada-Tata,“WhataWaste:AGlobalReviewofSolidWasteManagement”,TheWorldBank,WashingtonDC,2012,ix.

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countries.3Reasonsforinadequatewastecollectionvaryfromcountrytocountry,butare

oftendueto:insufficientfundingforwastecollection,insufficientmanpower;outdated,

ineffectiveorbrokentechnologyandinfrastructure(garbagetrucks,inaccessibleroads,

etc.);infrequentcollection;andinconvenienceofcollectionlocation.

Treatmentofwasteonceitiscollected(ornotcollected,asthecasemaybe)is

handledinavarietyofdifferentways.Thebest-casescenarioforwastemanagement

involvesthezerowastemodel.Thezerowastemodelinvolvestheminimizationoftotal

amountofwasteproducedanddepositedthroughrecycling,composting,fuelrecoveryand

othermethods.However,manycountriesdonothavetheinfrastructureinplaceto

supportwidescalerecyclingorcompostingprojects.Oftenwasteisleftuntreatedorvery

minimallytreatedinunselectivedumpsites(knownasopendumpsoropenlandfills),or

leftonroadsides,inbodiesofwaterorinopenspaceswhereitisalsountreated.Landfills

constituteareasdesignatedaswastedisposalsites;whenuncontrolled,theyfunction

essentiallyasopendumpsites.Astepaboveisanopendump,whichisacontrolleddump

inacontrolledlandfillwherepartial,yetinsufficient,control,treatmentandmanagement

ofwasteandwastehazardsoccurs.4Idealtreatmentofwaste(thatisnotrecycledor

reusedinsomeway)occursatasanitarylandfill,wheresufficientplanning,management

andtreatmentoccurstoensureaminimalenvironmentalandhealthimpactofwaste.5

Whatconstitutesacontrolleddumporcontrolledlandfillandasanitarylandfillcanvary

significantlyfromcountrytocountry.

3Ibid,14-15.4AntonisMavropoulos,“WastedHealth:TheTragicCaseofDumpsites”,InternationalSolidWasteAssociation,Wien,Austria,June2015,10.5Ibid.

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Figure1Theidealmethodofwastemanagementfollowsthezero-wastemodel,whichemphasizesthereductionofwastequantity.6

Onemethodofwastemanagementthatoccursinnearlyallcountriesistheburning

ofwaste,bothcontrolledoruncontrolled(open).Whilecontrolledwasteburningby

incineratorscanbeanecessitytodealwithhazardouswaste,suchasmedicalwaste,

improperincinerationofwasteandopen,uncontrolledburningofwastecanbea6https://greenerneighbourhoods.net/resources/waste/

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tremendoushealth(andenvironmental)hazardforavarietyofreasons.Unfortunately,

limitedcomprehensiveresearchhasbeencompletedontheimpactsofineffectivewaste

burning(andpoorwastemanagement,ingeneral)onpublichealth.Studieshavefocused,

ingeneral,onthefailuresofwastemanagementsystemsworldwideratherthanthe

damagethatthosefailurescaninflictonpublichealthandtheenvironment.Thestudies

alsoignorethehealthconsequencesofindividualbyproductsofpoorwastemanagement

ratherthanthosefrompoorwastemanagementstrategiesasawhole.Thisisanareaof

studythatneedsmoreattention,aspoorwastemanagementisaproblemthatinfluences

waterpollution,soilpollution,foodcontaminationandairpollution,allofwhichhave

seriouspublichealthimplications.

Thisstudywillspecificallyexplorethevariouspublichealthimpactsofopenwaste

burning,and,toalesserextent,wasteincineration,andthegravityoftheirhealthimpacts

worldwide.Firstly,itmustbeacknowledgedthatalthoughthisstudycannotcaptureallthe

publichealthhazardsthatcanbeattributedtopoorwastemanagementpractices,the

varioustypesofwasteburningthatoccurwillbediscussed.Secondly,thevarious

pollutantsthatoccurduetowasteburningandthespecifichealthimpactstheyhavewillbe

explained.Thirdly,theactualwasteburningpracticesofvariousregionsandthepotential

impactsofsuchpractices,aswellasanycasestudiesinvolvingthereleaseoftoxinsdueto

openwasteburningorincineration,willbeexplored.Finally,recommendationsforfuture

studiesonopenburningandforthereductionofopenburningwillbeprovidedasmuch

moreresearchisneededtofullyunderstandthedetrimenttohealthcausedbyopenwaste

burning(andimproperincineration)worldwide.

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II.TYPESOFWASTEBURNING

AstudydonebyWiedinmyeretal.in2013estimatedthetotalpercentageoftotal

wastethatistreatedbyopenburningalonetobe41%or,accordingtotheirestimates,970

milliontonsperyearofwastethatisopenlyburned.7UsingtheWorldBankestimatefrom

justayearearlier,thisnumberwouldshrinkto533milliontonsofwasteburnedperyear.8

Regardlessofwhichnumberisused,thisisalargevolumeofwastethatisbeingburned

withoutanysortofregulationtoaddressthenoxiouseffectsofwasteburning.

Furthermore,thisnumberdoesnotincludeproperlyincineratedwasteorwastethatis

ineffectivelyincinerated,aprocessthatcanleadtosimilaremissionsandhealthimpacts

thatresultfromopenburning.Openburningischaracterizedbyburningatlow

temperatures(between250°Cand700°C)andinoxygen-deprivedenvironmentsleading

toincompletecombustionofwaste.9Theseconditionsdolittletominimalizethequantity

ofdangeroustoxinsthatarereleased.Thevarietiesofwasteburningthatcanoccurare

summarizedinthefollowingsection.

ResidentialOpenBurning

Residentialopenburningoccursmostlyduetoitsconvenienceandpoorcollection,making

itespeciallyhazardousinlowincome,developingcountrieswhichstruggletocollecteven

50%oftotalMSWthatisproduced.Domesticopenburningistheindiscriminateburning

ofwastedonebyindividualsthatisnevercollectedoriscollectedanddumpedawayfrom

dumpsites.Thiscanoccurjustoutsidethehomeorinplaceswherewasteisillegally

7ChristineWiedinmyeretal,“GlobalEmissionsofTraceGases,ParticulateMatter,andHazardousAirPollutantsfromOpenBurningofDomesticWaste”,EnvironmentalScience&Technology2014,48(16),9525.8HoornwegandBhada-Tata,ix.9Mavropoulos,30.

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dumpedsuchasroadsidesorotheropenpublicspaces.Itiscommonpracticeinpoorrural

areaswherecollectionisoftenatitslowestefficiencyandwherecollectionsitescanbea

longwalk(orinrarercases,drive)onpoorlymanagedroads.Thistypeofopenburningis

uncontrolled,andtypicallynomeasuresaretakentoreducethehealthandenvironmental

impactoftheburning.

Image1RoadsideopenwasteburninginIndia.10

Thepurposeofsuchwastemanagementpracticesusuallyistoreducequantityof

wasteconvenientlyandeasilyorinsomecasestosavemoneyoncollection.However,

otherfactorscanbeinvolved.Waste(especiallyorganicwaste,whichconstitutesthe

majorityofwasteindevelopingcountries)canalsoproducesignificantodorswhennot

collectedquicklyenoughandopenburningcanhelpeliminatetheseodors.Furthermore,

roadsidedumpingcanbeaneyesoreandpeoplemayburnthewastesimplytoremoveit

fromstreetsorotherpublicplaces.Thissortofopenburningcanbeextremelydifficultto

10http://csrlive.in/burning-of-waste/.

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preventandmeasurebecauseitisunregulated;estimatesofwasteburningandwaste

burningemissionscanoftenbesubstantiallylowerthanrealityasaresult.However,

estimateshaveplacedthetotalamountofwasteburnedinthismannerat620milliontons

ofwasteperyear.11

DeliberateOpenBurninginLandfillsandOpenDumpsites

Likewasteinthehome,wasteinlandfillsandopendumpsitesindeveloping

countriesisoftenburnedtoreducethequantity,whichoftenarefilledbeyondtheir

capacityorhaveanunknown(andlikelyinsufficient)capacityduetothelackofplanning

involvedintheestablishmentofopendumps.Openburninginlandfillsandopendumps

andopenburningismadeespeciallydangeroustosurroundingpopulationsbecauseit

occursclosetothegroundratherthanuphighthroughstackswherepollutantscanbe

dispersedmoreproperlytominimizetheirimpactsonhealth.12Openburninginlandfills

andopendumpsitesusuallyinvolvesburninglargequantitiesofunselectivewaste,which

inmanydevelopingcountriescanincludehazardousmedicalandindustrialwastesthatare

throwninopendumpsalongsideMSW.

Large,visiblecloudsofblacksmokeaccompanytheselandfill/dumpsitefires,and

thefiresgenerallyburnveryslowly,lastingoversubstantialperiodsoftimeandallowing

thequantityandconcentrationofpollutantstobuildup.13Thewasteisfrequentlyspread

outoverlargeareasratherthanatpointsources,afactorthatcreatesanevengreater

11Wiedinmyeretal.,9525.12PaulM.Lemieuxetal.,“Emissionsoforganicairtoxicsfromopenburning:acomprehensivereview”,ProgressinEnergyandCombustionScience30(2004),3.13LisaLundinetal.,“Theeffectofdevelopingnations’municipalwastecompositiononPCDD/PCDFemissionsfromopenburning”,AtmosphericEnvironment79(2013),434.

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publichealthrisk.14Aswithallopenburning,wasteisburnedinconditionsthatfavorthe

releaseoftoxicpollutants.Nomeasuresaretakentominimizeemissionsfromthese

landfill/dumpsitefires,norareanyoftheproductsfromthesefiresrepurposedforuses

suchasfuel.

Inadditiontofumesfromlandfill/dumpsitefires,openburninginlandfillsandopen

dumpsleavesresidueintheformofparticulatematterorash.Thisashhastwopartstwo

it:bottomashandflyash.Bottomashaccumulatesfromleftoversolidmaterialafter

burning,whileflyashaccumulatesfromexhaustgasesrisingupwardduringthe

combustionprocess.15Bottomashdistributesitstoxinsbypollutingthesoil.Flyash,on

theotherhand,iscarriedbythewindanddispersesitstoxins.Itisthoughttobe

particularlyhazardousduetoitshighcontentofavarietyoftoxicpollutantsandduetoits

abilitytotravellongdistancesthroughtheairbeforefallingtothesurfacelevelwhereitis

inhaledbyhumansorentersfoodchainsorwatersources.16Inanattempttosolveone

problem-volumeofwaste-openburninginlandfillsandopendumpscreatesaneven

greaterissue:noxiouspollutants.

14Mavropoulos,30.15“Populationhealthandwastemanagement:scientificdataandpolicyoptions:ReportofaWHOworkshop:Rome,Italy,29–30March2007”,WorldHealthOrganizationRegionalOfficeforEurope,Copenhagen,Denmark,March2007,28.16Mavropoulos,30.

15

Image2IndiscriminateMSWburningatanopendumpinNigeria.17

SpontaneousOpenBurninginLandfillsandOpenDumpsites

Notallfiresinlandfillsandopendumpsareintentional.Firescanoccur

spontaneouslyandunintentionallywithinopendumpsandlandfillsinlargepilesoftrash.

