P0001_File_Varieties of Modern English

8/6/2019 P0001_File_Varieties of Modern English

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Varieties of Modern English: The Truth Behind the Myth

By Julie C. Pelto and Juan C. Boyadji

INTRODUCTION

The main objective of this paper is to raise awareness of the differences

between the two major varieties of English.

Are these differences important? If so, where do they lie? This paper will

explore what we know about this issue and what our tenets are. In order to

achieve this aim we will group these differences into distinct areas of linguistics,

namely: grammatical, orthographical, lexical and phonological, briefly clarifying

their origin and reason.

1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Language is constantly changing. Yet, there are historical reasons that triggered

the unequal development of the English language on either sides of the Atlantic.

Settlement and colonial times

The common beginning dates back to Shakespearean language, when English

was under the process of standardization, i.e. spelling conventions as we know

them today were starting to arise. It is by this time the first settlers arrived at

Jamestown(1607) and Plymouth(1620).

The separation of the English-speaking people in two distant and radically

different geographical contexts, added to the fact that communication was

scant, played a crucial part in the separate development of the language.

In the New World items which did not exist in the Old World had to be named.

These basically referred to geography and agriculture. Most of these terms

were borrowed from the Native American peoples.

The different ways in which pronunciation developed:


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Variation in pronunciation occurred in different directions on both sides of

the Atlantic.

Some original pronunciation patterns were kept in North American

English while change occurred in British English.

Patterns which were under transformation continued to do so in the same

way.

At this point in time changes in the language were minimal due to several

reasons:

stable political/economic bonds

the worldwide prestige of British English

an increase in literacy during the XVIII C.

common reading material (both educational and recreational)

Indolence and thereafter

At the beginning, contrary to what one would expect, the new nation needed to

keep a strong standard for the sake of unity. Thus, language underwent no

major change. Yet, some years later (ca.1800), having achieved this goal,

linguistic differences were to be stated pursuing individuality. Noah Webster

suggested these changes through what he called spelling pronunciation, where

an attempt was made to bring pronunciation and spelling together.

Industrial Revolution also contributed to these variations since inventions

occurred in parallel in Britain and America and were named at the same time

independently.

Furthermore, differences in the political systems created new vocabulary

specific to each.


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The XX C requires Britain and the US to reinstall long-lost ties, mainly due to

political affairs, particularly the great world wars. In addition to this, the mass

media as a multi-cultural source of linguistic influence have played an integral

part in the levelling of the two varieties. As a result, lexical and grammatical

borrowings occur in both now.

2. ORTHOGRAPHICAL VARIATION

Orthographical differences between the two varieties are well known to

teachers, but sometimes these differences are oversimplified.

The major areas of differences in spelling are:

-our vs. -or

In general, where -our is found in BritEng, -or is used in USEng.

E.g.

BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng

behaviour behaviorcolour color

Some exceptions are glamour, saviour and savour, where the -our is stillusual in USEng

-re vs. -er


calibre calibercentre center

fibre fiber

goitre goiterlitre literlustre lustermeagre meager

metre(length) metermitre miter

nitre niterphiltre philterreconnoitre reconnoiter


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sabre sabersaltpetre saltpetersceptre scepter

sombre somberspectre spectertheatre theater

-ence vs. -ense


defence defenselicence(n.) license(n.)license(v.)offence offensepretence pretense

-ogue vs. -og

The spelling -ogue can be found in both BritEng and USEng, whereas -ogis only found in USEng.

E.g.


catalogue catalogdialogue dialog

-amme vs. -am


aerogramme aerogramgramme gramkilogramme kilogramprogramme program

program(computer)

-ise/-yse vs. -ize/-yze (suffixes)


-yse -yze-ise -ize

E.g.


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analyse analyzeparalyse paralyze

criticise critisizerealise realize

-ll- vs. -l- (word medial)

Both USEng and BritEng accept the ll spelling, l being being found only inUSEng.

E.g.


counsellor counselortraveller traveler

An exception worth noting isjewellery(BritEng)/jewelry(USEng only)

-l vs. -ll (word final)

The opposite case is also found, where l is a possible spelling in bothvarieties, ll being acceptable only in USEng.

