Parameter Manual WP1 3 RWTH 101216

8/12/2019 Parameter Manual WP1 3 RWTH 101216

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Work package: 1.3

Title:

Editor: RWTH

Date: 16.12.2010

Version: v05

STATUS

The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Un-ion Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under the agreement

n241295.

Parameter Manual

confidential

in process

in revision

approved

changes to be

incorporated until dd.mm.jjjj

X


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WP 1 Confidential: (no) 17.12.2010

Parameter Manual 14:34

RWTH Version 05 Page 2of 138

Track changes

Name Date(dd.mm.jjjj)

Version ChangesSubject of change page

RWTH - Szczechowicz 05.05.2010 V01

UPV 27.04.2010 DR Parameters Chapter 3.3

TU Dortmund 05.05.2010 Reserve energy Chapter 3.4

Input EDFSimple charging solu-tions

RWTH V03 Update Version

RWTH V04 Approved version

RWTH V05Extended Version, ab-stract


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Abstract

The parameter manual is a central document for the G4V project and will be therefore up-

dated throughout the entire project duration by every partner with the aim of compiling a

manual with most important information for the G4V project. Due to the high complexity ofsome of the identified parameters - 67 parameters are included in the manual the fixation

of the parameters at the beginning of the project leads not to the best possible results. Fur-

ther developments within the project can only be integrated in the manual because of the

constant updates. Moreover, developments outside the project can be taken into account.

The integration of new information in the manual assures that all partners have the same

state of knowledge.

The parameter manual is a reference book for all important aspects in the project. To ease the use of

this document it had been structured into five sections:

Electric Vehicles

Electricity Level

Customer Behaviour

Customer Information

Evaluation Criteria

Electric Vehicles

linked directly to the electric vehicle. There-

fore, a definition of electric vehicles is included as well as the consumption of EV and a possible com-

position in the future. The most important part of the vehicle is the battery that is described in detail.Different technologies, capacities and charging curve are presented and compared. Especially infor-

mation about the battery lifetime and investment costs are relevant for the project. The inputs from

the SAB members have a high impact on these points. The connection between the vehicle and the

The circumstances for the charging infrastructure differ

between the reviewed countries. Furthermore, the assumptions for the infrastructure can be varied

such as the distinction between charging at home or at home and at work. To provide different ser-

vices, also called V2G-services, the charging process have to be regulated. An overview about possi-

ble strategies is also included in the manual.

Electricity Level

The electricity level is the topic of the second chapter. The most important part for the G4V projects

are the grids. Parameters needed to understand and to describe the grids are presented in this chap-

ter. To interact with the electric vehicles, smart meters and an ICT infrastructure are necessary.

Stages of smart meters are described. Assuming a working infrastructure for both the charging and

communication with EVs, different V2G services can be provided such as demand response or the

participation at reserve energy markets. Therefore, these markets and mechanisms are also part of

the parameter manual.

Customer Behaviour and InformationTo ensure a high significance of the results, the customer behaviour has to be taken into account in

detail in the third part. Especially, the driving patterns have to be analyzed as a basis to estimate the


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needed energy and charging times of the EVs. Moreover, the willingness of the customers to partici-

pate at certain services and the willingness to plug their car in are parts of the manual.

The fourth part focuses on providing information about the customers concerning their economic

data, the regional distribution of EVs and also on the expectations and doubts of the customers con-

cerning EVs.

Evaluation Criteria

To complete the manual, the evaluation criteria are also included with the result of having only one

document with all needed information. The evaluation criteria are divided in four different aspects:

technical, economic, ecological and social aspects. Based on these four categories, a detailed descrip-

tion and refinement of the parameters has been worked out. The technical aspects are necessary to

evaluate the grid and to determine the consequences. Based on this assessment the economic and

ecological aspects can be analyzed. The social aspects can be evaluated in a qualitative way.


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Table of contents

Title: _____________________________________________________________________ 1

Editor: RWTH___________________________________________________________ 1

Track changes_____________________________________________________________ 2

Abstract ___________________________________________________________________ 3

Table of figures _____________________________________________________________ 8

Table directory _____________________________________________________________ 9

1 Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 10

2 Vehicle Level __________________________________________________________ 13

2.1 Electric vehicles __________________________________________________________ 132.1.1 Kinds of electric vehicles __________________________________________________________ 132.1.2 Consumption ___________________________________________________________________ 152.1.3 Composition of different EV types __________________________________________________ 17

2.2 Batteries for electric vehicles _______________________________________________ 192.2.1 Battery technologies _____________________________________________________________ 192.2.2 Battery capacity _________________________________________________________________ 232.2.3 Charging curve for Li-Ion Batteries __________________________________________________ 252.2.4 C-Rate, nominal current __________________________________________________________ 272.2.5 Battery lifetime _________________________________________________________________ 292.2.6 Battery investment costs _________________________________________________________ 312.2.7 Costs of battery degradation ______________________________________________________ 33

2.3 Charging process _________________________________________________________ 352.3.1 Energy transmission _____________________________________________________________ 352.3.2 Charging stations ________________________________________________________________ 372.3.3 Plugs for conductive charging ______________________________________________________ 412.3.4 Connection power _______________________________________________________________ 432.3.5 Charging place __________________________________________________________________ 462.3.6 Directionality of the charging process _______________________________________________ 482.3.7 Loading curve over the day ________________________________________________________ 50

2.4 Charging regulation ______________________________________________________ 522.4.1 Classification of regulation strategies________________________________________________ 522.4.2 Simple control strategies _________________________________________________________ 54

2.5 Business aspects _________________________________________________________ 562.5.1 Market penetration ______________________________________________________________ 562.5.2 Governmental Program, Taxation & Subsidies ________________________________________ 592.5.3 Divers Parameter ________________________________________________________________ 62

3 Electricity Level ________________________________________________________ 63

3.1 Grids __________________________________________________________________ 633.1.1 Area of Supply __________________________________________________________________ 633.1.2 Types of lines ___________________________________________________________________ 653.1.3 ECD parameters of electrical lines __________________________________________________ 663.1.4 Rated Current values of lines ______________________________________________________ 67

3.1.5 Grid Topology __________________________________________________________________ 683.1.6 Switch positions_________________________________________________________________ 693.1.7 Geographical information _________________________________________________________ 70


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3.1.8 Protective devices and protection schemes ___________________________________________ 713.1.9 Grid extensions and enforcements__________________________________________________ 723.1.10 Customer load curves __________________________________________________________ 733.1.11 Customer and generator position ________________________________________________ 753.1.12 Distributed Generation _________________________________________________________ 76

3.2 Smart Meter and ICT ______________________________________________________ 773.2.1 Stages of smart metering _________________________________________________________ 773.2.2 ICT connections to the EV _________________________________________________________ 80

3.3 Demand response ________________________________________________________ 813.3.1 Expectations of the development of Aggregators to provide PDR services __________________ 813.3.2 Customer Segmentation __________________________________________________________ 833.3.3 Penetration rates of DSM _________________________________________________________ 843.3.4 Time of response ________________________________________________________________ 853.3.5 Price responsiveness _____________________________________________________________ 863.3.6 Load impacts (Market potential) ___________________________________________________ 87

3.4 Reserve energy market ____________________________________________________ 88

3.4.1 Control Reserves ________________________________________________________________ 883.4.2 Market Aspects _________________________________________________________________ 94

3.5 Possible V2G services _____________________________________________________ 95

4 Customer behaviour ____________________________________________________ 97

4.1 Scope and limitations _____________________________________________________ 97

4.2 Driving pattern __________________________________________________________ 984.2.1 Trips per day ___________________________________________________________________ 984.2.2 Traffic volume _________________________________________________________________ 1014.2.3 Driving behavior _______________________________________________________________ 1054.2.4 Mileage ______________________________________________________________________ 107

4.2.5 Regional driving pattern _________________________________________________________ 1104.2.6 Willingness to plug in ___________________________________________________________ 111