Thefiresarelikelycausedbythelackofwastetreatment(apartfromburning)thatoccurs

inthesedisposalareas.Theimpactsofsuchfiresaresimilartothoseproducedfrom

deliberateopenburningofwasteinlandfillsandresembleintentionallandfillfiresforthe

mostpart.Similarly,airborneemissionsandashresiduesfromunintendeddumpfirescan

containharmful,concentratedpollutants.Theestimatedtotalwasteburnedopenlyin

dumpsiteseitherintentionallyorunintentionallyis350milliontonsperyear.18

17http://www.bioenergyconsult.com/solid-waste-nigeria/.18Wiedinmyeretal.,9525.

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Incineration

Unliketheotherpracticesoroccurrencesdiscussedinthissection,incinerationisan

acceptedformofwastemanagementthatispracticed,tovaryingdegrees,indeveloped

countriesthathavesolidwastemanagementpractices.Wasteincinerationdiffersfrom

openburningofwasteinseveralways.Firstly,specializedincineratorsareusedas

opposedtoopenburningwherepilesofwasteareburnedoutintheopen.Secondly,

residuesandgasesresultingfromtheburningprocessareproperlycollectedtoeliminate

theirdisseminationinthesurroundingareasand,insomecases,toberecycled.When

properlymanagedanddonewithproperincinerators,incinerationoccursathigh

temperaturesthatpreventtheincompletecombustionofwaste.Thatisessentialto

preventingthereleaseofharmfulpollutantsfromwasteburningandminimizingthe

generationofresiduesuchasashthatisleftasbyproductofthecombustionprocess.19

Thereismuchconflictingevidenceastothedegreetowhichincineration,whenperformed

accordingtostrictguidelines,isasafepractice;however,itisgenerallyrecognizedthat

acceptablyoperatedincinerationdoesnothavemajornegativeimplicationforpublic

health.

Incinerationisoftentheprimarymethodusedtodisposeofhealthcarewaste,both

hazardousandnon-hazardous.Whendonecorrectly,incinerationmaybethebestoption

fordisposalofhealthcarewaste,whichcanbedifficulttomanageforanumberofreasons.

However,initsrecommendationsforSafeHealthcareWasteManagement,theWorld

HealthOrganization(WHO)recommendsalong-termstrategyinvolvingthepromotionof

19M.S.Hossainetal.,“Clinicalsolidwastemanagementpracticesanditsimpactonhumanhealthandenvironment–Areview”,WasteManagement31(2011),760.

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non-incinerationbasedhealthcaremanagementtechniques.20Thisislikelyduetothepoor

incinerationpracticesthatoccurindevelopingcountries.

Manydevelopingcountriesuseincineratorsthatareineffective,smallorbrokenand

oftenuseimproperfuelsuchascoal,oftenleadingtoburningattemperaturesbelow800

°Candincompletecombustionofwaste;theseincineratorsareoftenusedforboth

healthcarewasteandMSW.21Furthermore,anessentialelementofwasteincinerationis

theproperseparationofdifferenttypesofwaste.22However,inmanydevelopingcountries

healthcarewasteisrarelysortedandisoftenmixedwithMSWtobeleftinanopendump,

incinerated,ormostlikely,openlyburned.Thus,althoughincinerationcanbe,intheory,an

acceptablemethodofdisposingofwaste(particularlyforhealthcarewaste),inpracticefew

developingcountrieshavethepropermethodsorfinancialmeanstoproperlyincinerate

waste.Thisiseffectivelyincinerationthatcanproduceseveralharmfulbyproductsthat

oftenresemblesopenburninginitshealthandenvironmentalimpact.

III.EMISSIONSOFWASTEBURNINGANDTHEIRHEALTH

IMPACTS

Therearealargenumberofnoxiousemissionsandproductsofopenburningof

waste.Theexactemissionsfromawastefirecanrangefromcasetocasedependingon

burningconditions(temperature,environment,locationetc.)andonthecompositionofthe

wastethatisbeingburned.Wastecompositionindevelopingcountriesisprimarilyorganic

20“SafeHealthcareWasteManagement:PolicyPaper”,WorldHealthOrganization,Geneva,Switzerland,2004.21Ibid.22Ibid.

18

waste,whichconstitutes64%ofwasteinlow-incomecountries.23Developed,

industrializedcountries,incontrast,havemuchhigherpercentagesofpaperwasteand

muchlowerconcentrationsoforganicwaste.Inhighincomecountries,31%ofwasteis

paperwaste,incontrastlowincomecountrieswhereitis5%and28%isorganicmaterial

waste.24Inaddition,themodeofdisseminationoftoxinscanvarydependingonthetoxin,

althoughpollutantsfromopenburningtypicallyaremostoftendisposedthroughtheairas

gasorasparticulatematterordustcarriedintheair.

Many,butcertainlynotall,oftheharmfulpollutantsthatoccurduetotheburningof

wasteandimpropercontrolledburningofwastearedescribedinthesubsequentsections.

Theirprevalence,routesofexposureandhealtheffectsarealldiscussedtoassessthe

healthimpactthesetoxinscanhaveandthedegreetowhichwasteburningcontributesto

theirimpactworldwide.Unfortunately,duetothedifficultyinmeasuringopenburningof

waste,manystudieshaveunderestimatedtheemissions(ornotconsideredtheemissions

atall)oftoxinsduetoopenburningofwasteandtheresultingtoxicity.Thestudyfrom

Wiedinmyeretal.onglobalemissionsfromopenburningprimarilywillbereferencedfor

estimatedopenburningpollutantemissionstatistics;similarly,estimationsofemissions

arebasedonthefiguresusedinthestudyfortotalwastegeneration,whichareonthe

higherend,butarewithinareasonablemarginoferror.Thesefiguresonlyinclude

estimationsbasedonopenburninganddonotincludeemissionsfromincinerationboth

properlyandimproperlyperformed.

23HoornwegandBhada-Tata,19.24Ibid.

19

GreenhouseGases

Greenhousegases(GHGs)arepollutantsprimarilyassociatedwithclimatechange.

Theterm“greenhousegas”isdefinedbytheIntergovernmentalClimateChangePanel

(IPCC)ThirdAnnualReportas“thosegaseousconstituentsoftheatmosphere,bothnatural

andanthropogenic,thatabsorbandemitradiationatspecificwavelengthswithinthe

spectrumofinfraredradiationemittedbytheEarth’ssurface,theatmosphereand

clouds.”25TheGHGmoleculesabsorbhighamountofradiation.Inturn,theGHGmolecules

radiatethatenergybackintotheatmosphere,leadingtothegreenhouseeffectandglobal

warming.AstheconcentrationofGHGsintheatmospherehasincreasedrapidlyinrecent

historyduetohumanactivity,theglobaltemperatureshaverisenatfasterrates.Global

warminghasdisastrouseffectsontheenvironmentandonhumanhealth.26Althoughopen

wasteburningisnottheprimary,anthropogenicsourceofGHGsworldwide,GHG

emissionsduetoopenburningofwastearesignificant.

25ClimateChange2001:TheScientificBasics,791.26Ibid.

20

Figure2Openburningofwastereleasesthegreenhousegasescarbondioxideandmethane,whichcontributetothegreenhouseeffect.27

CarbonDioxide

CarbonDioxide(CO2)isagreenhousegas(accountingforabout76%ofall

greenhousegasesworldwideasof2010)whoseemissionsandimpactarewellstudiedand

documented,mostlyinrelationtoitsenvironmentalimpact,butalsoinrelationtoits

impactonhealth.28GlobalyearlyemissionsofCO2duetoopenburningarelargeare

estimatedtobe1.4billiontonsperyear.29However,thisfigureaccountsforonlyabout5%

oftotalglobalCO2emissions,anumberthatissomewhatconsistentwiththeWHO’s

estimationthatwastecontributes5%oftotalgreenhousegasemissionsworldwide.3031

27http://globalwarming-facts.info/greenhouse-effect/.28“GlobalGreenhouseGasEmissionsData:GlobalEmissionsbyGas”,UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,https://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/global.html.29Wiedinmyeretal.,9528.30Ibid.31“ReducingGlobalHealthRisks:ThroughMitigationofshort-livedclimatepollutants”,WorldHealthOrganization,Geneva,Switzerland,2015,90.

21

Asagreenhousegas,CO2primarilyentersthehumanbodythroughinhalationof

contaminatedair.ThehealthimpactsofexposuretohighlevelsofCO2canvaryintheir

extremity.Itcanleadtoincreasedbloodpressure,increasedheartandrespiratoryrates,

headaches,dizzinessandvariousotherminorhealtheffects.32Inmoreseverecases(at

higherconcentrationsorlongtermexposure),CO2exposurecanleadtodifficultyin

breathing,respiratorydiseases,asthma,inhibitionofthecentralnervoussystem,lossof

consciousnessandeventualcardiorespiratoryfailure,lungcancerandevendeath.33

AlthoughCO2isnotthoughttohaveanychronichealtheffects,accordingtotheIPCC,CO2

emissionswillcauselarge-scalepublichealthissuesbecauseitexacerbatesclimatechange.

Climatechangeisexpectedtoincreasetheprevalenceofdeathsresultingfrommalaria,

diarrheaandmalnutrition.Thisisespeciallythecaseindevelopingcountrieswithpoor

healthinfrastructure.However,openburningofwasteisarelativelyminorcontributorto

thesehealthimpactsincomparisontoCO2thatisproducedthroughotherprocesses.

Methane

Methanegas(CH4)isagreenhousegasandshort-livedclimatepollutant(SLCPsare

definedaspollutantsthatstayintheatmosphereforrelativelyshortperiodsoftime

comparedtolonger-livedpollutants)thatcontributesthesecondlargestamountof

greenhousegasworldwide(16%)behindCO2.34Wiedinmyeretal.’sestimationofmethane

gasproductionduetoopenburningofwasteis3.6milliontonsperyearoronly1%oftotal

globalmethaneemissions.35However,theIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange

(IPCC)placedthetotalpercentageofmethanegasgeneratedbywasteworldwidein2005

32Mavropoulos,21.33Ibid.34“GlobalGreenhouseGasEmissionsData:GlobalEmissionsbyGas”.35Wiedinmyeretal.,9528.

22

closerto20%ofallmethanegasemissions.36Thereasonsforsuchalargediscrepancyare

likelyduetoerrorinestimation,orthefactthatlargequantitiesofmethaneareproduced

bydecompositionofwaste(intheabsenceofwasteburning)intheformofbiogas,which

containslargequantitiesofmethanegasandCO2.37Inadditiontothepotentialhealth

benefits,controllingmethanegasemissionscanbeveryusefulbecauseenergycanbe

recoveredfrommethanethatiscollectedfromwasteandotheremissionsources.