E.g.


enrol enrollfulfil fulfill

An exception here is skilful(BritEng only).

-pp- vs. -p- (plus suffix)


kidnapper kidnaperworshipping worshiping

-ae-/-oe- vs. -e-

In general, USEng favours the spelling pronunciation. At times, the morecomplex spelling is also acceptable in USEng.

E.g.



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archaeology archeologyfoetus fetusgynaecologist gynecologist

-e + suffix vs. elision of e

Verbs which finish in e, when adding a suffix, keep the e in both varieties,although a non-e spelling is the more common case in USEng.

E.g.


acknowledgement acknowledgment judgement judgmentageing aging

likeable likable

-xion vs. -ction


connexion connectiondeflexion deflectioninflexion inflectionreflexion reflectionretroflexion retroflection

en-/em- vs. in-/im-


embed imbedencase incaseenclose incloseendorse indorseenquire inquireensure insure

3. LEXICAL VARIATION

To begin with, we must consider that there are several areas of difference

between British and American English as well as reasons for them.

We will divide the vocabulary lists in groups attempting at some

systematisation.


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The first and most important group of words comprises those that differ radically

in meaning. These are the ones we prefer to highlight due to the fact that, being

the same word, and bearing semantic differences, leads to sometimes rather

touchy misunderstandings. Fortunately, this is a limited list, yet a very importantone to know when teaching.

WORD BritEng meaning USEng meaning

Homelydown to earth, domestic

(= US homey)ugly (of people)

Nervy nervous bold, full of nerve, cheeky

Pants underpants trousersMuffler scarf exhaust pipe of car

to tick off to scold to make angry

Secondly there are those words that carry an additional meaning in one of thetwo varieties due to a particular sense or usage. These words are also veryimportant because they can likewise cause communication problems betweenspeakers of the two varieties. Often, the additional meaning responds to ametaphorical extension of the common meaning. Not surprisingly, these wordsare also relatively few, yet useful to bear in mind.

WORD Meaning in common Additional meaning in USEng.

bathrooma room with a bathtub or

shower and sinkroom with toilet only

cute endearing (kittens, puppies)attractive, charming ( e.g. of adult

people)

dumb mute stupid

good fine, nice, etc. valid (as of tickets, special offers)

regular consistent, habitual average (as in size), normal

school institution of education atelementary level

all institutions of education, includinguniversities

to ship to transport by shipto transport by ship, train, plane or

truck


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WORD Meaning in common Additional meaning in BritEng

frontier a wild open space border between two countries

leader

one who commands, guides,

directs, is in front an editorial

to mind to heed, obeyto look after as in e.g. mind the gap,

mind the children

rug a thick carpet, usually wool a thick wrap or coverlet

smart intelligent well-groomed

surgerya medical operation or

operating rooman office of any doctor

Thirdly, there is a group of words which, having shared meanings, either conveya different style, connotation, or are used with a dissimilar frequency. Luckily,this list is also quite short. Misunderstandings are not as frequent as in thecategories analysed previously, yet one can detect by these words whichvariety of the English language one uses.This is valuable for teachers to become consistent models of whichever varietyof English they choose to teach.

WORD BritEng usage USEng usage

autumn common; all stylesuncommon; poetic or formal (fall

used instead)

clever(meaning smart,

dexterous)common; positive

less common; usually negative(i.e. sly)

to fancy(meaning tolike or

want)common; informal Uncommon

fortnight common; all styles uncommon (archaic); poetic

perhaps all stylessomewhat formal (maybe used

instead)

quite(as in quite

good)

negative or neutral Positive

row(meaningquarrelor

disturbance)Common Uncommon

Finally, the last group comprises different words altogether for the sameconcept or item. This group in contrast, accounts for the majority of thedifferences between British English and American English.


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The following is just a sample list. Some of these terms are not normallyunderstood in the other variety, others are known, yet are used to a lesserextent. They are presented here according to the semantic fields they belong to.