5 Customer information __________________________________________________ 112

5.1 Socio economical data ___________________________________________________ 112

5.2 Regional distribution of EVs _______________________________________________ 113

5.3 Customer expectations ___________________________________________________ 1145.3.1 Expectations concerning EVs _____________________________________________________ 1145.3.2 Doubts concerning EVs __________________________________________________________ 115

6 Evaluation criteria _____________________________________________________ 116

6.1 Technical aspects _______________________________________________________ 1176.1.1 Power transfer limit and system congestion index ____________________________________ 1176.1.2 Power quality __________________________________________________________________ 1186.1.3 Assessment of communication aspects _____________________________________________ 119

6.2 Economical aspects ______________________________________________________ 1206.2.1 Life cycle costing _______________________________________________________________ 1206.2.2 Social welfare metrics ___________________________________________________________ 1246.2.3 Approach for the cost calculation __________________________________________________ 124

6.3 Ecological aspects _______________________________________________________ 1256.3.1 Life Cycle Assessment ___________________________________________________________ 125

6.3.2 Reduction of the use of non-sustainable energy sources _______________________________ 1296.4 Social aspects __________________________________________________________ 130

6.4.1 Customer satisfaction ___________________________________________________________ 130


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6.4.2 Degree of paradigm change ______________________________________________________ 1316.4.3 Acceptance of technology ________________________________________________________ 131

7 Glossary _____________________________________________________________ 132

8 Abbreviations ________________________________________________________ 134

9 References ___________________________________________________________ 135


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Table of figures

FIGURE 2.1-1: ADDED VALUE IN THE CHARGING PROCESS .................................................................................. 12

FIGURE 2.1-1: DRIVING CYCLES [SAK10] ............................................................................................................... 16FIGURE 2.1-2: SCENARIO OF A POSSIBLE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPOSITION OF EV TYPES DEPENDING ONDIFFERENT MARKET PENETRATIONS ............................................................................................................ 18

FIGURE 2.2-1: DEVELOPMENT OF ENERGY DENSITIES [DGES10] .......................................................................... 19FIGURE 2.2-2: SPECIFIC ENERGY AND SPECIFIC POWER OF DIFFERENT BATTERY TYPES [BEER08] ...................... 20FIGURE 2.2-3 CHARGING CURVE OF LI-ION BATTERIES [FFE07]............................................................................ 25FIGURE 2.2-4: IDEALIZED CHARGING CURVE FOR LI-ION BATTERIES ................................................................ .... 26FIGURE 2.2-5: CHARGING CURVE DEPENDING ON THE CHARGING POWER OVER THE SOC ................................ 26 FIGURE 2.2-6 EQUILIBRIUM VOLTAGE U0 DUE TO ACID DENSITY ........................................................................ 28FIGURE 2.2-7: BATTERY CYCLE LIFE DEPENDENT ON DOD AND BATTERY DEGRADATION [ISI2010] .................... 29 FIGURE 2.2-8: BATTERY CYCLE LIFE DEPENDENT ON DOD FOR LI-ION BATTERIES ............................................... 30FIGURE 2.2-9: SHOWS THE COST PER KWH DEPENDING ON THE DOD FOR DIFFERENT INVESTMENT COSTS ..... 34

FIGURE 2.3-1: CHARGING PLACES IN ITALY ........................................................................................................... 47FIGURE 2.3-2: LOADING CURVE FOR DIFFERENT CHARGING PLACES ................................................................... 51FIGURE 2.4-1: CONTROL SCHEMES ................................................................................................ ....................... 52FIGURE 2.4-2: EVOLUTION OF CONTROL SCHEMES .............................................................................................. 53FIGURE 2.4-3: DIFFERENT SIMPLE LOAD MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES [BRI10] .................................................... 54FIGURE 2.5-1: NATIONAL EV/PHEV SALES [IEA09] ................................................................................................ 56FIGURE 2.5-2: ANNUAL SALES BY TECHNOLOGY TYPE, BLUE SCENARIO [IEA09] .................................................. 57FIGURE 2.5-3: ANNUAL GLOBAL EV AND PHEV SALES IN MILLIONS, BLUE SCENARIO [IEA09] ............................. 57FIGURE 2.5-4: MARKET PENETRATION OF EVS IN ITALY ....................................................................................... 58FIGURE 0-1 DEMAND OFT EN HOUSEHOLDS OVER ONE DAY ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT APPROACHES ........... 74FIGURE 3.2-1: STAGES OF SMART METERING ....................................................................................................... 77FIGURE 3.3-1: RESOURCE POTENTIAL OF VARIOUS TYPES OF DR PROGRAMS AND TIME-BASED TARIFFS

(SOURCE: FERC SURVEY)............................................................................................................................... 82FIGURE 3.3-2: TIME OF RESPONSE ........................................................................................................................ 85FIGURE 3.4-1 CONTROL SCHEME OF THE DIFFERENT CONTROL TYPES [UCTE09].............................................. 89FIGURE 3.4-2 ACTIVATION TIMES OF THE DIFFERENT CONTROL TYPES [UCTE09].............................................. 89FIGURE 3.5-1 ILLUSTRATIVE SCHEMATIC OF V2G SERVICE [RETRANS10] ............................................................. 96FIGURE 4.2-1: PROPORTION OF VEHICLES WITH AT LEAST ONE TRIP PER DAY .................................................... 99FIGURE 4.2-2: AVERAGE NUMBER OF TRIPS PER DAY ................................................................ .......................... 99FIGURE 4.2-3: FRACTION OF TRIP PURPOSES FOR ALL COMMUTERS ................................................................ . 100FIGURE 4.2-4: TRAFFIC VOLUME IN SUMMER TIME ........................................................................................... 102FIGURE 4.2-5: TRAFFIC VOLUME DURING WEEKEND DAYS ................................................................................ 103FIGURE 4.2-6: COMPARISON OF RELATIVE TRAFFIC VOLUME OF COMMUTER CATEGORIES ............................ 104FIGURE 4.2-7: TRAFFIC VOLUME DEPENDANT ON SEASON ................................................................................ 104FIGURE 4.2-8: WHEREABOUTS OF VEHICLES DURING THE DAY.......................................................................... 105

FIGURE 4.2-9: AVERAGE NUMBER OF EVS AT HOME (AS A PROPORTION OF ALL EVS) ..................................... 106FIGURE 4.2-10: MILEAGE OF COMMUTERS WITH BUSINESS RELATED TRIPS ..................................................... 108FIGURE 4.2-11: MILEAGE OF COMMUTERS WITH PRIVATE RELATED TRIPS ....................................................... 108FIGURE 4.2-12: ACCUMULATED DURATION OF CARS STOPPING OVER DEPENDANT ON THE LOCATION ......... 109FIGURE 5.3-1: FOUR ASPECTS OF EVALUATION CRITERIA .................................................................................. 116FIGURE 6.2-1: LIFE CYCLE COSTING ..................................................................................................................... 120FIGURE 6.2-2: DEPLOYMENT OF GRID FAILURES DEPENDING ON THE COSTS FOR GRID EXTENTION ............... 122 FIGURE 6.2-3: SOCIAL WELFARE [PRU08] ........................................................................................................... 124FIGURE 6.3-1 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK [ISO 14040] .................................................................... 126FIGURE 6.3-2 TIME DEPENDENCY OF CARBON EMISSIONS OF THE ELECTRICITY MIX ........................................ 127FIGURE 6.3-3: GWP POTENTIAL OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES [VDI97], [HEI92] [IPC01B] ................................... 128FIGURE 0-1: DEPLOYMENT OF CUSTOMER SATISFACTION DUE TO THE NUMBER OF GRID FAILURES AND THE

COSTS FOR GRID EXTENSION................................................................................................ ...................... 130