Globalhealthimpactsofmethanegasaresignificant.Studiesonmeasurestoreduce

methanegasemissionsgloballyhaveestimatedthatifmeasurestoreducemethane

emissionswereproperlyandfullyimplementedincludingsomemeasurestargetedat

waste,anywherebetween40,000and520,000prematuredeathscouldbepreventedin

2030.38LikeCO2,methanegasusuallyimpactsthosewhoinhaleit.Short-termeffectsof

methanegasexposurecanincludenausea,vomiting,headachesandcoordinationloss;at

highconcentrationsitcancauserespiratoryarrestthatresultsincomaorevendeath.39In

addition,methanegasishighlyflammableandcanbeexplosiveatbetweenconcentrations

5%and15%;highmethanelevelscancauseseriousinjuryduetoexplosion.40General

healthimpactsofclimatechangealsoapplytomethanegasasagreenhousegas.Apart

fromthesegeneralimpacts,methanegasisnotthoughttohaveanyconclusivechronic

effectonhealth.Openburninglikelycontributesarelativelysmallamountofthese

emissionsandthesubsequenthealtheffects.However,totalharmfulmethaneemissions

36“ReducingGlobalHealthRisks:Throughmitigationofshort-livedclimatepollutants”,7.37Mavropoulos,11.38SusanC.Anenbergetal.,“GlobalAirQualityandHealthCo-benefitsofMitigatingNear-TermClimateChangethroughMethaneandBlackCarbonEmissionControls”,EnvironmentalHealthPerspectivesVol.120,No.6.(June2012),836.39Mavropoulos,21.40Ibid.

23

frompoorwastemanagementlikelyaremuchgreaterandhaveaverysignificanthealth

impact.

Table1GHGEmissionsduetoopenburningofwasteandtheirhealtheffects

Pollutant GlobalEmissionduetoopenburning(kg/year)

%oftotalglobalemissionsofpollutant

Potentialhealthimpacts

CarbonDioxide(CO2) 1.4Trillion 5 • Cardiorespiratoryfailure

• Climatechangeassociatedrisks

Methane(CH4) 3.6Billion 1 • Respiratoryarrest• Climatechange

associatedrisks

CarbonMonoxide

Carbonmonoxide(CO)isagreenhousegasthatcanbeveryharmfultohumans

wheninhaled.Openburningofwasteproducesanestimated37milliontonsperyearofCO

gas,or7%ofglobalCOemissions.41Thus,wasteburningisnotaprimaryemitterofCO

globally,butneverthelessisresponsibleforthereleaseofasignificantamountofCOinto

theatmosphere.ThemostsignificanthealthimpactofCOexposureisknownascarbon

monoxidepoisoningandithasbeenwellstudied.ComplicationsduetoCOpoisoningarise

whenCOisinhaledandbuildsupinthebloodstream.MinorsymptomsofCOpoisoning

includeheadache,exhaustion,dizziness,nausea,shortnessofbreathandmore.42With

longerexposure,severesymptomsincludinglossofcoordination(ataxia),vertigo,chest

41Wiedinmyeretal.,9528.42“CarbonMonoxidePoisoning”,NHS,May23,2016,http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/carbon-monoxide-poisoning/Pages/Introduction.aspx.

24

pain,seizures,lossofconsciousnessanddeathcanoccur.43Chronicexposureoflow

amountsofCOcanalsocauseneurologicaldifficultiesandmoodswings.44Thosethat

openlyburnwasteorareinareaswhereopenburningofwasteoccursmaybeatriskfor

anyofthesesymptomsduetoreleaseofCOgas.

ParticulateMatter

Particulatematter(PM),aprimarycomponentofairpollution,isproducedinlarge

quantitieswhenwasteisburnedopenlyanditcanbereleasedintotheairthroughsmoke.

Thelocalpopulationcantheninhalethissmokewhentheparticulatesentertherespiratory

system.Particulatemattermaycontainavarietyofdifferentelementsthatvaryinsizeand

chemicalproperties.Coarseparticulates(PM10)aredefinedasparticulatesthathave

diametersbetween2.5µmand10µm.TheestimatedyearlyemissionsofPM10duetoopen

burningofwasteis12milliontonsperyearor24%oftotalPM10emissions.45Fine

Particulates(PM2.5)arethoseparticulateswithadiameterlessthan2.5µmandthese

includeblackcarbon(BC).BCisaShortLivedClimatePollutants(SLCP),anditisoneofthe

pollutantsthatismostcommonlyassociatedwithairpollutionanditsdangeroushealth

effects.OpenwasteburningcontributestoalargepercentageofglobalPM2.5emissions

withanestimated10milliontonsperyearofgeneralPM2.5or29%oftotalPM2.5emissions

and632,000tonsperyearofBCor11%ofglobalBCemissions.46

Theprimaryhealthrisksofparticulatematterhavefrequentlybeenstudiedand

involvenumerouslongtermandshort-termrespiratoryandcardiovascularissues.PM2.5

arethoughttobemostharmfulastheycaneasilypenetratetherespiratorysystem,and43Ibid.44Ibid.45Wiedinmyeretal.,9528.46Ibid.

25

theycanimpactawiderpopulationbecausetheparticlesaresmallandcantravellong

distancesthroughtheair.Studieshavesupportedthisassessmentbyportrayingagreater

riskofhealtheffects,shownparticularlybyincreasesinhospitaladmissionsandmortality,

duetoBCexposurethantoexposuretoequalquantitiesofPM10.47Specificshort-term

effectsofinhalationofparticulatematterareaggravationofasthma,shortnessofbreath,

coughing,wheezingandchestpains.48Effectsoflong-termexposuretoparticulatematter

canincludeheartfailure,respiratorydiseaseandlungcancer.49Children,theelderly,and

thosewithpre-existingrespiratoryconditionsareparticularlysusceptibletoPMhealth

impacts.50Inaddition,pregnantmothersandtheirbabiesareatseriousriskformortality

andhealthcomplicationsduetoPMexposure.51

Overall,theWHOestimatesthatPM2.5exposurealonewasresponsiblefor3.1

milliondeathsin2010.52Giventhatover20%ofPM2.5emissionsmaybeattributedto

openburningofwaste,openburninglikelycontributesalargeamountofdeathsdueto

particulatereleasealone.Inaddition,PM2.5exposurewasfoundtoshortentheaverage

lifespanofaregion’spopulationby8.6months.53Openburningofwastemostfrequently

occursindeveloping,low-incomecountrieswherelifeexpectanciesarefarbelowthosein

developedcountries.Thus,particulateexposureduetoopenburningofwaste,inmany

47NicoleA.H.Jansenetal.,“HealthEffectsofBlackCarbon”,WorldHealthOrganizationRegionalOfficeforEurope,Copenhagen,Denmark,2012,24.48Ki-HyunKimetal.,“AReviewonthehealthimpactofairborneparticulatematter”,EnvironmentalInternational74(2015),138.49“HealthEffectsofParticulateMatter”,WorldHealthOrganizationRegionalOfficeforEurope,Copenhagen,Denmark,2013,6.50Ibid.51Kimetal.,138.52“HealthEffectsofParticulateMatter”,7.53Ibid.

26

cases,likelycontributessignificantlytothelowlifeexpectanciesthatcanbefoundinmany

regionsofthedevelopingworld.

Image3:Lungcancer,seeninthischestX-ray,isoneofthevarioushealthimpactsassociatedwithparticulatematterexposure.54

Table2:AnnualParticulateMatteremissionsduetoopenburningofwasteandtheirhealtheffects

Pollutant GlobalEmissionduetoopenburning(kg/year)

%oftotalglobalemissionsofpollutant

Potentialhealthimpacts

CoarseParticulates(PM10)

12Billion 24 • Lungcancer• Respiratory

disease• Heartfailure

FineParticulates(PM2.5)

10Billion 29

BlackCarbon(BC) 632Million 11OrganicCarbon(OC) 5.1Billion 43

PersistentOrganicPollutants

Persistentorganicpollutants(POPs)areorganicpollutantsthatareabletoresist

degradationoncereleasedand,thus,“persist”intheenvironment.Consequently,POPscan

accumulateintheenvironment,whichthreatenshumanhealthandcausesenvironmental

54http://genomemag.com/how-personalized-medicine-is-changing-lung-cancer/#.V6sgwDararI.

27

degradation.OpenburningofwasteproducesseveraldifferentPOPsthataretoxicto

humans,soitcausebemajorhealthhazards.

PolycyclicAromaticHydrocarbons

PolycyclicAromaticHydrocarbons(PAHs)areagroupofcompoundsthatarePOPs

andareatoxicpartofparticulatematter.PAHsareparticularlyassociatedwithwaste

burning.PAHsareproducedduringincompletecombustionthatoccursinO2deprived

conditionsandatlowertemperatures,exactlytheconditionsinvolvedinuncontrolledopen

burning.LikePM,PAHscanbeinhaledoringestedandcirculateintherespiratorysystem.

PAHsalsohavebeenfoundtohavetoxiceffectsthroughdermalcontactinadditionto

ingestion.334milliontonsofPAHsperyearareestimatedtobereleasedduetoopen

burningofwaste,whichaccountsfor39%oftotalglobalPAHproduction.55Inaddition,

millionsoftonsofPAHemissionscanbeattributedtowasteincinerationboththrough

gaseousemissionsfromincineratorsandresidualflyash.ThisiswhyPAHrelease

preventionmeasuresarenecessaryforproperwasteincinerationtooccur.56

ManyPAHsareknowncarcinogensandareidentifiedassuchbytheWHOandother

healthorganizations.Inparticular,PAHsareusuallyassociatedwithcancerofthelungs,

skinandbladder.57However,duetothehundredsofdifferentPAHsthatexist,theexact

carcinogenicriskofPAHsisdifficulttoquantify.PAHshavebeenshowntopromotetumor

growthandtoincreasethelifetimecancerriskinanimalbasedtrials.Theyhavealsobeen

characterizedasmutagenicandasgenotoxic.58Inaddition,PAHshavebeenlinkedto

55Wiedinmyeretal.,9527.56Ibid.57Szu-ChichChenandChung-MinLiao,“HealthriskassessmentonhumanexposedtoenvironmentalPolycyclicaromatichydrocarbonspollutionsources”,ScienceoftheTotalEnvironment366(2006),112.58Ibid.

28

reproductivecomplicationsandhavebeenshowntohaveparticularlytoxiceffectson

children.59CorrelationshavebeenidentifiedbetweenPAHexposureandchildhoodonset

andprevalenceofasthma,poorrespiratoryhealth,poorcognitivedevelopmentand

loweredIQ.60ThehealthimpactsofPAHsareacceptedtobenumerousandvery

hazardous.Thereisnodoubtthatopenburningandpoorincinerationofwastecontribute

alargeportionandlikelythelargestportionofthesenoxiousemissionsworldwide.

Nevertheless,studiesareinsufficientasofyet,tomoreconclusivelydeterminethefull

detrimenttopublichealthcausedbyPAHsasawholeandbyparticularlyharmfulPAHs.

Dioxin,FuransandDioxin-LikeCompounds

Polychlorinateddibenzodioxins/furans(PCDD/Fs),polybrominated

dibenzodioxins/furans(PBDD/Fs),polychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs)andotherdioxin-like

compoundsareemissionsthatareperhapsmostassociatedwithopenburningofwaste

andpoorwastemanagementpracticesingeneral.Ofallhealthimpactsofwaste

management,thatofdioxinsandfuransisprobablythemoststudied,yetalsoanimpact

thatisnotsufficientlystudiednorsufficientlyunderstood.Openwasteburningislikelythe

dominantsourceofdioxinandrelatedcompoundsworldwide.Comparativequantitative

studiesofthesecompoundscanbedifficultastheyaremeasuredinunitscalledtoxic

equivalences(TEQs).TEQsaredependentontheToxicEquivalencyFactor(TEF)which

expressthetoxicityofdioxinsanddioxin-likecompounds(DLCs)incomparisontothe

59Ibid.60ParisaKarimi,“Polycyclicaromatichydrocarbonsandchildhoodasthma”,EuropeanJournalofEpidemiology30(2015),95-96.