Food and Cooking

USEng BritEng

alligator pear avocado

appetizer starter, hors d'oeuvre

baked potato jacket potato

beer lager/ale

Bell pepper (red, green, etc.) pepper

biscuit scone

Blood sausage black puddingbowl (e.g. for pudding) basin

bun bap, roll

can tin

chips crisps

cookie biscuit

cracker biscuit (savoury)

crepe pancake

custard egg custard

dessert pudding

eggplant aubergine

hamburger meat mince

jello jelly

jelly jam

molasses treacle

pitcher jug

pudding custard

roast (noun) joint

stove cooker

To broil to grillzucchini courgette

Household items

USEng BritEng


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antenna Aerial

apartment flat

apartment house/building block of flats

attached home semi-detached house

bathtub bath

buffet sideboard

couch/davenport sofa

faucet tap

flashlight torch

floor lamp standard lamp

garbage can dustbin

garden vegetable or flower garden

living room sitting room

outlet/socket power point

sheers net curtains

to call (by telephone) to ring

washcloth face flannel

yard garden

Clothing and Accessories

USEng BritEng

(womens) underpants knickers

backpack/backbag rucksack

baking soda bicarbonate of soda

barrette hairslide

bathrobe dressing gown

billfold wallet

braid plait

changepurse purse

diaper nappy

garter suspender

jumper dress worn over blouse

knickers knickerbockers

overalls dungarees

pantyhose tights

purse handbag

smock overall

suspenders braces

sweater (pullover) jumper


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tuxedo dinner jacket

undershirt vest

vest waistcoat

Commerce

USEng BritEng

attorney lawyer

automated teller machine(atm)

cashpoint

bill note

desk clerk (hotel) receptionist

drug store/pharmacy chemists shop

hardware store ironmongersinstallment buying hire purchase

liquor store off-license store

mortician undertaker

realtor estate agent

to make a reservation to book

trade (noun) custom

traveling statesman commercial traveller

Transportation

USEng BritEng

asphalt/blacktop Tarmac

baby buggy pram (perambulator)

flatcar (railway) truck

gas (gasoline) petrol

muffler (on a car) silencer

pedestrian underpass subway

pullman car (railway) sleeping carsidewalk (paved street side) path

station wagon estate car

subway underground railway/tube

trailer/camper/mobile home caravan

truck lorry


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Miscellaneous

USEng BritEng

AM medium wave

area code dialing codebar pub, public house

Brit Briton

cart trolley

emcee compere

game (sports) match

generator dynamo

line queue

monkey wrench spanner

rookie first year member (e.g. on a team)

sophomore second year studentto check to tick

zero nought

4. GRAMMATICAL VARIATION

There are important differences between the two varieties concerning the use ofauxiliaries and modal verbs.

At the level of educated speech and writing, which to our understanding is whatshould be present in classroom education, there are relatively few differences ingrammar between BritEng and USEng. Those, which do exist, tend to be fairlytrivial when considered from the point of view of understanding. Non the less, asteachers one must be aware of these differences in order to be prepared whenworking with sources of each variety.

For practical reasons, we will divide these into their different grammaticalcategories.

4.1 Verb Formation

Irregular Verbs

In USEng, a number of irregular verbs have become regular, while remainingirregular in BritEng.

Derivation


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New verbs are constantly created from adjectives and nouns in both varieties:e.g. symbol symbolize, ripe ripen, frost defrost. USEng tends to be moreproductive than BritEng. Two verb-forming affixes which are somewhat moreproductive in USEng than in BritEng are:

-ify: citify, humidify, uglify-ize: burglarize, decimalize, hospitalize, rubberize, slenderize

Conversion

Another way of forming new words is by simply changing a words grammaticalclass. Although this process is common to both varieties, again, it is morecommon in USEng.

Noun Verb E.g.

an author to author She has authored three books.a host to host We hosted a meeting last week.a sky-rocket to sky-rocket Prices are sky-rocketing this

week.pressure to pressure (BritEng to pressurise)a room to room I room at that house.

4.2 Auxiliaries

4.2.1 Modal Auxiliaries

Shall

This modal verb is rarely found in USEng except in legal documents or in veryformal styles, being replaced by will (or should in questions with first personsubjects). Shantis even less common in USEng.

BritEng USEngI shall tell you later I will tell you laterShall I drink this now? Should I drink this now?I shant be able to come. I wont be able to come.