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Table directory

TABLE 2.1-1 CONSUMPTIONS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES [UBA08], [ENG07], [KRU09] ............................................. 15TABLE 2.1-2 CONSUMPTION IN DIFFERENT DRIVING CYCLES [REN10] ................................................................ . 16TABLE 2.2-1 CHARACTERISTIC OF LION-BATTERY ................................................................................................. 21TABLE 2.2-2 CHARACTERISTIC OF ZEBRA-BATTERY .............................................................................................. 21TABLE 2.2-3 CHARACTERISTIC OF NIMH-BATTERY ................................................................................................ 21TABLE 2.2-4 CHARACTERISTIC OF LEAD ACID BATTERY ........................................................................................ 21TABLE 2.2-5 TYPES OF VEHICLE BY COMPARISON [UBA08], [ENG07], [KRU09] .................................................... 24TABLE 2.3-1 THE FOUR POSSIBLE OPERATION MODES OF CHARGING STATIONS ................................................ 38TABLE 2.3-2 THE THREE TYPES OF CONNECTION BETWEEN CHARGING STATION AND EV .................................. 39TABLE 2.3-3 MAXIMUM APPARENT POWER FOR DIFFERENT CHARGING INSTALLATION .................................... 44TABLE 2.3-4 CHARGING TYPES AND CHARGING SPEEDS....................................................................................... 44TABLE 2.3-5: A: COUNTRY SPECIFIC KEY CONNECTION INDICATORS ................................................................ .... 45TABLE 2.3-6: B: COUNTRY SPECIFIC KEY CONNECTION INDICATORS ................................................................ .... 45TABLE 2.3-7: COUNTRY SPECIFIC DIRECTIONALITY OF THE CHARGING PROCESS ................................................. 49

TABLE 2.3-8 BASE OF INPUT PARAMETERS ........................................................................................................... 50TABLE 3.1-1 RELATION BETWEEN RESISTANCE AND REACTANCE ................................................................ ........ 65TABLE 3.2-1 AVAILABILITY AND STATE OF ART OF SMART METERS ..................................................................... 79TABLE 3.4-2: TECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF PRIMARY RESERVE [TSO10]..................................................... 90TABLE 3.4-3: MINIMAL AMOUNT OF RECOMMENDED SECONDARY RESERVE [UCTE08], [UCTE09] .................... 91TABLE 3.4-4 TECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF SECONDARY RESERVE [TEN02], [REG10], [VDN07], [EUR00].......... 92TABLE 3.4-5 TECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF TERTIARY RESERVE [REB05] [REG10] [VDN07] .................................. 93TABLE 3.4-6 FUTURE TREND ESTIMATION FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONTROL POWER [DENA05] ................ 94 TABLE 3.4-7MARKET ASPECTS OF CONTROL RESERVE [EUR04] [BNETZA]........................................................... 94TABLE 3.5-1 PREQUALIFICATION IN GERMANY [VDN03][VDN07A][VDN07B] ...................................................... 96


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1 Introduction

The parameter manual is supposed to be the basis for the project. It will be updated throughout the

entire project duration by every partner with the aim of compiling a manual with most important

basic information.

At the moment the following important data is not included in the manual:

- Grids from different countries Are collected and the most are available.

- Demand curves Available for the countries that delivered this information.

- Driving patterns from different countries Only available for few countries.

Availability of data is dependent on the contribution of all partners.

It would be helpful if you could send us, which information you exactly need and how the informa-tion have to be available. Sometimes, it might be helpful just to start with the WP and then to realise

what data is really necessary.


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This is an explanation how the parameter is build. Every parameter has a green box like Table 1-1.

Name of the parameterLevel: e.g. Electric-

ity

Category: e.g. Energy

Charging Gate-way

Topic: e.g. Battery charging

Short description Status: e.g. Finished

xyz Example:

Parameter range Time frameAt home (example!)At home and at work

Everywhere

2010 20302020

2010 20302020

2010 20302020

2010 20302020

2010 20302020 (Expected or known validation! The last

arrow shows that the parameter willdiffer or change over the time horizon.Use just one of them!)

Geographic restrictions

(Parameter valid for which countries?)

Additional data files None

Table 1-1: Template for each parameter

Parameter: Name of the parameter

Level: Electricity, ICT or Business level (see picture below!)Category: Depending on the category

Electricity: Power Generation, Transmission Network, Distribution

Network, Energy Charging Gateway, Vehicle Battery

ICT: ICT Network, Data Storage, ICT Gateway, Vehicle OBUBusiness: Service Provider

Topic: Parameters that belong to one topic, e.g. charging process

Short description: Description of the parameter, why is it important? What data is

provided?Status: Parameter finished, in progress, still open questions

Parameter range: short overview about the parameter range!Time frame: For which period will the parameter be valid? Do you think it willnot change or is there a development over the time (last arrow)?


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E.g. prices might only be valid for today.Geographic restrictions: Is the parameter only valid in certain regions? E.g. driving data

from Germany or Sweden!

Additional data files: Link to the database with time course etc.

Figure to categorise the parameters from WP2:

Figure 2.1-1: added value in the charging process


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2 Vehicle Level

2.1 Electric vehicles2.1.1 Kinds of electric vehicles

Kinds of electric vehiclesLevel: All Category: - Topic: Electric vehicles

Short description Status: Finished

In electric vehicles batteries complement or even re-place the current combustion engine. The two promising

types are:

- Battery electric vehicles (BEV )

- Plug-in Electric vehicles (PHEV )

Both types of vehicles differ in many technical aspects

which will be mentioned in the following.

For detailed classification look a Battery Ca-

pacity

Parameter range Time frame

- BEV- PHEV 2010 20302020

Geographic restrictionsNone, maybe regional differences.


The main source of energy of BEVis the battery which replaces the current fuel tank. Also the com-

bustion engine is replaced by an electric motor. Because of limited battery capacity the range of BEV

is limited as well. The car manufacturer Renault is of the opinion that the first BEV generation (2011-

2015) will capture the market of suburban and urban cars. Further generations (from 2025) comple-

ment the first generation by extended range EV [CIVES10], [REN10].

In PHEV the battery is the second energy source in addition to the basic combustion engine. The

combustion engine might change in the future into a hydrogen fuel cell. These types of vehicle come

in a range of configurations between two extremes: One extreme is a full-hybrid with an increased

battery capacity plus grid connection to increase electric driving range. At the other end of the spec-

trum we find vehicles that are basically battery vehicles equipped with a small internal combustion

engine that functions as a range extender [RETRANS10].

BEV and PHEV compared to current ICE cars can substantially reduce emission rates. Regenerative

braking increases the range of these vehicles as part of the energy spent to push the vehicle is recu-

perated when breaking, converted back into electricity to the battery.


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The CIVES-CEI holds the view that BEV and PHEV can replace the 2nd(family-) car in future [CIVES10].

Mitsubishi highlights the lacking current technologically conditions and the requirement of massive

steps in battery and in charging technologies to replace ICE cars fully and to drive more than 1000 km

by BEV. From their point of view vehicles which combine traditional with non fossil carbon technolo-

gies will survive in the near and mid future. However, in the longer term just vehicles using renewa-

ble energy as a primary source will survive [MIT10].

Due to the increasing number of manufacturers and network providers, the definition of internation-

al standards concerning the interoperability between the facilities, the operators and the users have

a high importance [RWE08].

In the following a short list of existing European and international standards concerning Electric Ve-

hicles [IEC10],[CEN10],[ISO10]:


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2.1.2 Consumption

ConsumptionLevel: All Category: - Topic: Vehicles


The consumption describes what amount of energy anEV needs to drive 1 km in the electrical mode (in case of

a PHEV).

The consumption normally is measured on a definedsimulative driving cycle so that the real consumption is

probably higher because of the use of the heating, cool-

ing or media.


BEV 0,13 0,25 kWh/kmCity_BEV 0,12 0,16 kWh/km

PHEV 0,15 0,25 kWh/km

Development unknown.