29

mosttoxicdioxins,namely2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin(TCDD);sincethesestatistics

generallyarenotusedforotherpollutants,nocomparisoncanbemade.61

PC/BDD/FsarePOPsproducedduetoincompletecombustionofwasteduringopen

burningorpoorincinerationatlowtemperatures.Theyareparticularlyprevalentin

placeswhereplasticsande-waste(electronicwaste)areburned.Forinstance,theburning

ofinsulatedwirehasbeenfoundtoproduce100timesasmanydioxinsastheburningof

domesticwaste.62Thesecompoundscanbeinhaledleadingtoverytoxiceffects.However,

themostcommonrouteofexposureforPC/BDD/Fsisthroughthefoodchain.These

pollutants,whichcanoftentravellargedistancesthroughtheair,areeasilyabsorbedinto

cropsandlivestockfattissueswhentheyareexposedtotheairbornepollutants;thesefood

itemsaretheningestedbyhumansalongwiththetoxicpollutantswithinthem.Several

factorshavebeenfoundtoimpacttheproductionofdioxinandDLCsfromopenwaste

burningandincineration.AmongthefactorsthatinhibitdioxinandDLCproductionisthe

burningofhomogenous,properlysortedwaste.Thisisararityindevelopingandlow-

incomecountrieswhereallwasteusuallyisburnedtogetheropenly.63Manystudieshave

beenfocusedondioxins/furansandDLCsandtheiremissionsduringwasteincineration.

Mixedresultshavebeenachieved,butresultsgenerallyindicatethatproperwaste

incinerationdoesnotproducedioxinatunacceptablelevelsasdefinedbytheWHO;

61“ExposuretoDioxinandDioxin-likeSubstances:AMajorPublicHealthConcern”,WorldHealthOrganization,Geneva,Switzerland,2.62Mavropoulos,26.63AlfonsBuekensandKefaCen,“WasteIncineration,PVCsandDioxin”,JournalofMaterialCyclesandWasteManagement13(2011),194.

30

furthermore,properwasteincinerationpracticesaredesignedtodestroythedioxinsand

DLCsthatarecreatedbypoorcombustion.64

Short-termexposuretoexcesslevelsofdioxins,furansandDLCscancausechronic

skinlesionsknownaschloracne.65Thelong-termhealthimpactofdioxinexposurebeyond

acceptablelevelsarequitesevere.LikePAHs,severalPCDD/Fs,PBDD/FsandotherDLCs,

suchasTCDD,arecarcinogensandareclassifiedassuchtodifferentdegreesbymost(ifnot

all)healthorganizations.However,theyarenotgenotoxiccarcinogens.Overall,evidence

suggeststhatthehighestlevelsofdioxin-exposureincreaseslifetimeriskofallformsof

cancerby40%.66Whileresultsregardingtheincreasedrisksofsomespecificcancershave

beenmixed,anincreasedriskofnon-Hodgkin’sLymphoma,Hodgkin’sdisease,leukemia,

andlungcancer(amongothercancers)hasbeenobservedtoresultfromhighdioxinlevels

inthebloodstream.67

Long-termhealthimpactsofexposuretothesecompoundsarenotlimitedto

cancers.Othertoxicitiesofdioxins,furansandDLCsincludeimmunotoxicity,

developmentaltoxicity,neurologicalandneurodevelopmentalproblems,hormonal

disruptionsandreproductiveissues.68LikePAHs,dioxinhealthrisksareparticularly

dangerousforchildren,babiesandunbornfetuses.Dioxinhasbeenfoundtobe

transmittedthroughhumanmilkandthroughtheplacenta,harmfullyimpactingchildrenin

theirdevelopmentalyears.69Althoughthefullextentofthepublichealthdetrimentof

64“ExposuretoDioxinandDioxin-likeSubstances:AMajorPublicHealthConcern”,2.65“ExposuretoDioxinandDioxin-likeSubstances:AMajorPublicHealthConcern”,3.66“Dioxins”,GreenFacts,http://www.greenfacts.org/en/dioxins/l-2/dioxins-4.htm#1.67P.A.Bertazzietal.,“HealthEffectsofDioxinExposure:A20-YearMortalityStudy”,AmericanJournalofEpidemiology,Vol.153,No.11(June1,2001),1037-1039.68“ExposuretoDioxinandDioxin-likeSubstances:AMajorPublicHealthConcern”,3..69“Dioxins”,GreenFacts,http://www.greenfacts.org/en/dioxins/l-2/dioxins-4.htm#1.

31

dioxins,furansandDLCsisnotcompletelyclear,itisclearthatthedioxinsthatare

producedinlargequantitiesbytheopenburningofwasteisamajorpublichealththreat.

Image4:Chloracne,severelesionsoftheskin,resultfromexposuretodioxins,furansandDLCs,whicharereleased

intoxicquantitieswhenwasteisimproperlyburned.70

Benzene

Benzene(C6H6)isahydrocarbon,POPandnaturalcomponentofcrudeoilthatcan

bereleasedduringopenwasteburning;itcanbefoundinavarietyofwidelyused

products.Benzene’stoxiceffectsusuallyresultfromitbeinginhaled,butitalsocanenter

thebodythroughcontaminationofwater,soilandfood.Thehealthimpactsofbenzeneare

exacerbatedbyitsslowdegradation.Benzene’sslowdegradationmeansthatitcantravel

largedistancesbeforecomingintocontactwithhumans.Estimatedbenzeneproduction

duetoopenburningofwasteisquitesignificantwithanestimated875,000tonsperyear

beingreleasedduetoopenwasteburningor25%oftotalglobalemissions;although

70ArnoldSchecteretal.,“Dioxins:AReview”,EnvironmentalResearch101(2006),419-428.

32

benzeneisnottypicallyassociatedwithwasteburning,wasteburningseemstocontribute

asignificantportionofglobalbenzeneemissions.71Acutehealtheffectsofbenzeneare

similartothoseofotherpollutants.Theyincludeheadaches,dizziness,tremors,mental

confusion,skinirritationandlossofconsciousness.72Chronichealthconsequencescanbe

moreextreme.Benzeneisclassifiedasacarcinogen,especiallyassociatedwithacute

myeloidleukemia.73Apartfromcancers,benzenehasbeenlinkedtoimmunotoxicity,

reductionsinbloodcellproductionandchromosomalmutations.74Thus,benzeneisoneof

themoredangerouspollutantsemittedbyopenburningofwaste.

Table3:POPEmissionsduetoopenburningofwasteandtheirhealtheffects

Pollutant GlobalEmissionduetoopenburning(kg/year)

%oftotalglobalemissionsofpollutant

Potentialhealthimpacts

PolycyclicAromaticHydrocarbons(PAH)

334Million 39 • Skin,bladderandlungcancer

• Poorcognitivedevelopment

TotalPolychlorinatedBiphenyls(PCB)

123,000 N/A • Lymphoma• Leukemia• Lungcancer• Reproductiveissues• Neurodevelopmental

issues• Developmentalissues

PolychlorinatedDibenzodioxins/furans(PCDD/F)ToxicEquivalency(TEQ)

206 N/A

PolybrominatedDibenzodiozins/furans(PBDD/)FToxicEquivalency

80 N/A

Benzene 875Million 25 • Chromosomalmutations• Acutemyeloidleukemia

71Wiedinmyeretal.,9528.72“ExposuretoBenzene:AMajorPublicHealthConcern”,WorldHealthOrganization,Geneva,Switzerland,2010,2.73Ibid.74Ibid.

33

HydrogenChloride

Hydrogenchloride(HCl),alsoknownashydrochloricacidinitsaqueousform,isa

cleargasthatcanbereleasedduetoburningofwaste.Itcanbeverydangerouswhen

inhaledorwhencomingintocontactwiththeeyesorskinathighconcentrations,although

itisgenerallythoughttobelessharmfulinlowconcentrations.Giventhatitislessharmful

atlowconcentrations,HClgenerallyismostdangerousforthosewhocomeinto

occupationalcontactwithit;unprotectedwasteworkers,bothlegalandillegal,arelikely

thegroupmostnegativelyimpactedbyHClreleasefromopenburningofwaste.The

quantityofHClreleasedduetoopenwasteburningislarge.Openwasteburningis

estimatedtoproduce3.5milliontonsperyearofHClgas,whichisequivalenttoanywhere

from39%to58%ofglobalemissionsofHCl(dependingontheestimateoftotalHCl

emissionsthatisused).75ItisthoughtthattheburningofplasticssuchasPVCleadtothe

releaseoflargeamountsofHClgas.76

Image5:Cataracts,cloudingoftheretinaleadingtoimpairedvision,canresultfromexcessHClexposure.77

ShorttermexposuretohighconcentrationsofHClgascanleadtoserious

respiratoryissuesincludingnasalandupperrespiratorytractirritation,coughingand

75WIedinmyeretal.,9528.76“Hydrogenchloride/hydrochloricacid:toxicologyoverview”,HealthProtectionAgency,UK,2007,3.77“MusgroveParkeyeops'painful'and'rushed',reportclaims”,BBC,October16,2014,http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-somerset-29638458.

34

shortnessofbreath.78Inmoreseverecases,HClinhalationcanleadtosuffocation.79In

addition,variouseyeproblemscanresultfromeyeexposure,includingcataractsand

glaucoma.80Chronicinhalationmayalsoleadtopulmonarydefects.81HClisnot,however,

classifiedasacarcinogen.Althoughtheseeffectsareunlikelytoimpactthosefartheraway

fromburningwaste,thosethatcomeindirectcontactwiththeopenburningofwastearein

dangerofserioushealthcomplicationsduetoHClexposure.

Formaldehyde

Formaldehyde(CH2O)isachemicalpollutantusedinmanycommerciallyavailable

productsincludingpressedwoodproducts,paintsandfiberglassinsulation.82Itcanbe

identifiedbyitsstrongsmellandisoftenreleasedasgasorvaporwhenproducts

containingformaldehyde(whicharenumerous)areopenlyburned.Openburningofwaste

accountsforanestimated603milliontonsperyearofemittedformaldehyde,equivalentto

asmuchas50%ofglobalformaldehydeemissions.Airborneformaldehydecanbetoxicto

humanswheninlargerthanacceptableconcentrations.Airconcentrationsabove0.1ppm

offormaldehydecanleadtoacutesymptomssuchaswateryorburningeyes,nausea,

coughing,wheezingandskinirritation;differentpeoplehavemoreorlessseverereactions

toshorttermformaldehydeexposurethanothers.83Long-termeffectsofchronic

formaldehydeexposurehavenotbeenfullystudiedordetermined.However,manystudies

doneonformaldehydeandratshavelinkedformaldehydeexposuretonasalcancer.Thus,

78“Hydrogenchloride/hydrochloricacid:toxicologyoverview”,1.79Ibid.80Ibid.81Ibid.82Mavropoulos,30.83“FormaldehydeandCancerRisk”,NationalCancerInstitute,http://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/substances/formaldehyde/formaldehyde-fact-sheet.