Should

In its hypothetical sense, when it occurs in a main clause with a first personsubject followed by a conditional clause, should is used mainly by older

speakers and writers of BritEng. Otherwise, the most common way ofexpressing this idea is by using wouldboth in BritEng and USEng.

Older BritEng BritEng/USEngI should enjoy living here if I could afford to. I would enjoy living here if

Would


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In USEng wouldcan be used to express a characteristic or habitual activity inthe past. In BritEng either the simple past or the verb with the modal used to areused. Note that this is also possible in USEng.

BritEng USEngI went there every day when I was young. I would go there every day

whenI used to go there every day when... I used to go there every day

when...

Use(d) to

In USEng is only treated as a lexical verb in constructions such as questionsand negative sentences. BritEng can use this verb either as a modal auxiliary ora lexical verb.

BritEng USEng/BritEngUsed he to go there? (modal aux.) Did he use to go there?

He used not to go there. (modal aux.) He didnt use to go there.

Ought to

This modal verb is rarely used to form questions and negatives in USEng.Should is used instead. In BritEng its use in questions is restricted to the oldergenerations.

BritEng USEngYou ought not/oughtnt to have said that.(aux.) You shouldnt have said that.

Dare and Need

Both these auxiliaries are rare in USEng and only occur in set phrases, e.g.Need I say more?, Persons under 18 need not apply, I dare say .

BritEng USEng/BritEngNeed you be so rude? (modal aux.) Do you need to be so rude.You neednt be so rude. (modal aux.) You dont need to be so rude.Dare I tell the truth? (modal aux.) Do I dare (to) tell the truth?I darent tell the truth. (modal aux.) I dont dare (to) tell the truth.

4.2.2 Auxiliary Do

Do can be used in BritEng for polite commands or requests, implyingencouragement, as in: Do sit down, Do go on. This use is much less common inUSEng whereplease is used instead.

4.2.3 Have and Have Got

A commonly accepted grammatical difference between BritEng and USEng liesin the disparate use of these forms to indicate possession. This situation has


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changed over the last few decades, so that what once was exclusively used ineach variety is no longer so.

Have you got coffee? can be heard on both sides of the Atlantic in moreinformal styles.

The only noticeable difference in the usage of these forms at present is whenhave is used to express usual possession. This use is restricted to BritEng.

BritEng USEngDo you have fresh cod? Do you usually/ever have fresh cod?

4.2.4 Verb Phrases

In structures with a direct object and indirect object where both arepronominal, BritEng allows the direct object to precede the indirect object.

BritEng USEng/BritEng

John gave me it. John gave it to me.

Copulative verbs seem, act, lookand soundcan be followed directly by anindefinite noun phrase in BritEng.

BritEng USEng/BritEngIt seemed a long time. It seemed like a long time.He acted a real fool. He acted like a real fool.That sounds a bad idea. That sounds like a bad idea.

The verb wantcan be followed directly by the adverbs in and outin USEng.In BrtiEng wantmust be followed by an infinitive.

BritEng/USEng USEngI wanted to come in. I wanted in.

This very verb can be used in the sense of need with an inanimate object inBritEng. This would not be the case in USEng. E.g. The house wantspainting.

There are a few verbs, which collocate with different prepositions orprepositional adverbs in USEng and BritEng.

BritEng USEngto battle with/against (the enemy) to battleto check up on to check outto fill in (a form) to fill outto meet to meet withto prevent to prevent fromto protest at/against/over (a decision) to protestto stop to stop fromto talk to to talk with/to


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to visit to visit with

4.3 Articles

There are a number of count nouns in both varieties which do not require anarticle when used in an abstract-generic sense, usually with certain verbs or

prepositions: e.g. in spring, to go by car, to be at church. However, there are afew such nouns which have this property in one variety but not in the other:

BritEng USEng

to be in hospital to be in the hospitalto be at/go to university to be at/go to a university

4.4 Order of attributes

Usually, in the written form, especially in newspapers, BritEng places personalattributes after the person named whereas in USEng they tend to precede the

name, often without a definite article:

BritEng USEng

John Smith, the lanky Californiantennis star, won another majortournament today.