2010 20302020 Geographic restrictions

None


The needed energy (kWh) per kilometre varies depending on the used driving cycle for the meas-

urement and even more on the type of the electric vehicles. While using the categories from the

battery capacity (see 2.2.2), a city-BEV will need less energy than a BEV or a PHEV due to its size and

weight.

Therefore, assumptions (Table 2.1-1 Consumptions of Electric vehicles [UBA08], [ENG07], [KRU09])

for different vehicle types have to be made.

Vehicle type Consumption Battery ca-

pacity

Split-up into electricity and

conventional propulsionelectrical

(kWh/km)

conventional

(l/100km) (kWh)

electrical

(%)

conventional

(%)

BEV 0,13-0,25 0,0 25-35 100 0

City_BEV 0,12-0,16 0,0 10-16 100 0

PHEV90 0,15-0,25 7,5 12-18 66,6 33,3

(PHEV30) 0,15-0,25 7,5 6-12 33,3 66,6

Table 2.1-1 Consumptions of Electric vehicles [UBA08], [ENG07], [KRU09]


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As said before, the real consumption differs from the measured values. But even within the different

simulative driving cycles, the results for the consumption can vary significantly. Table 2.1-2 Con-

sumption in different driving cycles [REN10]

shows the impact of the driving cycles for two average cars, a private BEV and a light-duty commer-

cial EV. Five different driving cycles are compared (Figure 2.1-1).

kWh/km

Driving Cycle

Private BEV

LCV BEV

NEDC (New EuropeanDriving Cyclus)

0,117 0,151

Artemis Traffic Jam 0,202 0,236

Artemis Urban 0,173 0,193

Artemis Road 0,124 0,155Artemis Highway 0,199 0,249

Table 2.1-2 Consumption in different driving cycles [REN10]

Depending on the driving cycle the consumption of the EV rises from 0,12 kWh/km to 0,20 kWh/km.

Since real consumption data is rare and not yet available in this project, it is necessary to simulate

different consumption values in the models to get realistic results.

Figure 2.1-1: Driving cycles [SAK10]


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2.1.3 Composition of different EV types

Composition of different EV typesLevel: All Category: - Topic: Electric vehicle


The composition of different EV types describes the per-centages of each kind depending on the penetration rate

and the chosen scenario.

To determine the percentages a market model has to beused that analyses the parking situation and the antici-

pated vehicle use per kind. It basically depends on the

driving behaviour in different countries.

EV_Typ_Anteile

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Durchdringung

BEV StadtBEV PHEV90

Parameter range Time frameOpen: Depends on the scenarios!

- Scenarios Availability of charging places- Driving behaviour

- Socioeconomic data


Depending on the driving behav-

iour in different countries.


The composition of different EV types is a necessary analysis to estimate the effects on distribution

grids. Today, many different EV technologies exist and it is assumable that this development will con-

tinue. Therefore, an analysis with only one kind of EV is not reasonable. Due to non-linear batterycharging curve the charging behaviour for a fleet of vehicles with variable battery sizes will differ

significantly from a charging curve with standard EVs.

Figure 2.1-2 shows a development of the composition of different vehicles depending on different

market penetrations. A market penetration of 10% is relatively small, therefore a high percentage of

city-BEV is anticipated. With a rising market penetration the percentage of the city-BEV is decreasing

because of the limited market potential of small vehicles.

The substitution potential for different EV types is defined by different factors:

Charging scenario: With a high limitation in the driving range it is assumable that most people will

only buy an EV as a second car or prefer a PHEV. With battery swapping stations the percentage of

PHEV will be significant lower.

Chosen area/country: The substitution potential will vary for different areas in the country and even

more within a city between rich suburbs and perhaps the poorer rural area.

Driving behaviour: The chosen vehicle type depends on the driving behaviour.

Socio-economic data: Income, number of vehicles per household etc are the most important influ-

encing factors for the composition of the vehicles.


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The substitution potential has to be analysed for the regions where the grid data is available. A direct

correlation to the market penetration is not necessary. The variation of the market penetration de-

fines the used percentage of the total substation potential.

EV_Typ_Anteile

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Durchdringung

BEV StadtBEV PHEV90

Percentage of different vehicle types

BEV

Penetration rate of EV and PHEV in the market

City BEV PHEV

Figure 2.1-2: Scenario of a possible development of composition of EV types depending on

different market penetrations

Possible assumption for the substitution potential can be:

Second cars in a household Substitution with a BEV or City-BEV

Vehicles with a small range City-BEV

Single vehicle in a household PHEV

Etc.

This approach is only feasible with real grid data where socio-economical data is available.


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2.2 Batteries for electric vehicles2.2.1 Battery technologies

Battery technologiesLevel: Electricity Category: Vehicle battery Topic: Electric vehicle


Batteries are the energy storage of electrical drives inPHEV and BEV and thus a central component in future

vehicles. In electric mobility development, research fo-

cuses on batteries with high energy densities. Addition-ally, costs, security, charging- and lifetime are of utmost

importance.

Nowadays the energy density of designed battery sys-

tems reaches 1-2% of fluid fuels [DGES10].

In the following the possible types of batteries applied to

electric vehicles will be mentioned.


Lithium-ion (several types)

NaNiCl2

NiMH

Lead acidSuper capacitors

Redox flow


None


Figure 2.2-1 shows the possible development of the energy densities of battery technologies. Today,

the density is quite low so the size weight and cost/kW/h of the battery is the limiting factor for the

driving range.

Figure 2.2-1: Development of energy densities [DGES10]


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Figure 2.2-2 shows the different battery technologies today. Depending on the application, the spe-

cific energy and specific power of a battery can vary. EVs need a very high specific energy, while

higher specific power is required for Fast Charge

Figure 2.2-2: Specific energy and specific power of different battery types [BEER08]

The highest potential of development and employment in BEV and PHEV is offered by the

lithium-ion battery [DGES10], which promises a high energy density, lifetime and number of

cycles. Within Lithium-ion chemistry family, many different sub-chemistries exist that use

different substances in the cathode and anode of the battery cells. These sub types have

quite different characteristics in energy density, safety, and abuse tolerance. The oxides fam-

ily which includes the standard Lithium Cobalt oxide (LiC ) and Manganese Oxide (LiM-

), have high energy density but have some thermal run-off disadvantages which require

additional safety measures in the utilization on electric vehicles. Lithium Iron Phosphate (Li-

) and similar chemistries have lower energy density but are much more stable and safeto use in vehicles as they can endure a higher level of abuse. Lithium nano titanate replace

the use of graphite in the anode and use instead Lithium titanate for greater safety and

much longer lifetime, and reduced heating when under high charge and discharge currents.

However they have lower energy density and are very expensive.

Another form to increase cell level safety in Li-Ion batteries, while keeping high energy den-

sities, is using polymer electrolytes instead of liquid, such as Polietilen oxide, which has deli-

vered strong and powerful batteries already being used in several transport and storage ap-

plications.


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Because of finite lithium resources and high costs further competitive technologies will be

created. Further promising lithium cells are the Lithium-Air and the Lithium-Sulfur battery.

They can improve the energy density by factor 2-4.

energy density 130 Wh/kg

disc voltage 3,7 Vnumber of cycle (80% DOD) 3000

Table 2.2-1 Characteristic of Lion-Battery

The NaNiCl2- , also called ZEBRA-battery, is a high temperature battery with considerable

advantages: cheap substances, high lifetime and high energy density. Disadvantages: High

self-discharge (dissipative thermal power).

energy density 120 Wh/kgdisc voltage 2, 58 V

number of cycle (80% DOD) 1000

Table 2.2-2 Characteristic of ZEBRA-battery

The NiMH-battery is used in current field trials (e.g. Toyota Prius). These systems are charac-

terized by reliability and depth of discharge. Cons are relative low energy density and limited

fast charging opportunities.

energy density 70 Wh/kgdisc voltage 1,2 V

number of cycle (80% DOD) 3000

Table 2.2-3 Characteristic of NiMH-battery

Thelead acid battery is a very cheap storage technology used in ICE cars as starter battery.