35

formaldehydeisclassifiedasacarcinogenbytheInternationalAgencyforResearchon

Cancer(IARC).84Inaddition,otherstudieshaveestablishedcorrelationsbetweenother

cancerssuchasleukemiaandbraincancerandoccupationalexposuretoformaldehyde.85

Likeseveraloftheotherpollutantsemittedbyopenwasteburning,formaldehyde’s

damagetohealthisnotsufficientlyunderstoodwithregardstoitslong-termeffect.What

isclear,however,isthatformaldehydeemissioncanbeapublichealthhazardandthat

openwasteburningcontributesasignificantportionofglobalformaldehydeemissions.

HeavyMetals

Heavymetalsarehigh-densitymetalsthatarethoughttobetoxic.Theterm

includeslead,cadmium,mercuryandothers.Openburningofwastecanproduce

emissionsofavarietyofheavymetalsincludingbutnotlimitedtocadmium,chromium,

manganese,antimony,arsenic,leadandmercury.86Inadditiontogaseousemissions,open

burningofwastecanleadtodepositionofheavymetalsinbothflyashandbottomash,

creatingthepotentialforfurtherair,waterandsoilpollution.Thequantityandtypeof

heavymetalsemittedvariessignificantlybaseduponthecontentofwastebeingburned;e-

waste,forinstance,whichusuallyismadeofmostlydifferentmetalsislikelytoproduce

largequantitiesofheavymetalswhenburnedimproperly.Oftheheavymetals,

Wiedinmyeretal.’sstudyonlyestimatesthequantityofmercuryemittedduetoopen

wasteburning,whichwas204tonsofmercuryperyearoranywherebetween5%to20%

84Ibid.85Ibid.86Mavopolous,30.

36

ofglobalemissions;Wiedinmyeretal.pointsto10%asthemostaccuratepercentage

figurebaseduponthemostrecentUnitedNations’figures.87

Thehealthrisksinvolvedinheavymetalexposurearenumerousandcanvary

significantlyfrommetaltometalandarefartoovariabletobecapturedinthisstudy.

However,someheavymetals’toxicitieshavebeenwellstudied.Mercurypoisoning,for

example,isahealthriskthathasreceivedmuchattention.Whileeveryoneisexposedto

somedegreeofmercury,excessmercuryexposurecanhavevariousextreme

consequences.Highmercuryexposurecanhavedisastrouseffectsonvariousbody

systemsincludingthenervoussystem,digestivesystem,respiratorysystem,immune

systemandrenalsystemsamongothers;theseeffectscanleadtodeathinsomecases.88

Neurologicalsymptomsthatareespeciallyassociatedwithmercuryexposureinclude

tremors,insomnia,memoryloss,neuromusculareffects,headachesandcognitiveand

motordysfunction.89Therisksoftheseissuesaremostextremeforchildrenandunborn

fetusesthatcomeintocontactwithmercurythroughtheirmothers.90Theserepresentthe

potentialtoxichealtheffectsofjustoneofthevariousheavymetalsthatpeopleimpacted

byopenwasteburningcanbeexposedto.Toxicitiesofleadandarsenicamongotherheavy

metalsarealsowelldocumentedandquitesevere.Manyoftheseharmfultoxinscan

pollutetheairandsoilduetoopenwasteburning.

87WIedinmyeretal.,9526-9528.88“MercuryandHealth”,WorldHealthOrganization,January,2016,http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs361/en/.89Ibid.90Ibid.

37

PollutantOverview

Itisimportanttokeepinmindthatthepollutantsdiscussedintheprecedingsection

donotrepresentallofthepollutants.Anotherimportantfactortoconsideristhatthese

statisticsonlyreflectopenwasteburninganddonotincludepollutantsproduceddueto

poorincinerationthatcanbesimilartoopenwasteburning,northoseduetootherpoor

wastemanagementpractices.Consequently,itislikelythatthequantitiesofpollutants

releasedduetopoorwastemanagementgloballyaresignificantlylargerthanthose

depictedintheprecedingsection.Theevidenceclearlysuggeststhatopenwasteburning

alonecontributessignificantportionsofmanydifferenttoxicpollutantswhosehealthrisks

varyfromacutetochronicandfrombenigntomalignant.Inparticular,openburningof

wasteisespeciallydangerousforthelargequantitiesofparticulatematter,PAHs,PCDD/Fs,

PBDD/FsandDLCsandheavymetalsthatcanbeemittedwhenwasteisopenlyburntor

improperlyburnt.41%ofwastebeingopenlyburntisnoinsignificantnumber.

Thousands,andpossiblyevenmillionsofdeathscouldbepreventedbythereductionofthe

practiceofopenwasteburning.

IV.REGIONALPRACTICESANDINSTANCESOFOPENBURNING

ANDINCINERATIONANDTHEIRHEALTHIMPACTS

Openburningisnotpracticedinthesamewayandtothesameextenteverywhere.

Openburningofwasteismoreprevalentincountriesandregionswithpoorwaste

collectionandpoorwastemanagementingeneralintheabsenceofpropersanitary

landfillsandrecyclingprogramstoallowforzerowastepracticesofwastemanagement.In

38

thefollowingsection,wastemanagementpractices,particularlythoseinvolvingburningof

waste,willbediscussedindifferentworldregions.Generalstatisticsandsomespecific

casestudieswillbeconsultedinordertodisplaythehealthrisksofopenwasteburningon

aregionalbasis.Onceagain,itisimportanttokeepinmindthatopenburningisusually

uncontrolledandunregulatedsothefullstatisticalpictureofopenburningofwasteandits

healthriskaredifficulttofullyascertain;whilecasestudiescanprovideevidenceof

commontypesofpracticesinspecificregions,theyarebynomeansabsoluteexpressions

ofwastemanagementpracticesinanyparticularregionorcountry.Collectionefficiency

canbeareliableindicatorofpotentialopenwasteburningimpacts,asmuchuncollected

wasteisopenlyburnedresidentiallyordumpedinopenspacesandthenburnedin

developingcountrieswherecollectionispoor.Countryincomeclassifications(low,lower-

middle,upper-middleandhighincome)andwastecollectionstatisticsutilizedinaWorld

Bankreportin2012willbereferenced,althoughcollectiondataisinsufficientfromsome

countriesandisthusexcludedfromtheWorldBank’sreport.

39

UnitedStatesandCanada

Image6:BurnBarrelssuchasthisonecanbeusedtoperformbackyardwasteburningandareusedinplacessuchastheruralUnitedStates.91

TheUnitedStatesandCanada,bothclassifiedashigh-incomecountriesbytheWorld

Bank,generallyhaveverygoodwastemanagementpractices.92InWorldBankstudieson

wastemanagementstatistics,theWorldBankincludesboththeUSandCanadainalarger

regionthatitreferstoastheOrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment

(OECD)region,whichincludestheUS,Canada,WesternEurope,Japan,SouthKorea,

AustraliaandNewZealand.(TheactualOECDisaninternationalorganizationfocusedon

worldtradeandeconomicprogressthatincludes35membercountries,includingseveral

countriessuchasMexico,Chile,andIsraelthatareexcludedfromthe“OECD”regioninthe

WorldBankwastestudy;theWorldBankstudy’sOECDdefinitionwillbeusedforthe

91http://www.truenorthradionetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/burn-barrel.jpg.92HoornwegandBhada-Tata,xiii.

40

purposesofthisreport).Asof2012,theOECDishasaveryhighrateof98%waste

collectioncoverage,althoughitstotalwastegenerationisalsofoundtobethehighest

amongregions.93TheUnitedStatesandCanadaspecificallyhave100%and99%collection

coveragerates,andveryhighwastegenerationrates.94

Giventhehighcollectionrates,openwasteburningandassociatedhealthrisksseemtobe

aminimalissueintheUnitedStatesandCanada.Thisconclusionisfurthersupportedby

thefactthatneithercountrydisposesofanyofitswasteinopendumps.95However,open

wasteburningdoesoccurandcanbeaproblemintheUnitedStatesintheformof

backyardbarrelburning.Inruralareasburningwasteinburnbarrelsisthepreferred

methodofwastedisposalbecauseitisthetraditionalwastepractice,itischeapanditis

convenient.96StudiesconductedinMaine,USA(astatewhichhassincemadebackyard

burningillegal)haveshownthatthispracticeleadstosignificantemissionsofdioxinsinto

theatmosphere.97Thepublichealththreatofthispracticeisexacerbatedbythefactthatit

isdoneinruralareas,whereagricultureistheprimarylivelihood.Althoughtheseareas

havesmallpopulationsthatcanbeimpactedbyopenwasteburningemissions,the

pollutantscanpotentiallyenterthefoodchainthroughcropsandbedistributedtoother

membersofthepopulation.Fortunately,thepracticeisillegalinmany(andanincreasing

numberof)statesintheUS.Asaresultofproperpoliciessuchastheseandhighcollection

rates,theopenwasteburningconcernsoftheUSandCanadaarerelativelyminimal.

93Ibid,15.94Ibid,84-85.95Ibid,87-88.96LisaW.Foderaro,“InaDebateOverTrashBurning,It'sRuralTraditionvs.Health”,NewYorkTimes,March7,2005,http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B01E1D91E3DF934A35750C0A9639C8B63&pagewanted=all.97MichaelE.Belliveau,“DioxinPollutionPreventionandPVCPlasticinMunicipalSolidWaste:PrecautionaryStatePolicy”,OrganohalogenCompounds,Vol.60-65,2003,3.

41

Europe

LiketheUSandCanada,Europeancountrieshavesomeofthebestwaste

managementpracticesworldwide.However,WesternEuropean(definedhereasthose

countrieswhichliewestofBerlin)andScandinaviancountriestendtohavemuchbetter

practicesandcollectioncoveragethanEasternEuropeancountries(definedhereasthose

EastofBerlin).WesternEuropeancountriessuchasBelgium,France,Germany,Italy,

Luxembourg,theNetherlandsandtheUnitedKingdom,have100%collectioncoverage

efficiencies;Denmark,Finland,Iceland,NorwayandSwedenallhave100%collection

coverageefficiencies.98Allofthesecountriesareconsideredtobehigh-incomecountries.

Furthermore,thesecountrieshavelittletonowastedisposalindumps,makingitunlikely

thatthecollectedwastewillbeopenlyburnt.Thelowestwastecollectioncoveragein

WesternEuropeisIreland,whichhasthecapacitytocollect76%ofwaste.99InEastern

Europe,mostcountrieshaveveryhighcollectioncoverageefficiencies;Austria,theCzech

Republic,Greece,HungaryandSlovakiaallhave100%collectionefficiencies.100However,

afewEasternEuropeancountrieshavepoorcollectionrates.Lowestamongthosewith

availablecollectiondataareLatviawith50%,Georgiawith60%andSerbia,alow-income

country,with65%.101

LimitedcasestudyworkhasbeendoneonwastemanagementinEuropean

countrieswithpoorcollectionefficiencies.However,itseemsthatopenburningislikelyan

issueduetotheselowcollectionratesandduetothepoordisposalmechanisms.Latvia,for

98HoornwegandBhada-Tata,84-85.99Ibid,84.100Ibid,84-85.101Ibid.