Lanky Californian teenage tennis starJohn Smith won another majortournament today.

Tony Blair, the British Prime Minister,arrived in Washington today.

British Prime Minister Tony Blairarrived in Washington today.

Something similar can be found in the naming of rivers.

BritEng USEng

The River Thames the Mississippi RiverThe River Avon the Hudson River

4.5 Subordinators

The complex subordinators asas and so.as areused with different frequencies in the two varieties. Soas is fairly

infrequent in USEng, mainly used at the beginning of a clause, while inBritEng it is more frequent than asas.

BritEng USEng

It is not so far as I thought it was It is not as far as I thought it wasSo long as youre happy, well stay As long as youre happy, well stayNow we dont go there so much(as we used to)

Now we dont go there as much(as we used to)


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That one isnt so nice (as the other) That one isnt as nice (as the other)

In cases where asas may be preferred in BritEng and used at thebeginning of a clause, the first as may be dropped:

BritEng USEng

Strange as it may seem, As strange as it may seem,Much as I would like to go,.. As much as I would like to go,..

In BritEng, the adverbs immediately and directly can function assubordinators, the use of after would be appropriate in these cases inUSEng.

BritEng USEng

Immediately we went, it began to rain Immediate after we went. It began torain

Go to his office directly you arrive Go to his office directly after you arrive

4.6 Prepositions

Knowing that these are one of the last and most difficult features of thelanguage to master, one must be aware of the variations in their usage.

4.6.1

Some differ in form maintaining the same meaning and context.

BritEng USEng

behind in back of as in: I put it behind the shed.in back of

out of out as in: He threw it out of the window.Out

round around as in: She lives just round the corridor.Around

4.6.2

Others are used identically in most contexts both in BritEng and USEng, yetvary in specific ones. The majority of such cases occur in expressions of time.

a- duration of time.

BritEng/USEng USEng

I havent seen him for weeks in weeks


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for ages in ages

b- BritEng speakers use the preposition at, meaning time when withholiday seasons, as in at the weekend, at Christmas (the season, notthe day), whereas USEng speakers generally use overin such cases as

well as on the weekend.

c- In expressing clock time, BritEng uses the preposition to and past thehour while USEng also can use of, tilland after.

BritEng/USEng USEng only

twenty to three twenty of threetwenty till three

five past eight five after eight

4.6.3 Other differences which are not related to time also should be taken intoaccount.

a- In non-temporal contexts, the use ofin and on, also differs.

BritEng USEng

to be in a team to be on a teamto live in a street to live on a streetto be in a sale to be on a sale(to be on sale means simplyfor sale)

b- The presence or not of a specific preposition.

on is usually omitted before a specific date or day of the week thatindicates a time removed from the present in USEng.

BritEng USEng

The seminar started on Aug 23rd. The seminar started Aug 23rd.Ill do it on Sunday. Ill do it Sunday.

at is generally absent before temporal nouns indicating repetition orhabitual action. In these cases, the noun must be in the plural.

BritEng USEng

He works by day and studies at night. He works days and studiesnights.


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On Saturdays we go to church. Saturdays we go to church.

In BritEng temporal prepositional phrases, inversion of the noun and thewords this, that, next or last, can occur in formal styles: on Sundaynext, during January last. These do not appear in USEng, and thepreposition is deleted in the uninverted forms: next Sunday, last January.

Yet in phrases denoting a period of time from or after a given one, thepreposition from is often deleted in BritEng, not being the case inUSEng.

BritEng USEng

a week this Tuesday a week from this Tuesday

5. PHONOLOGICAL VARIATION

Differences at the phonological level are both systemic in phonemes andallophones-.and non-systematic in the choice of phonemes for particularwords-.

5.1 Differences in the phonemic inventory & phonetic realizations

No // in GA.

/EUEUEUEU/ vs. /oUUUU/

/aUUUU/ more front in GA

/eIIII/ more close in GA

flapped /t/

/l/ always dark in American English

5.2 Differences in the use of phonemes in words

5.2.1 Vowels

RP // vs. GA /8888/. E.g.: Hot, top, lot.