Main disadvantages are the low energy density, lifetime and load acceptance.

energy density 35 Wh/kgdisc voltage 2 Vnumber of cycle (80% DOD) 700

Table 2.2-4 Characteristic of Lead acid battery

Further promising technologies are supercapsand redox flowbatteries [VDE10].

In the following a short overview of existing national, European and international standards

concerning energy storage of electric vehicles in general [IEC10],[CEN10],[ISO10]:

371)

-


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I

ISO 12405- - Test specification for lithium-

Ion traction battery systems


23/138




2.2.2 Battery capacity

Battery capacity

Level: Electricity Category: Vehicle battery Topic: Electric vehicleShort description Status:

Electric vehicles require batteries with a high energy

density (kWh/kg). Hybrid vehicles require small batteries

with limited energy content, but high specific power(kW/kg). The demands on batteries for plug-in hybrids

are expected to be somewhere in the two extremes.

In the following BEV and PHEV will be classified by theirrange and capacity based on current field trials and elec-

tric vehicle fleet. [reference]


Capacity: 10-35 kWh depending on the vehicle type

BEVCity-BEV

PHEV90

PHEV30


None


We define the PHEV30as a PHEV which covers a distance of 30km, therewith one third of its range,

in electric mode. In contrast, the PHEV90has a range of 90km without fuel. This conforms to two-

thirds of its range. It is also called range extender, if the combustion engine is smaller than the bat-

tery. PHEV30 are equipped with a battery capacity about 6kWh compared to PHEV90 with a capacity

about 18 kWh.

Unconditional electric vehicles are divided in BEV and City-BEV. In size and body the BEVbears re-

semblance to current passenger and family cars. It is provided with a battery capacity about 35 kWh

and holds higher ranges than the City-BEV which represents current subcompacts. This vehicle is

designed for urban traffic in size, energy consumption and weight and is equipped with a battery

capacity about 16 kWh.

These classifications are congruent with a study of the ETG Task Force Energiespeicher [ETG08] and

SAB questionnaires [CIVES10], [REN10]:

Renault advances the view that in first generation EV small urban BEV need 10kWh, BEV 25kWh,

Range Extender and PHEV 10-15 kWh battery capacity. The CIVES-CEI expresses ranges of 30- 50 km

for BEV and 200-250km for vans and lorries for goods delivery. Similar to the ETG which numbers

ranges of PHEV about 30- 70 km and ranges of BEV about 100- 300 km.


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Table 2.2-5 Types of vehicle by comparison [UBA08], [ENG07], [KRU09] shows the different vehicle

types with their battery capacity. The possible battery capacity can vary depending on different EV or

PHEV types. The split-up into electricity and conventional propulsion is only relevant for PHEV. The

PHEV90 with the higher battery capacity can drive about two-thirds of its driving distances in the

year in electrical mode [ENG07]. The smaller PHEV30 is not so relevant and can be left out. The cost

for the two power trains are very high, compared to the benefit of saving energy in the electrical

mode. In the future, the batteries will have a lower price that PHEV will have a battery about 12-18

kWh.

Vehicle type Battery capacity Split-up into electricity and conventional

propulsion

(kWh)

electrical

(%)

conventional

(%)

BEV 25-35 100 0

City_BEV 10-16 100 0

PHEV90 12-18 66,6 33,3

(PHEV30) 6-12 33,3 66,6

Table 2.2-5 Types of vehicle by comparison [UBA08], [ENG07], [KRU09]


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2.2.3 Charging curve for Li-Ion Batteries

Charging curve for Li-Ion BatteriesLevel: Electricity Category: Vehicle Battery Topic: Battery charging

Short description Status:

For a detailed description of the impact of EV chargingon the grid, a detailed model of the power consumption

of EV is required. This depends mainly on charging char-

acteristics of the battery, which are described here.


Power curve over charging time and Power curve over

SOC of battery

Only for Lithium-Ion and ZEBRA batteries

2010 20302020 May change over time, when new

battery technology is available.


None


As lithium-ion batteries are most promising for EV applications only their charging curve is described(ZEBRA batteries have about the same charging curve).

[FFE07] describes the charging curve of Lithium Ion batteries. Batteries are usually charged with

constant current until they reach their end-of-charge-voltage, which is reached at about 70 % SOC.

Afterwards charge can be continued with constand voltage, while the current steadily decreases

down to zeros. This is shown in Figure 2.2-3 and in an idealized way in Figure 2.2-4.

Figure 2.2-3 Charging curve of Li-Ion batteries [FFE07]


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Figure 2.2-4: Idealized charging curve for Li-Ion batteries

In order to use this charging characteristic for modelling the charging starting from any SOC, the

curve has been transferred to one shown in Figure 2.2-5. Charging power over SOC is shown there.

Figure 2.2-5: Charging curve depending on the charging power over the SoC


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2.2.4 C-Rate, nominal current

C-Rate, nominal currentLevel: Electricity Category: Vehicle Battery Topic: Charging process


The C-Rate of a battery is the ability of a battery to becharged and discharged at a certain current. The C-Rate

is the charging / discharging current given in relation to

the batteries capacity


Continuous parameter. 2010 20302020 May gradually change over time as bat-tery technology advances. Suddenchanges may be expected as conse-quence of technological breakthroughs,too.


No geographic differences


The capacity of a battery given by the manufacturer is a nominal value that may significantly differ

-of-charge and discharge voltages and currents are used to estimate when

these states are reached. However, these are highly dependent on many different factors: decreasing

temperature, increasing age or increasing discharged current lead to decreasing capacity.

The following facts need to be kept in mind:

- Nominal capacity is defined for example as C5= 100 Ah.

That means, that 100 Ah are the capacity that can be used when the battery is

discharge continuously over 5 hours with I5current, which would be 20 A in this case.- Other capacity values cannot be calculated linearly:

C2.5 < C5 I2.5 < 2 I5

C10> C5 I10 > I5

- Acceptable charging currents are often given as multiples of C

Charging current of 10 x C for example would refer to 100 A charging of a 10 Ahbattery

It is therefore very important in order to evaluate the ability of a battery to be fast-

charged


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Figure 2.2-6 Equilibrium voltage U0 due to acid density


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2.2.5 Battery lifetime

Battery lifetimeLevel: Electricity Category: Vehicle Battery Topic: Battery charging


The battery lifetime is depending on different factors.Such as the usage, the temperature and aging due to

calendar life. The usage can be described in the depth of

discharge (DoD) of a battery, in our case the Li-Ion bat-

tery.A model will be presented that shows the coherence

between the DoD and the battery lifetime in cycles.

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 11

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

Depth of discharge

Nlife,Li-Ion

= 1331DoD-1.825


Depending on the DoD between some thousand and100000 cycles.OEM information: 7-10 years


None


To illustrate the typical battery degradation, Figure 2.2-8 shows the number of cycles depending on

the DoD for different battery cells [ISI2010]. If a battery is used with 80% of its DoD, the battery life-

time is 2000 cycles. If only 3% of the DoD is used, more than 800000 cycles are possible.

Figure 2.2-7: Battery cycle life dependent on DoD and battery degradation [ISI2010]

Based on these curves the following equation is used to estimate the number of cycles Nlifeto deter-

mine the battery lifetime depending on the DoD.


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Nlife= a * DoD^b

For a Li-Ion battery the values today are: a = 1331 and b = 1,825

The curve is shown in Figure 2.2-8.

Figure 2.2-8: Battery cycle life dependent on DoD for Li-Ion batteries

This equation is used to calculate the cycle life of Li-Ion batteries. Nevertheless, some very important

parameters are not accounted in this equation:

Temperature

C-Rate

Different Li-Ion battery chemistries

Battery dimensions

Battery ageing due to calendar life

Long time periods with discharged battery status

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 11

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

Depth of discharge

Nlife,Li-Ion

= 1331DoD-1.825


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2.2.6 Battery investment costs

Battery investment costsLevel: Business Category: Service Pro-

vider

Topic: Battery charging


Battery investment costs are very important for all busi-

ness aspects. It determines the revenue for providingV2G services as well as the reached penetration rates of

EV. In the following different prices per kWh for a Li-Ion

battery are shown.