42

instance,disposesofabout60%ofitscollectedwaste(and,consequently,30%oftotal

generatedwaste)indumpsandabout40%inlandfills,bothofwhichlikelyentailsome

openburningofwastetoreducequantityandthusincuraseverepublichealthrisk.Thus,

whilethepublichealtheffectsofopenwasteburninginEuropeappeartoberelatively

minimal,certaincountrieshavelowcollectionratesandpoorwastemanagementpractices

thatmayleadtotheopenburningofwaste.Morestudieshavefocusedonthepotential

healthimpactsofwasteincineration,whichiscommonincountrieslikeFranceandItaly.

StudieshaveshownthattheareassurroundingMunicipalSolidWaste(MSW)incinerators

havehigherlevelsofPAHsanddioxinsintheairandthelocalpopulationhasahigher

cancermortalityrate.102However,studieshavealsoshownthatthelevelofdioxin

surroundingMSWincineratorsisnothighenoughtoresultinsignificantrisks.103

Therefore,theexactimpactofincinerationpracticesinEuropeancountriesremains

inconclusive,butlikelyposesaminimalpublichealthrisk;nevertheless,otherpractices,

whenpossible,appeartobepreferableinordertoeliminateanyriskofhealthissuesdueto

toxicpollutants.

MiddleEastandNorthAfrica

WastecollectioncoverageratesdropfromthoseinOECDregionsintheMiddleEast

andNorthAfrica(MENA),butarestillrelativelyhigh.Overall,theWorldBankestimates

totalwastecollectioncoverageintheMENAtobearound85%.104Severalofthecountries

studiedbytheWorldBankonlyhavecollectiondataavailableforurbanwastecollection

102NathalieFloretetal.,“DioxinEmissionsfromaSolidWasteIncineratorandRiskofNon-HodgkinLymphoma”,EpidemiologyVol.14,No.4,July2003,397.103F.Cangialosietal.,Healthriskassessmentofairemissionsfromamunicipalsolid...,WasteManagement(2007),doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2007,05,006,10.104HoornwegandBhada-Tata,15.

43

efficiencies,whichlikelyarehigherthantotalwastecollectionefficiencies.Thebestamong

countriesintheMENAwithavailabledataareMalta(with100%collectioncoverageof

totalwaste),Lebanon(with100%collectioncoverageofurbanwaste)andJordan(with

over95%collectioncoverageofurbanwaste),whicharehigh-income,upper-middle

incomeandlower-middleincomecountries,respectively.105Lowestcollectionefficiencies

areIraq,whichhas56%collectioncoverageoftotalwaste,andEgypt,whichcouldhaveas

lowas30%collectionefficiencyinurbanareas;bothofthesecountriesarelower-middle

incomecountries.106

StudiesonwastepracticesandhealthinMENAaresomewhatlimited.Onestudy

doneonsevenPalestiniandistrictsfoundthat,althoughhighamountsofwasteare

collected,themostcommonpracticefordealingwiththewasteisopenburningofwastein

opendumpingsites.TheTulkaremDistrictRefugeeCamp,forinstance,disposedof100%

ofitscollectedwasteindumpswherethewasteisopenlyburnt.107Thestudyattributed

thepoliticaldestabilizationofthePalestinianterritorytodeteriorationinwaste

managementpractices.108Duetothehighamountofopenburningofwastetakingplace,

thepracticesfoundinPalestineareaseriouspublichealththreat.Severalothercountries

intheMENAdisposeofhighamountsofwasteindumpswherethewasteislikelyburned;

Syria,forinstance,disposesofover60%ofitsurbanwasteinthisway.109Thus,despite

highcollectionrates,thehealthriskassociatedwithopenburningofwasteinMENAis

high.

105Ibid,84-85.106Ibid.107IssamA.Al-Khatib,“Trendsandproblemsofsolidwastemanagementindevelopingcountries:AcasestudyinsevenPalestiniandistricts”,WasteManagement27(2007),1915.108Ibid,1918.109HoornwegandBhada-Tata,87-88.

44

LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean

Overall,wastecollectioninLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(LAC)hassomewhat

highcollectionefficiency,withjustunder80%collectioncoverage.110SeveralCaribbean

islandshaveveryhighcollectionefficienciessuchasTrinidadandTobago,St.Luciaand

Grenada,whichallhave100%collectioncoveragerates.111AmongstLatinAmerican

countries,ColombiaandMexicohavethehighestratesofcollectionat98%and91%,

respectively.112LowestintheregionofthosewithavailabledataareHaiti,byasignificant

margin,withanextremelylow11%collectioncoverage,Belize,at50%andParaguay,at

51%.113Duetoitslargepopulationandconsequentlargewastegeneration,Brazilhasthe

mostopenwasteburningandestimatedresultingtoxicpollutantsinLAC,anditisamongst

theleadersinbothcategoriesworldwide.114Unsurprisingly,thosewithhighcollection

ratesinthisregiontendtobeupper-middleincomeorhigh-incomecountries(only

TrinidadandTobagoofcountrieswithavailablecollectiondata),whilethosewithlow

collectionratestendtobelower-middleorlow-incomecountries.

CasestudiesindicateopenburningtobeaseriousprobleminLatinAmericaandthe

Caribbean.InMexicoCity,forinstance,alargeurbanareawithalmost9million

inhabitantsasof2010thereareseriousairpollutionissues.Theimpactofwasteburning

onthecity’spollutionlevelshasbeenexamined.Theminimizationofwasteburningin

MexicoCitycould,accordingtoastudydonebyHodzicetal.,reducetotalorganicaerosol(a

groupthatincludesPAHs,dioxins,furansandDLCs)emissionsbyupto40%andPM2.5

110Ibid,15.111Ibid,84-85.112Ibid.113Ibid.114Wiedinmyeretal.,9525.

45

emissionsbyupto15%.115Furthermore,thisstudyfoundthatopenwasteburningandits

consequentemissionswereespeciallyprevalentinhigh-densityareasinwhichthe

populationswereoflowsocio-economicstatus.116Openburningisalsocommonly

practicedinopendumpsinMexicoandhasbeenfoundtoreleasesignificantamountsof

PBDD/FsandPCDD/Fs.117InpartsofLatinAmerica,openburningofwasteisillegal,yet

suchprohibitionsarerarelyenforced.Brazil,forinstancehaslawsprohibitingbackyard-

burningpractices,yethasprevalentresidentialwasteburningissuesthathavebeen

associatedwithsignificantblackcarbonemissions.118

StudiesinColombiaalsoshowthatwasteincinerationpracticesresultintoxic

emissions.InColombia,thermalincinerationisusedmostlyforindustrialandmedical

hazardouswaste,butalsoforsomeMSW.Veryfewincineratorsareequippedwithair

pollutioncontrolsystems(APCSs).119Theseincineratorshavebeenfoundtoemit

significantamountsofdioxinsandfurans,eveninthosecaseswheretheincineratoris

equippedwithanAPCS.120Thus,incinerationpracticesinColombiaareapublichealth

threat,inpartduetoimproperequipment.Throughthesefewexamplesofwaste

mismanagementinLatinAmerica,onecanseethatdifferentwasteburningpractices

contributesignificantquantitiesoftoxicpollutantstotheatmosphereandthusconstitutea

publichealththreat.

115A.Hodzicetal.,“ImpactofTrashBurningonAirQualityinMexicoCity”,EnvironmentalScienceandTechnology46(2012),4950.116Ibid,4951.117BrianK.Gullettetal.,“PCDD/F,PBDD/F,andPBDEEmissionsfromOpenBurningofaResidentialWasteDump”,EnvironmentalScienceandTechnologyVol.44,No.1,2010,398.118AdmirCrésoTarginoandPatriciaKrecl,“LocalandRegionalContributionstoBlackCarbonAerosolsinaMid-SizedCityinSouthernBrazil”,AerosolandAirQualityResearch16(2016),126.119B.Aristizábaletal.,“BaselinelevelsofdioxinandfuranemissionsfromwastethermaltreatmentInColombia”,Chemosphere73(2008),S171.120Ibid,S174.

46

EastAsiaandPacific

EastAsiaandthePacific(EAP)havesimilaroverallcollectioncoveragetoLACat

justunder80%,althoughthisnumberexcludesOECDclassifiedcountriesJapanandSouth

Korea.121TheWorldBank’scountry-specificcollectiondatafortheEAPregionislimitedto

onlysixcountriesintheWorldBank’sdefinitionofEAP,andJapanandSouthKoreaaswell.

Amongthosewithcollectionstatistics,allhigh-incomecountrieshaveveryhighcollection

rates;Japan,Singapore,MacaoandHongKongallhave100%totalwastecollection

coveragewhileSouthKoreahas99%oftotalwastecollectioncoverage.122Ontheother

hand,theMarshallIslands,alower-middleincomecountry,onlycancollect60%oftotal

wasteandCambodia,alow-incomecountry,onlycancollect75%ofurbanwaste.123

MainlandChinaisalargeconcernintermsofopenwasteburning,asitwasthesecond

highestgeneratorofwasteintheworldin2012.Chinaisestimatedtonearlytripleits

wastegenerationandhavethelargestgenerationofwasteintheworldby2025bya

significantmargin,anditisestimatedtocontributethelargestamountoftoxicopenwaste

burningemissionsbyWiedinmyeretal.asof2014.124125Consequently,unlessopen

burningofwasteisdiscontinuedorlimited,by2025,Chinacouldpotentiallyproducetwo

ormoretimesasmanytoxicpollutantsduetoopenwasteburningasitdidin2014.

ThereisagreatdisparityofthequalityofwastemanagementpracticesintheEAP

region.Japanhassomeofthebestwastemanagementpracticesworldwideas91%of

121HoornwegandBhada-Tata,15.122Ibid,84-85.123Ibid.124Ibid,82-83.125Wiedinmyeretal.,9525.

47

wastecollectedinJapanisrecycled(17%)orisconvertedintoenergy(74%).126Cambodia,

ontheotherendofthespectrum,disposesofupto100%ofitscollectedwasteintodumps,

althoughsomestudieschallengethisfigure.127Cambodia’scapitalcity,PhnomPenh,has

overonemillioninhabitantsanditisalsohometoalargeMSWopendump.Thesoil

surroundingthedumpwastestedandithaddioxinlevelsthatwerehigherthansafeWHO

standardlevels.Thiswasmostlikelyduetotheindiscriminateopenburningofplastics

(whichequaledabout15.5%ofallgeneratedwaste)alongwithotherwaste.128Prolonged

exposuretodioxinscanbecarcinogenictohumans.Furthermore,thesamestudyindicated

thatsomehouseholdspracticesimilarindiscriminateburningwithpotentiallyhazardous

healtheffects,althoughthepracticehasbeenreducedsincethedaysthatKhmerRouge

governedCambodiainthe1960sand1970s.129InthePacificregion,studiesdonein

Bandung,Indonesiashowedthatwastecollectionwasaseriousproblemandthatthe

dominantmethodofdisposalofuncollectedMSWwasopenburning.130

AnotherpracticethatposesasignificantissueinAsiaisopenagriculturalwaste

burning,whichiscommonlypracticedinagriculturalcommunitiesinplaceslikeTaiwan

andThailandinordertoreducewastequantityandclearspaceforfarming.Onestudyin

Taiwanindicatedthatthispracticeledtosignificantincreasesinatmosphericcarcinogenic

PAHsand,consequently,apublichealththreat.131Thus,althoughwastemanagementcan

beexcellentandopenburningalmostnonexistentinpartsofEAP,openburningofMSW126HoornwegandBhada-Tata,87.127Ibid.128BunrithSengetal.,“MunicipalsolidwastemanagementinPhnomPenh,capitalcityofCambodia”,WasteManagement&Research29(5),2010,495.129Ibid,497.130EnriDamanhurietal.,“EvaluationofmunicipalsolidwasteflowintheBandungmetropolitanarea,Indonesia”,JournalofMaterialCyclesandWasteManagement11(2009),272.131KangShinChenetal.,“EffectsofOpenBurningofRiceStrawonConcentrationsofPolycyclicAromaticHydrocarbonsinCentralTaiwan”,JournaloftheAirandWasteManagementAssociation,58:10(2008),1326.