RP // vs. GA /8888/

In GA, /8/ is likely to occur when orthographic o and au are followed by

fricatives, the velar nasal or /r/. E.g. dog, long.

RP /EEEE/ vs. GA /8888/ for spelling -ory. E.g. acclamatory, auditory,

category, laboratory.

GA stands for General American. RP stands for Received Pronunciation


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RP /EEEE/ vs. GA /e/ for spellings -ary and -ery or -erry. E.g.antiquary, arbitrary, February; cemetery, monastery, presbytery,stationery; blackberry, strawberry.

RP /8888/ vs. GA // (orthographic "a" generally followed by two consonantletters). E.g. brass, class, example, command

RP /aIIII/ vs. GA /EEEE/. E.g. mobile, reptile, versatile.

RP /antIIII-/, /semIIII-/ vs. GA /antaIIII-/, /semaIIII-/. E.g. anticommunist,

semicircle.

RP /EEEE/ vs. GA /oUUUU/. E.g. ceremony, testimony.

RP /IIII/ vs. GA /aIIII/.E.g. simultaneous, privacy, vitamin.

RP /EUEUEUEU/ vs. GA /8888/. E.g. progress, process, docile.

RP // vs. GA /eIIII/.E.g. patronize.

RP /i8888/vs. GA /e/.E.g. evolution, centenary.

RP /8888/vs. GA /~8~8~8~8r/. E.g. Clerk, Derby, Berkshire.

5.2.2 Consonants

RP r pronounced only before a vowel, GA r pronounced in all contexts.E.g. card, board, mirth, tour, mere.

RP/dj/vs. GA /dZZZZ/. E.g. education, module.

/j/-dropping in GA. E.g. stew, new, enthusiastic.

5.2.3Differences in stress.

In some words of foreign (esp. French) origin, GA keeps the original(final) stress while RP has fronted stress.

RP GA

ballet balletdebris debrisgarage garage

Some words have first-syllable stress in GA but stress elsewhere in RP.

RP GA


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address addressadult adultmagazine magazine

Many words ending in ary, -ory and ery have reduced or compressedpronunciations in RP. In GA, apart from not being reduced, there is

secondary stress on such syllables (see Differences in the use ofphonemes in words above).

A few of these words have different stress patterns.

RP GA

laboratory laboratorycapillary capillary

Some eponyms (place names) bear a secondary stress in GA.

Birmingham Birming,hamPortsmouth Ports,mouth

6. FINAL REFLECTION

All what we have seen so far leads us to a simple question that we should allask ourselves:

How should we as teachers deal with varieties of the English language in theclassroom?

Although it is preferable to adopt one variety and be consistent with it, we needto be aware of others and acknowledge them all as having equal status. Beingaware of the major areas where differences lie is essential to fulfil this goal. Wehope this scant guide will help you work along these lines.

Bibliography

BARBER, Charles, The English Language: A Historical Introduction, CambridgeUniversity Press, 1993.

HUGHES, Arthur, TRUDGILL, Peter, English Accents and Dialects, Arnold,

1996.

MARKWARDT, A. H., QUIRK, R.,A Common Language British and AmericanEnglish, BBC, 1964.

MOTT, Brian, English Phonetics and Phonology for Spanish Speakers, EdicionsUniversitat de Barcelona, 2000.


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PROCTER, Paul(ed.), Cambridge International Dictionary of English,Cambridge University Press, 1995.

SWAN, Michael, Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press, 1980.

TRUDGILL, Peter, HANNAH, Jean, International English, Edward Arnold, 1994.

WELLS, J. C.,Accents of English, Cambridge University Press, 1982.

WELLS, J. C., Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, Longman, 1990.

English Teaching Forum, July 1989.

The Economist Style Guide, Hamish Hamilton/The Economist Books, 1996.

Online Resources

http://www.effingpot.com/index.html

Julie Pelto and Juan Carlos Boyadji

Both are IPA graduates and teacher trainers in Phonetics and Phonology as well as teachers inprivate and public education. Julie is American and holds a certificate in Linguistics (Cornell)and is an MA Ed. candidate (UCUDAL). Juan Carlos has studied in England and holds a TCLCert.

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P0001_File_Varieties of Modern English