From an economic and an environmental point of view

as well, recycling is an important aspect which will be

mentioned hereafter.Parameter range Time frame

Cost per kWh of a Li-Ion battery in the future:

-

Long-term target: 65-


None


Source Price When Comment

Resent price dataEUROBAT (2005) 700- 2005

Challenge Bibendum Bat-

tery round Table (2007)

1000-2200$/kWh

2007

Future price projections

EUROBAT (2005) 2020 at end of 15 year research program;100k production volume/a; 30kWhbattery

ANL (200) 250$/kWh Future

IEA (2005) 270$/kWh Future Data taken from EPRI 2003

EPRI (2005) 280$/kWh Future 100k production volume/a; 30 kWh

batteryCARB (2007) 240-280$/kWh Future 100k production volume/a; 25 kWh

battery

ABB (SAB Input) 300-500$/kWh unknown

Renault (SAB Input) Unknownfor Li-Ion batteries

Long-term target

USABC 100$/kWh Long-termtarget

25k production volume/a; 40 kWhbattery


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Data taken from: EUROBAT (2005) Battery Systems for Electric Energy Storage Issues, July 2005; Shanghai ChallengeBibendum, Round Table 2, Batteries and Supercapacitors, November 2007; ANL (2000) Costs of Lithium-Ion Batteries for

Vehicles, L.Gaines et. al,, ANL, May 2000; IEA (2005) Prospects for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells, D. Gielen et. al, IEA, 2005;EPRI (2005) Batteries for Electric Drive Vehicles Status 2005, M. Duvall et. al., EPRI, November 2005; CARB (2007) -

Status and Prospects for Zero Emissions Vehicle Technology, F. R. Kalhammer et. al., CARB, April 2007; USABC - Goals forAdvanced Batteries for EVs.

to implicate these costs in calculations. Renault holds the view that the second life of car batteries

plays a decisive part on the EV business models.

This model will be applicable and economically reasonable if EV-batteries are a mass product and

material costs exceed a defined level. Till then a recycling scheme has to be triggered and batteries

might be stored in interim storage facilities.


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2.2.7 Costs of battery degradation

Costs of battery degradationLevel: Electricity Category: Vehicle battery Topic: Battery charging


To evaluate the possibilities of V2G services the batterydegradation costs have to be estimate. Since there is no

experience with the new Li-Ion batteries, a model has to

be used. However, the battery degradation process is

too complex to use a physical battery model. Therefore,a highly simplified cost model based on the DoD will be

used to estimate the costs of battery degradation.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

Depth of discharge


Costs of battery degradation depend on the investmentcosts of the battery. Therefore, the parameter range is

determined by the battery costs per kWh.


None

Additional data files See [ISI2010] for detailed information.

The model for the battery degradation cost is presented in [ISI2010]. As shown in the parameter


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Battery lifetime, the number of cycles is depending on the DoD. The battery degradation costs can be

determined by this function cdis(DoDStart, DoDEnd)depending on the start point of the discharging to

the end. Battery specific parameters are:

Cost for the battery cBatt

Usable energy of the battery EBatt

Figure 2.2-9 shows how the cost per kWh differs depending on the investment cost. The deeper the

battery is discharged the higher the costs per kWh are.

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 10

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

Depth of discharge

Figure 2.2-9: Shows the cost per kWh depending on the DoD for different investment costs


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2.3 Charging process2.3.1 Energy transmission

Energy TransmissionLevel: Electricity Category: Energy Charg-

ing GatewayTopic: Battery charging


Availability of a standardized energy transmission tech-

nology is a basic prerequisite for consumers to acceptEV, because it allows for charging the vehicle independ-

ently of it geographical location.


- Conductive Charging- Inductive charging

- Battery swapping stations

2010 20302020 Once it has been completelystandardized, no changes can be

expected anymore.


Different plugs are included in

current standards, hopefully allEuropean countries will use only

one of those


For charging electric vehicles, three basic types of energy transmission can be distinguished. First,

conductive charging (plug and cable) is possible and it is probably the simplest solution available. It

offers a few advantages over the other technologies, as charging stations are easy to install. Also, this

technology is fairly cheap compared to the others and communication between car and grid for all

kinds of purposes can be realized via the same cable that is used for energy transmission. Conductivecharging can be achieved by connecting the vehicle charger directly to the grid with an AC connec-

tion, where the onboard charger converts it to DC current to the batteries, or using a DC connection,

where an external charger converts AC power from the grid, to the requested DC current by the ve-

hicle. AC connections are cheaper to supply but are limited in power to the maximum vehicle on-

board charger that can be fitted. DC connections can go up to higher power, as the off-board charger

does not have that limitation, and is shared by different users. DC connections are however more

expensive to the infrastructure supplier as they require the offboard charger.

Inductive charging is probably the most convenient solution for the user. You can either charge as

you drive or you can also charge at parking lots without having to connect your vehicle. Depending

on where this technology is installed, it can also help overcome range problems, because it can offer


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a permanent connection on highways, e.g. However, inductive charging systems are difficult to in-

stall, nowadays have low efficiency and have to be standardized all over Europe, as adapter plugs will

not be available. In the SAB questionnaire SAP forecast availability of mobile inductive charging not

within the next 10-20 years [SAP10]. The year 2014 is defined by Renault as a goal for wireless charg-

ing [REN10].

Nevertheless the communication between battery and charging station has to be standardised and

the ISO 15118 (Road vehicles- Communication protocol between electric vehicles and grid) to be

extended [REN10]. In the SAB questionnaire Renault refers to a specific ACEA working group which is

working on ISO (OEM regulations) and IEC (energy suppliers) protocols. But a common protocol

agreement is due by June 2010 or December 2010 at the latest.

The third option to charging electric vehicles is simply replacing empty batteries with full ones. On

the one hand, it is almost as convenient for the user as inductive charging, as you do not have to plug

in your car anywhere and charging times are very short, which again helps to overcome range prob-lems. On the other hand, a lot of investments would have to be made to set up the required amount

of swapping stations and standardization has to be ensured all over Europe, and across many differ-

ent vehicle manufacturers, so that the same battery black box could fit in many different vehicles.

Of course, a mix of different technologies can be imagined such as a car with a swappable battery

either

fast charging the battery or only swapping the battery when going long distances on the highway.

In the SAB questionnaire Mitsubishi point up that battery swapping can solve the current range prob-

this model [REN10], but on the other hand there are doubts mentioning the requirement of a highernumber of battery packs then existing vehicles. This increases the system costs of electric mobility

[MIT10].

vehicle from 3kW one phase AC and 43 kW three phase AC [REN10]. AREVA holds the view that slow

chargers in the vehicle are the state-of-the-art. They can be integrated with low weight into on-

board, while fast and bi-directional charging appear to be easier to integrate into off-board stations

[AREVA10].

Important national, European and international standards with regard to the charging process, plugs

and sockets are [IEC10], [CEN10], [ISO10]:

-

interchangeability requirements for pin and con-

tact-

IEC 62196-1 E.d. 2.0 -outlets, vehicle couplers and vehicle in-

lets- Conductive charging of vehicles- Part 1: Charging of electric vehicles up to 250A a.c and

Test methods and requirements for basic and high-


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38/138




mode definition

1 Connection by one- or three-phase to a AC grid, standardized socket as well

as protective earth and line conductor, rated value of current less then 16A

under use of

2 Connection by one- or three phase to a AC grid, standardized socket, earth

and line conductor in combination with a control function ( pilot function)

between EV and plug or control device

3 Direct connection of the EV to the AC grid using an application specific EV

power supply which has a pilot function (conductor) leading all the way to the

device continuously connected to the AC grid.