48

andagriculturalwasteconstitutesalargepublichealthriskinotherpartsofEAP;

furthermore,theexpectedgrowthofChinaopensthepossibilitythattheproblemcouldget

significantlyworseinEAPinthefuture.

SouthAsia

CountriesintheSouthAsianRegion(SAR)aremostlylow-incomecountries.

Consequently,theregion’scollectioncoverageisverylowat65%.132Unfortunately,the

WorldBankreportdoesnotfindsufficientcollectiondataforanyofthecountriesinSouth

AsiaapartfromNepal,whichhas94%collectioncoverageinurbanareas;availableUN

statisticsonwastecollectionconfirmthelackofavailablecollectiondataoncountriessuch

asIndia,SriLanka,BangladeshandtheMaldives.133Onestudydonein1998foundthe

averagecollectioncoverageinIndiancitiestobe72.5%,butthisdataislikelyoutdated.134

AmorerecentstudydoneinSriLankain2005foundthattheSouthernProvinceofSri

Lankahadextremelypoorcollectioncoverageat24%ofallhouseholdsandlessthan2%in

ruralareas.135Clearlymorestudyisneededoncollectioncoverageinindividualcountries

oftheSAR.ThisisespeciallytrueinIndia,whichisoneofthetopproducersofwaste

worldwideandisestimatedtobeamongthegreatestproducersoftoxicpollutantsfrom

openwasteburningintheworld,alongsidecountrieslikeBrazilandChina.136

OpenburningisaseriousissueintheSAR.Thestudypreviouslycitedonthe

SouthernProvinceofSriLankafoundthat,ofthe76%ofhouseholdswithoutcollection

132HoornwegandBhada-Tate,15.133Ibid,84-85.134ShuchiGuptaetal.,“SolidwastemanagementinIndia:optionsandopportunities”,Resources,ConservationandRecycling24(1998),139.135ChandanaK.Vidanaarachchietal.,“MunicipalsolidwastemanagementintheSouthernProvinceofSriLanka:Problems,issuesandchallenges”,WasteManagement26(2006),924.136Wiedinmyeretal.,9525.

49

coverage,69%burnalloftheirplasticwaste,whichproducessomeofthehighest

quantitiesofcarcinogenicdioxins,furans,DLCsandPAHsofallwastetypes.137Among

householdswhohavecollectioncoverageintheSouthernProvince,80%stillburnwaste

and60%burnplasticwaste.138Thesepracticesofresidentialwasteburningarean

immensehealththreattotheSriLankansintheSouthernProvince.InIndiaandother

placesintheSAR,wasteburningcanbecommonpracticenotonlyresidentially,butalsoat

dumpsites.Theconsequenceshavebeenquitedangerous.AstudydoneonaMSWdump

inKolkata(Calcutta),whereMSWisregularlyburnedeitherintentionallyor

spontaneously,foundhighlevelsofdioxin-likePCBsandotherPOPsinthebreastmilkof

mothersintheareaduetotheconsumptionoffishfromalocalpond.139Thus,highlevels

ofwasteburningoccursintheSARandhaveaverytoxiceffect,potentiallyplacinginfants

atthegreatestriskofharmfromtoxicpollutants.

Africa

Ofworldregionssub-SaharanAfricahasperhapstheworstMSWmanagement

practicesand,consequently,hashadasignificantamountofstudydevotedtoitswaste

managementpractices.Overall,Africa(AFR),excludingNorthAfrica,hasthelowestwaste

collectioncoverageofallregionsdefinedintheWorldBankreportat46%collection

coverage.140Countrieswithhighcollectioncoverageefficienciesareararity.Thosewith

highcollectionratesareupper-middleincomecountriessuchasMauritiusandthe

137Vidanaarachchietal.,927.138Ibid.139MasayukiSomeyaetal.,“PersistentorganicpollutantsinbreastmilkofmothersresidingaroundanopendumpingsiteinKolkata,India:Specificdioxin-likePCBlevelsandfishasapotentialsource”,EnvironmentalInternational36(2010)34.140HoornwegandBhada-Tata,15.

50

Seychelles,whichhave98%and95%totalwastecollectionrates,respectively.141Allofthe

othercountriesinAfricathathaveavailablecollectiondataareclassifiedaslow-income

countries.LowesttotalwastecollectionratesintheregionareinMadagascar,with18%

totalcollectioncoverage;ZambiaandComoros,whichbothhave20%totalcollection

coverage;Senegal,whichhas21%totalcollectioncoverage;andBenin,whichhas23%

totalcollectioncoverage.142Theseissuesarenotlimitedtoruralareas,aslargeurban

areasalsohaveverylowcollectionratesinsomeplaces.Lusaka,forinstance,thecapital

cityofZambiawithapopulationof1.3millionpeople,hasjust18%collectioncoverageand

Abidjan,theeconomiccapitalcityofCôted’Ivoirewithabout2.8millionpeople,has

between30%and40%collectioncoverage.143Theincrediblypoorcollectionthatoccursin

AFRlikelyleadstoalargeamountoftoxicopenwasteburningthatcannotbeeffectively

documentedorestimated.

Table4:UrbanwastecollectioncoverageofseveralcitiesinAfricawithoveronemillioninhabitants144

Country City Year UrbanPopulation(millions)

CollectionCoverage(%)

Cameroon Yaounde 2005 1.72 43Côted’Ivoire Abidjan 2002 2.78 30-40Guinea Conakry 2007 3.0 76Kenya Nairobi 2006 2.31 30-45Senegal Dakar 2003 1.71 30-40Tanzania DarEsSalaam N/A 2.5 48Togo Lome 2002 1.0 42Zambia Lusaka 2005 1.3 18Zimbabwe Harare 2007 2.5 99

141Ibid,84-85.142Ibid.143ibid,63.144Ibid.

51

Specificpracticesfoundincasestudiesinlow-incomeAfricancountriesshowa

propensityforuncontrolledwasteburningandconsequenthealtheffects.Onestudydone

inanareasurroundingAddisAbaba,Ethiopiafoundthat74.6%ofhouseholdsopenly

indiscriminatelyburnwasteinresidentialpitsandadmittodoingso.145Anotherstudy

doneinUgandafoundsimilarstatistics,with74.1%ofuncollectedwastebeingburnt

openly.146Inaddition,thestudyinEthiopiafoundthatopenburningindumpsthemselves

was“continuous”duetointernalfiresorintentionalfires.147Othercasestudiesindicatea

consistentpatternoflargeproportionsofopenwasteburningonuncollectedwastein

manycountriesoftheAFRregion,aswellasopenburninginordertoreducewaste

quantity.SuchpracticeshavebeenlinkedtoelevatedlevelsofPCDD/Fsinfoodsourcesin

Nairobi,Kenyaandaresultingincreaseincancerincidenceandmortality.148Giventhe

extremelylowcollectioncoverageratesfoundinmanycountriesintheAFRregion,the

impactofopenburningofwasteonhealthislikelyextremeandsomewhatimmeasurable.

OneadditionalpracticeofparticularconcerninAfricaistheburningofE-waste

(consistingofold,oftenobsoleteelectronicproductssuchascomputersandrefrigerators,

alsoknownasWasteElectricalandElectronicEquipment(WEEE)).E-wasteisimported

fromdevelopedcountriesinlargequantitiestodevelopingcountries.Inrecentyears,E-

wastehasbeenimportedinincreasinglylargequantitiestoAfricancountries,with215,000

tonsimportedtoGhanaand100,000tonsimportedtoNigeriain2009-2010,accordingto

145NigatuRegassaetal.,“ChallengesandOpportunitiesinMunicipalSolidWasteManagement:TheCaseofAddisAbabaCity,CentralEthiopia”,JournalofHumanEcology33(3)(2011),187.146JamesOnot-OkunuandRichardNyenje,“MunicipalsolidwastemanagementunderdecentralizationinUganda”,HabitatInternational34(2011),541.147Regassaetal.,188.148Yi-HsuanShih,“HealthrisksandeconomiccostsofexposuretoPCDD/Fsfromopenburning:acasestudyinNairobi,Kenya”,AirQualityandAtmosphericHealth9(2016),209-210.

52

statisticsintheBaselConvention(aninternationaltreatyfortheminimizationoftoxic

wastes).149WEEEisfrequentlyburnedeitherfordisposalorinanattempttorecover

materialsfromtheE-waste.Researchdonein2015atasiteofopenburninginAccra,

foundlargequantitiesoftoxicPBDD/FsandPCDD/Fsinthesoil,bothatburningsitesand

innon-burningareasnearby.Thetoxicequivalents(TEQ)ofthesecompoundsinthesoil

wasfoundtobeupto24timesthatofUSactionlevels(thelevelatwhichsurveillanceand

monitoringforsafetyisneeded).150Thus,E-wasteburningisaformofopenwasteburning

thatoccursintheAFRregionthatcanbeespeciallydisastrousforpublichealthandthatis

perpetuatedbydevelopedcountrieswhounloadtheirwastebyexportingit.AlongwithE-

wasteburning,openburningofwasteresidentiallyandindumpscreatesanextremepublic

healthissueinaregionalreadymarkedwithotherhealthissuesandinadequateincome

levelstocreateasolution.

149NguyenMinhTueetal.,“Releaseofchlorinated,brominatedandmixedhalogenateddioxin-relatedcompoundstosoilsfromopenburningofe-wasteinAgbogbloshie(Accra,Ghana)”,JournalofHazardousMaterials302(2016),152150Ibid,155.

53

Image7:E-Waste,orWEEE,containingoldelectronicitems,isimportedinlargequantitiestocountriesinAfricafordisposal,whichofteninvolvesunsafeburning.151

Table5:SoilconcentrationsofPCDDs,PCDFs,PBDDsandPBDFsinpg/gofdryweightinthenon-openburningandopenburningareasoftheAgbogbloshieE-wastesiteinAccra,Ghana152

Compound MedianAgbogbloshie(noburning)SoilConcentration(pg/g)

MedianAgbogbloshie(openburning)SoilConcentration(pg/g)

TotalPCDDs 990 62,000TotalPCDFs 2100 230,000TotalPBDDs 32 1400TotalPBDFs 6600 930,000

151http://web1.cnre.vt.edu/lsg/GEOG3104S10Web/Group2/Open%20Waste%20Burning.html.152MinhTueetal.,153.