4 Indirect connection of the EV using an external charging device. A pilot func-

tion has to lead all the way to the device continuously connected to the AC

grid.

Table 2.3-1 the four possible operation modes of charging stations

o Functions:There are main functions required for mode 2,3 and 4:

detection of connection

permanent inspection of protective earth connection

ability to turn on and off the system

Further optional functions:choice of ampere rating

determination of ventilation requirements

detection of momentarily available power from the power supply

locking plugs

control of bi-direction power flow

o Types of connection:There are three defined constitutions:

mode definition

A Joining the AC grid by power cable which is permanent connected to the

EV (charging mode 1-4)

B Connection to the AC grid by cable set which can be completely taken off

(charging mode 1-3)

C Joining the AC grid by power cable which is permanent connected to the

charging station (charging mode 3-4)


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Table 2.3-2 the three types of connection between charging station and EV

o Protectivedevices: Moreover there definitions concerning security:

Parts that can be touched by the user may not become dangerous active compo-

nents during normal or single failures.One second after disconnection, the voltage of touchable or active components

has to be less then 42,4 Vpeakor 60 VDCand stored energy available from these

parts has to be less than 20 J.

o Temperature:Plugs and plug-ins have to permanently withstand operating temperatures

of -30C to 50C and ambient temperatures of -50C to 85C during transport and sto-

rage.

At 40C ambient temperature maximum surface temperature of parts that may be han-

dle is 50C for metal parts and 60C for non-metal parts and maximum surface tempera-

ture of parts that may be touched but not handle is 60C for metal parts and 85C for non

metal parts.

DIN EN 62196- -outlets, vehicle couplers and vehicle inlets-Conductive charging of

[EN62196-1]

This standard is applicable to plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle couplers, vehicle plugs and cables

for electric vehicles used in charging systems with conductive energy transmission and con-

trol equipment with the following maximum voltage and current ratings:

690 V AC (50 Hz or 60 Hz) and 250 A

600 V DC and 400 A

This standard gives very detailed information for plug design, so all necessary safety re-

quirements can be met by the final product. Furthermore, this standard gives very detailed

information of all kinds of electrical, mechanical and other general tests that have to be per-

formed in order to assure conformity. The explanation is valid for a great variety of different

plugs.

The key elements and main specifications are:

o Vehicle couplers:Four different vehicle couplers have to exist:

Basic interface (B) for charging modes 1, 2, 3 and up to 32 A

Universal interface for 32 A AC current(U32)

Universal interface for high power AC (UA)

Universal interface for high power DC (UD)

o Vehicle plugs: Three different plugs have to exist:

Universal interface UA

Universal interface UD

Basic interface (B)


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Universal plugs have to have up to 12 contacts; the basic plugs have up to 8. The usage of the

different contacts is defined within the standard for both types of plugs.

Plugs of type B only have to be compatible to sockets of type B, where as plugs of type U A

have to be compatible to UAand U32. The same is valid for type UD. UAand UDmay not be

compatible.

o Labels:Plugs and sockets have to be labeled accordingly to this standard. The following informa-

tion has to be included using specified symbols:

One symbol describing the type of plug (B, UA, UD, U32)

Rated current in A

Rated voltage in V

Name or brand of producer or responsible dealerDescription of type which may be the article number

Sized, position and layout of labels are explicitly defined within this standard.


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2.3.3 Plugs for conductive charging

Plugs for conductive chargingLevel: Electricity Category: Energy Charg-

ing Gateway



Standardization of plugs for conductive charging is de-

manded by governments, industry experts and manufac-turers (e.g. [REN10]) but common protocols or plugs still

owe. In the following parameters representing the na-

tional state of the art in Netherland, Spain, France andSweden will be mentioned.


2010 20302020 Once it has been completely

standardized, no changes can be

expected anymore.


Different plugs are included incurrent standards, hopefully all

European countries will use only

one of thoseAdditional data files None

IEC 62196 defines different plug-systems for charging currents up to 250 A a.c. or 400 A d.c. There

are further information in chapter 2.3.2 Charging stations.

Netherland (G4V-Questionnaire answered by ECN)

In current trials the Netherland uses the 5-pole 16A CEE plugs. But on April 9th2010, they adapt the

Menn -KEMA research group. All existing charging points will

be converted to the new standard by the end of 2010 [ECN10].

http://www.verkeerenwaterstaat.nl/actueel/nieuws/formuleeteamenuniformelaadstekkervoorelektrischeautosinnederland.aspx

Sweden (Chalmers University of Technology):

In Sweden there are no standards yet, but trials and researches will be highly supported to adapt the

specific Swedish condition:

low voltage three phase ( 16, 20 or 25A) in every household

600,000 1million outdoor outlets of household type (grounded, one phase, 10A) for electric

preheating of cars at work or at home.

Conclusion: Normal charging of the cars with a standard household outlet, one phase 10A, thus

2,3kW, highly supported [CUT10].


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Spain (ENDESA):

In Spain the standardization is expressed by the norm UNE-EN 61851: lec-

tric vehicle

France (EDF):

France is pushing for 3kW single phase at home and for some soft charging system as the long charg-

ing process during all the night [EDF10].

Italy (ENEL):

The Italian standards are expressed by the norms:

CEI 69-6 (e.g. Scame mono-phase connector)

CEI 312-1 (e.g. Mennekes 3-phase connector)


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2.3.4 Connection power

Power connectionLevel: Electricity Category: Energy Charg-

ing Gateway



Charging power is a major factor to overcome range

restrictions. Therefore, different charging power levelsare defined.


- Slow charging

- Quick charging- Fast charging

2010 20302020 May change over time when new

infrastructure is installed, newtechnology is available (e.g. bat-

tery) or more EV exist


Yes, depending on the existinggrid the values might differ.


In order to clearly distinguish different power ratings, the following classification is suggested (which

is based on the CIVES suggestion [CIVES10])

Slow charging: P < 7 kW

Quick charging: 7 kW < P < 44 kW

Fast charging: P > 44 kW

According to this classification, swapping stations have to be considered ultra fast charging stationsand inductive charging can be of any kind, depending on their power rating.

In the SAB questionnaire Mitsubishi explains its support of slow charging at home using standard

sockets and quick charge under the CHADEMO protocol, in this moment. Quick charging can be used

for range extension, in places where limited space does not allow many charging spots. It might be

just 5-10% of all charging [MIT10].

According to the Table 2.3-3 Maximum apparent power for different charging installation


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, slow charging should be available in every household, fast charging in many households when in-

stalling special plug-ins and ultra fast charging probably is only available in public places.

Installation Maximum apparent power [kVA]

One phase 16A 3,7

Three phases 16A 11

Three phases 32A 22

Three phases 63A 43,7

Table 2.3-3 Maximum apparent power for different charging installation

Charging types, power and charging speeds

Type of

charging

Current

[A]

Voltage

[V]

Apparent

Power

[kVA]

Power

factor

Power

[kW]Single Phase

Three

Phase

Maximum hourly charging in

kms if consumption is

15kwh/100km [km/h]

Maximum hourly charging in

kms if consumption is

20kwh/100km [km/h]

Maximum kms

charged in 10m for a

consumption of

20kwh/100km [km]

AC 16 230 3,7 0,95 3 Yes 23 17 3

AC 32 230 7,4 0,95 7 Yes 47 35 6

AC 16 230 11,0 0,95 10 Yes 70 52 9

AC 32 230 22,1 0,95 21 Yes 140 105 17

AC 63 230 43,5 0,95 41 Yes 275 206 34

Battery

voltage

Power

[kW]

Offboard DC 167 300 - 50 - - 333 250 42

Offboard DC 250 300 - 75 - - 500 375 63

Offboard DC 417 300 - 125 - - 833 625 104

Offboard DC 600 300 - 180 - - 1200 900 150

Table 2.3-4 Charging types and charging speeds

Table shows types of conductive charging by power and transfer mode (AC/DC), and maximumamounts of energy that can be transferred to the vehicle if the battery copes with it. Energy is trans-

lated into kms gained in range using two values of consumption.

In many countries 10 minutes is perceived as the maximum time period users are willing to wait

without leaving their cars for other activities. In the area of around 40KW of charging power, the kms

gained are still quite low for such a period. It is definitely not the kind of charging for long distance

highways, but rather urban commuting roads.

For EVs to be used as ICEs on highways, charging power of more than 125 kW will have to be

reached, when and if batteries can receive such power.

EVs typically have a battery charging voltage of around 300V. Considering a 30kWh battery block,they will require a capacity of 100Ah. This capacity can be reached.

Input SAB:

RENAULT [REN10]

relation between types of charging:

France: 90% slow charging/10% fast charging

Germany: 80% slow charging / 20% fast charging


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In the following European key connection indicators which have to be taken into account in discus-

sions about plugs, connection power and charging places.

country Italy Spain Portugal Sweden

nominal vol-

tage(230/400V)

N.A. N.A. N.A. 230V,single-

400V,three-phase system

typical privateconnection(single-/three- phasesystem)

single-phasesystem

single- (pre-ponderant)andthree- phasesystem

73% single-23% three-phase system

100% three-phasesystem

ampere ratingper phase

16Afor 3kW con-tracts

10-32A N.A. 16-25A

limited powerconsumption

typical con-tracts about

3 kW, 4,5kWand 6 kW

according tocontract



typical power N.A. 3,6kVA single-phase system

3,54kVA sin-gle-6,9kVA three-phase system

N.A.

restriction N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.

Table 2.3-5: A: Country specific key connection indicators

country Germany France United King-dom

Netherlands

nominal vol-tage(230/400V)

230V,single-400V,three-phase system




typical privateconnection(single-/three- phasesystem)

ampere ratingper phase

10-16A 10-16A N.A. 16A

limited powerconsumption N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.

typical power

restriction N.A N.A. N.A. N.A.

Table 2.3-6: B: Country specific key connection indicators


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2.3.5 Charging place

Charging placeLevel Electricity Category Energy Charg-

ing Gateway

Topic Battery charging

Short description Status Finished

A charging place describes the allowed place where a

vehicle can be charged. It assumes that at this place, thecharging infrastructure is available for every vehicle

owner.

Charging possibilities have a high relevance becausethey have a high impact on the grids and all business

cases, especially on the EV demand curve based on driv-

ing patterns.


At home (example!)

At home and at work

Everywhere


None


The charging place describes where a charging infrastructure is available for each vehicle owner. The

power connection can vary for different charging places.

1. At home At home means that EVs can be recharged during nighttimes

because every EV owner will have a possibility to connect

the vehicle to the grid near his home. If it is his own garage

or perhaps a parking deck is not defined.

2. At home and at work This is an enlargement of the first stage because the vehiclesnow can be additional loaded at the working place of their

owners.

3. Everywhere This last stage allows the charging everywhere where the EVare parking longer than a certain amount of time ( see

at home, along the streets, at work or in a parking deck.

To generate useful results it is necessary to analyse the 3 different parameters.

Mitsubishi refers in the SAB questionnaire to the proportion of charging spot dependent on different

areas and the housing infrastructure. In areas where roadside parking is rather normal, the number

of spots has to be similar to the number of EV. In case of limited parking space also a quick charging

spot can replace some normal spots (factor 5-10). In rural areas space and access to private charging

is easy [MIT10].


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In the G4V-questionnaire ECN and ENDESA, representing Netherland and Spain, highlight their

strategies installing charging poles in urban areas in the start-up period. The Netherland offers a pro-

ject linking a purchase of an EV with a charging spot nearby home or work [ECN10], [ENDESA10].

Charging Scenarios:

Spain:

The objective of the Strategy for 2012 is 108.850 charging points along Spain and 343.510 charging

points for 2014:

263.000 charging points for transport fleets

62.000 charging points for private households

12.500 charging points for parking

6.200 charging points on street

160 charging points for fast charging

The reduced number of fast charging stations should give security to the system and confidence to

the users. Although EVs are aimed mostly for urban use, fast chargers could be provided on road in

order to allow long trips.

Italy:

The Italian charging scenario is illustrated by the picture below.

Figure 2.3-1: Charging places in Italy


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2.3.6 Directionality of the charging process

Directionality of the charging processLevel: Electricity Category: Energy Charg-

ing Gateway



The possible directions of energy transfer to and from

the car are an important factor when assessing the pos-sibility to offer ancillary services to the grid and there-

fore influence both business concepts and grid stability


UnidirectionalBidirectional 2010 20302020

both technologies available today


None


Two possibilities have to be distinguished when analyzing the directionality of power flow: unidirec-

tional power flow will always be available in order to charge the battery.

Bidirectional power flow is only required to offer certain ancillary services like reserve energy, for

example. Therefore, bidirectional power flow enables more complex business models and may allow

the user to make money, when he does not need his car. However, more complex power electronic

systems are needed which cause additional costs, either to the car manufacturer or to the operator

of the charging infrastructure.

Furthermore, bidirectional power flow requires additional safety measures. In case of failure, feed-

back of energy has to be interrupted as fast as possible. Electric cars feeding back energy should be-

have similar to conventional power plants, i.e. they have to feature Low-Voltage-Ride-Through-

capability, for example. The impact of the wave quality of the power being injected into the networkby the vehicles on-board generators is also a concern, especially regarding harmonics distortion in-

troduction, just like solar photovoltaic inverters.

In addition, please refer to 3.1.8 for impact on protective measures.


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In the following a short overview about the country-specific directionality of the charging process.

Country Possibility of electricity

resell/

Bidirectionality of charging

process

Annotations

Spain YES Disconnection in case of grid failures to prevent islanding

required.

Netherland YES

France YES Administrative decision and registration implied.

Sweden YES Security demands permanent installations. No permis-

sion to plug in the device. Disconnection from the grid in

case of grid failures.

Germany Yes

Italy YES Feedback of energy is allowed for small producer, al-

though they have to receive authorization from the DSO

and comply with a set of technical requirements. In ENEL

Distribuzione, there are documents that describe all

these aspects. In any case, possible revision is envisagedfor extension to EVs.

Portugal

Table 2.3-7: Country specific directionality of the charging process


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2.3.7 Loading curve over the day

Loading curveLevel: Electricity Category: Distribution

Network



The load of electric vehicles on the grid is highly de-

pendent on driving behaviour and operating schemes.However, a basic load curve can be given for large popu-

lations of vehicles and uncontrolled charging

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

00:00 06:00 12 :00 18 :00 00 :00 06:00 12:00 18 :00 00 :00 06 :00 12:00 18:00 00 :00

Tageszeit

Zu Hau se Zu Hau se / Arbe it bera ll

Parameter range Time frameVariable.

2010 20302020 Will change over time due to dif-ferent penetration rates and

changing driving patterns or bat-

tery technology


Depending on the driving pattersfor each country


Different perspective levels provide various insights into the resulting charging process of electric

vehicles and its consequences on demand curves. Fundamental information on a global level is pro-

vided for resource scheduling of power plants. However, an aggregated level of many thousand

commuters does not provide sufficient information on a small scale, which is necessary for deriving

impacts on a distribution level. Therefore, it is distinguished between two different aggregation per-

spectives within this section.

It has been assumed that all customers start charging directly after commuting, if adequate infra-

structure is given. Only in case of comprehensive charging opportunities commuters plug in their

vehicles in case of stopover duration of minimum 60 minutes.

lists the input parameters chosen as a base:

Charging power [kW] 3,7

Number of vehicles 20000

Infrastructure (charging location) Home, at work and at home, everywhere

Battery capacity See 2.2.2

Table 2.3-8 Base of Input parameters


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The graphical analysis depicts the time spread of charging power throughout a course of one week.

In ord

Documents

Parameter Manual WP1 3 RWTH 101216