54

Summary

Thedegreetowhichopenburningofwasteisapublichealthproblemvariesin

differentregionsoftheworld.NorthAmerica,excludingMexico,andalargeportionof

Europehaveveryminimalhealthrisksassociatedwithopenburningofwaste,duetohigh

collectioncoverage,properincinerationandproperwastedisposalmethodssuchas

recyclingandenergycreation,althoughthehealthrisksarenotcompletelyabsentinthese

regions.Otherworldregions,especiallyAfricaandSouthAsia,havecommonpracticesof

openburningresidentiallyandinwastedumpsites.Thepoorcollectionrates,lackof

awareness,poorfundingandpoorwastedisposalmethods,resultinalargepublichealth

issue.Unsurprisingly,theseissuesaretheworstinlow-incomeandlower-middleincome

countriesand,withincountries’populations,thenegativeimpactofopenburningofwaste

ismostsevereforpeopleoflowsocio-economicstatus.Dataisoftenunavailableandhard

tocollectinmanyoftheareasmostaffectedbyopenwasteburning.Nevertheless,itis

clearthatopenburningofwasterepresentsaglobalhealthdisasterwithalargeamountof

potentialeffectsthatarenotfullyunderstoodnorproperlymeasured.

55

Figure3:Estimatedquantityofwasteburnedbycountry,accordingtoWiedinmyeretal.,residentially(A)andindumps(B)153

V.BESTPRACTICERECOMMENDATIONS

Alimitingfactorinanypolicyrecommendationfordealingwithopenwasteburning

isthelimitedfinancialcapabilitiesofmanyofthecountriesthatarethemostnegatively

impactedbyopenburningofwaste.Afirststep,ofcourse,iseducationthatfocusesboth

onthedisastroushealtheffectsofburningwasteandthehigheconomiccostfor

governmentsandindividualsfortreatmentofillnessesduetoopenwasteburning.While

153Wiedinmyeretal.,9526.

56

residentialwasteburningshouldbemadeillegal,theenforcementofsuchmeasuresisvery

difficultandamorereasonablegoalwouldbetoconvincepeoplethattheyshouldnotburn

wasteinthefirstplace.Sincethegoalofwasteburningisusuallytoreducequantityof

waste,wastereductionseemstobeanaturaltargetforpracticesincountrieswithwaste

development.

Image8:LawsprohibitingroadsidedumpingandburninginplaceslikeBangalore,Indiaareverydifficulttoenforce.154

Properincinerationofwasteislikelyunfeasibleinmanydevelopingcountries,for

economicandinfrastructuralreasons.InIndia,forinstance,severalwaste-to-energyplants

werebuilt,buttheplantswereeithershort-livedorneverbeganoperationatall.155

However,whenpossible,incinerationasaformofwaste-to-energymaybeagoodmethod

forrecoupingsomefinancialgainfromwasteforimpoverishedcountries.Likelymore

feasibleisamodelbasedonrecyclinginordertoreducewaste.Severallow-incomeand

lower-middleincomecountriessuchasNiger,Cameroon,Tunisia,Morocco,Thailand,the

154HoornwegandBhada-Tata,33.155“CostsandbenefitsofIndia’swastedisposaloptions”,March15,2007,http://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/costs-and-benefits-of-india-s-waste-disposal-options-5623.

57

MarshallIslands,andSyriarecyclesomeoftheirwasteandconsequentlyhavesomeform

ofrecyclinginfrastructure.156Expansionofthesefacilities,andtargetingthecreationof

newrecyclingfacilities,couldbeafruitfulapproachforminimizationofwasteburning;in

addition,thisapproachcouldprovideemploymentopportunitiesforscavengerswhoput

theirhealthatseriousriskbyindiscriminatelysearchingthroughwasteinordertorecover

valuablematerials.Anothermethodofwastereductiontobepursuediscomposting.

SurveysofhouseholdsintheSouthernProvinceofSriLanka(alow-incomecountry)have

foundastrongwillingnesstocompostinthehomeand13%ofhouseholdsalready

compostedasof2005.157Althoughthisgroupcanhardlybeassumedtoberepresentative

ofmostdevelopingcountries,encouragingcompostinganditsbenefitsinplacessuchasSri

Lankacouldbebeneficial.SriLankaneducatorsareteachingpeopleaboutthebenefitsof

compostinginordertoincreasetheirwillingnesstocompost.Compostingwouldbeacost

effectiveandseeminglyfeasiblewayofreducingorganicwastevolume(whichproduces

largeamountsofmethane)andthusopenburningofwaste.

Theissuesofopenwasteburningindevelopingcountriesdonothaveasimple

solution.Somecombinationofimprovedcollectiontoreduceresidentialwasteburning,

improveddumpsitestoreduceopenburningatdumpsites,educationandwaste

minimizationareallneededinordertoreducethelargeproportionofwastethatisopenly

burntintheworld.Unfortunately,forthetimebeing,onlysomemeasuresmaybefeasible

inthepursuitofawastemanagementsystemwithproperwastecollectionandareduction

inopenwasteburningindevelopingcountries.

156HoornwegandBhada-Tata,87-88.157Vidanaarachchietal.,927.

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Image9:Recyclingisagoodalternativetowasteburningthatcouldbetargetedinordertoreducewastevolume.158

VI.RECOMMENDATIONSFORFUTURESTUDY

Althoughthisstudyattemptstoexpressthepublichealthriskassociatedwithopen

wasteburning,suchagoalinevitablyissomewhatfutileduetothelackofcomprehensive

researchonthetopic.Trustworthycollectiondataforsomeofthelargestglobalproducers

ofwasteandtoxicemissionsduetoopenburningofwaste,suchasIndiaandChina,are

unfortunatelyunavailable.Inaddition,theamountofopenburningofwastethatoccurs

canonlybeestimatedandhasrarelybeenmeasuredduetounregulatedandillegalwaste

burning,andduetoalackofinterestinthetopic;asaresult,openburningofwastehas

oftenbeenunderrepresentedasaproducerofpollutants.Theextentofhealthimpactsof

thevarioustoxicpollutantsproducedbyopenburninghavenotbeencomprehensively

studied,althoughmanyofthepollutantsareacknowledgedtobehighlytoxicandhavea

158https://ecocentra.wordpress.com/2015/09/11/the-pros-and-cons-of-the-cabinet-approved-trash-solution/.

59

widerangeofnegativeeffectsonhumanhealth.Muchfurtherstudyonallofthesefactors

isneededfortheglobalpublichealthimpactofopenwasteburningtobemoreproperly

representedandarticulated.Limitedstudyhasbeendone,ingeneral,onwaste

managementinsomeregionssuchasLatinAmerica.Intheseareas,morestudyonwaste

managementpracticesingeneralisnecessary.Overall,giventheseriousimpactsthatpoor

wastemanagementandopenburningcanhaveonhealthandtheenvironmentdueto

varioustypesofpollution,farmoreresearchtosupplementthelimitedresearchcurrently

availableonallaspectsofthesubjectisneeded.

VII.CONCLUSIONS

Wasteisadebilitatingenvironmentalandhealthissuethroughouttheworld.

Variousproblemsinwastemanagementandcollectionworldwidecanhavedisastrous

healthandenvironmentalimpactsduetoairpollution,soilpollution,waterpollutionand

foodchaincontamination.Openburningofwasteisapracticethatimpactshealth

primarilyasaresultofthereleaseofairbornepollutants,butalsothroughotherroutesof

exposure.Whetheropenburningofwasteoccursintentionallyinresidentialareas,

unintentionallyindumpsites,orasaresultofpoorlymanagedandunregulated

incineration,ithasdisastrouseffectsonthehealthofcommunitiesaroundtheworld.

Openwasteburning’scontributiontoemissionsofvariouspollutants,whileunable

tobepreciselymeasured,canbeestimatedtobesignificant.Infact,openburningisthe

primarysourceofsomepollutants.Thepollutantsreleasedbywasteburningincludewell-

studied,harmfulpollutantssuchasCO2,methane,particulatematterandheavymetalsand

lessunderstood,yetharmful,pollutantssuchasdioxins,furansandPAHs.Thehealth

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effectsofthesepollutantsvaryfrompollutanttopollutant.However,manyofthese

pollutantscanbeassociatedwithseveraldifferentcancersandposesignificantlygreater

risksforunbornfetuses,infantsandchildren.Openwasteburninganditsconsequent

healtheffectsoccurmostfrequentlyinpoorercountries(andpoorerregions)where

insufficientwastemanagementstrategiesexistandthereislimitedhealthinfrastructureto

treatthevariousissuesthatopenburningofwastecancause.Thus,openburningofwaste,

likepoorwastemanagementingeneral,isaglobalhealthdisasterthatrequiresfurther

studyandfurtherstrategiestocreateafullerassessmentofitshealthimpactsandwaysto

preventit.

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AnnexI:ImportantStatistics

MunicipalSolidWaste(MSW)

• GlobalMSWgeneratedin2002:0.68Billiontonnes/year

• GlobalMSWgeneratedin2012:1.3Billiontonnes/year

• EstimatedglobalMSWgeneratedin2025:2.2Billiontonnes/year

• WastecollectioncoverageefficiencyinAfrica:46%

• WastecollectioncoverageefficiencyinSouthAsia:65%

• WastecollectioncoverageefficiencyofOECDcountries:98%

• Percentageofwasteopenlyburnedglobally:41%

Health

• Estimateddeathsthatcouldhavebeenpreventedin2011byPM2.5prevention

measures:3.1million

• IncreasedcancerriskforthosewithhighlevelsofexposuretoDioxins,Furansand

DLCs:40%

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AnnexII:TableofPollutantsduetoOpenBurningandsomeoftheirHealthImpacts159Pollutant GlobalEmissions

ofPollutantDuetoOpenBurning(Kg/year)

%ofTotalGlobalEmissionsofPollutantDuetoOpenBurning

PotentialSeriousHealthImpacts

CarbonDioxide(CO2) 1.4Trillion 5 • Cardiorespiratoryfailure• Climatechange

associatedrisksMethane(CH4) 3.6Billion 1 • Respiratoryarrest

• Climatechangeassociatedrisks

CarbonMonoxide(CO) 37Billion 7 • Ataxia• Seizures

CoarseParticulates(PM10) 12Billion 24 • Lungcancer• Respiratorydisease• HeartfailureFineParticulates(PM2.5) 10Billion 29

BlackCarbon(BC) 632Million 11OrganicCarbon(OC) 5.1Billion 43PolycyclicAromaticHydrocarbons(PAH)

334Million 39 • Skin,bladderandlungcancer

• Poorcognitivedevelopment

TotalPolychlorinatedBiphenyls(PCB)

123,000 N/A • Lymphoma• Leukemia

PolychlorinatedDibenzodioxins/furans(PCDD/F)ToxicEquivalency(TEQ)

206 N/A • Lungcancer• Reproductiveissues• Neurodevelopmental

issuesPolybrominatedDibenzodiozins/furans(PBDD/F)ToxicEquivalency(TEQ)

80 N/A • Developmentalissues

Benzene 875Million 25 • Chromosomalmutations• Acutemyeloidleukemia

HydrochloricAcid(HCL) 3.5Billion 39-58 • Respiratoryissues• Glaucomaandcataracts

Formaldehyde(CH2O) 603Million 50 • Eyeirritationandburning

• NasalcancerMercury(Hg) 204,000 5-20 • Motorimpairment

• Cognitiveimpairment• Memoryloss

159Wiedinmyeretal.,9528.