Performance Preparation - Amazon S3s3.amazonaws.com/...e...9_performance_preparation.pdf · an isolated muscle group(s) to lengthen in a slow, controlled manner to its terminal range

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Advanced Concepts of Strength & Conditioning

PerformancePreparation

NCSF

CertifiedStrengthCoach

Chapter

9

Warm-up PhysiologyIt is clear that the use of a warm-up prior to sports training or competition

is relevant to athletic performance. Although this is well accepted in the strength and

conditioning community, there are still variations in practice, particularly due to the

wide variety of warm-up methods employed by coaches. Differences exist not only due

to variations between sport-specific requirements, but also due to the individual

methodological preferences of each coach. In many cases, warm-ups reflect historical

preparations that have been used for decades regardless of the actual outcome. This is

commonly seen on the field when static stretches are employed prior to anaerobic

workouts. Likewise, there are tendencies to center on an aspect of a warm-up such as

calisthenics or general warm-up applications like riding a stationary bike without

regard for purpose beyond gross movements to increase temperature. The warm-up

phase is an integral part of the exercise regimen and should be thoughtfully applied in

a manner consistent with other aspects of the program. Decisions surrounding activity selection

can have significant implications particularly when athlete- or sport-specific strategies are

employed. These decisions are based on the current needs of the athlete or team, but the warm-

up period should be used for specific outcomes beyond simple shifts in temperature. These goals

may emphasize corrective strategies, specific activation, motor rehearsal, or progressive prepara-

tion for intense bouts of training.

Warm-up activities have several purposes; therefore it is necessary to understand the varied

mechanisms that support the desired response. When considering the physiological effects of

the warm-up, it is important to recognize the temperature and non-temperature related effects

that occur for psychomotor readiness. Likewise, the type of warm-up may fall into subcategories

which describe the actions or specific intent. For instance, a warm-up may be active, requiring

muscle contractions to produce heat, or passive, which uses an external stimulus to add heat to

the body. Active warm-ups employ select movements to enhance tissue readiness as well as

improve mental focus. It is clear that this type of warm-up better prepares the cardiovascular,

musculoskeletal, and neuromuscular systems for performance compared to passive techniques.

Passive warm-ups cause muscle (Tm) and core temperature (Tc) elevation through external

means (such as a hot shower or sauna); however, it has limited or no use for athletic perform-

ance. The temperature and non-temperature effects of a warm-up are listed below [1]

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DEFINITIONS

Static stretching –

A stretching technique which requiresan isolated muscle group(s) to lengthenin a slow, controlled manner to itsterminal range of motion; commonly theposition is held for up to 30 seconds

Active warm-up –

Voluntary actions and movements thatpromote tissue efficiency throughincreased temperature and improvemental focus in preparation forheightened performance

Passive warm-up –

A type of warm-up technique thatemphasizes external means in attemptsto elevate muscle and core temperaturesuch as a hot shower or sauna

Chapter 9 NCSF Advanced Concepts of Strength & Conditioning

Performance Preparation

Table 9.1 Temperature and Non-temperature Related Benefits of a Warm-up

Temperature-related benefits/effects Non-temperature related benefits/effects

Reduce viscosity in muscle/joints Breaking of actin-myosin bonds (reduces muscle stiffness)

Greater release of O2 from hemoglobin/myoglobin which Increased blood flow to muscles

improves cellular respiration, VO2 and O2 delivery to muscles

Speeding of metabolic reactions and rate-limiting oxidative actions Elevation of baseline O2 consumption

Improved glycolysis/phosphate breakdown and anaerobic Post-activation potentiation (PAP); enhances neuromuscular

byproduct buffering rate efficiency

Increased nerve conduction/transmission rate Enhanced psychological readiness

Increased thermoregulatory strain Improved mental focus

Changes to the force-velocity relationship Increased physical preparedness

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Investigators measuring body temperature (Figure 9.1) as a warm-up indicator found 10

minutes of exercise at 80-100% of lactate threshold to be sufficient to reach active temperature

equilibrium. During this period the body makes adjustments to account for the changing inter-

nal environment. Interestingly, while the goal is to increase muscle temperature to gain

physiological efficiency, the bodily adjustments all act to reduce the internal temperature to avoid

overheating. Active muscle increases temperature as enzymatic activity ramps up. Capillary bed

excitation, along with cardiovascular adjustments, readily contributes to the effort needed to man-

age the increasing temperature by increasing the distribution of blood flow. Heat is energy that

must leave the system producing it or the system will fail. Due to this fact, the body adopts pat-

terns of blood flow redistribution during exercise to remove heat. As blood is pulled to the active

tissues during exercise, skin temperature decreases accordingly. This is reversed when working

tissues recover, explaining the rise in skin temperature following exercise. Optimal temperature

equilibrium is critical to performance for two primary reasons: 1) heat management must be a

constant to prevent overheating and 2) the management system can be draining on the body.

Inefficient thermoregulatory systems are a detriment to athletic performance. It generally takes

7-12 days of acclimation to improve heat management responses, a relevant consideration for

training in hot and humid environments.

Certainly the practice of a warm-up is designed to elicit the positive effects of increased mus-

cle temperature. Temperature changes associated with active warm-ups have demonstrated

improvements in measures of both aerobic and anaerobic performance. This can be explained

NCSF Advanced Concepts of Strength & Conditioning Chapter 9


Bishop, D. (2003). Warm up I: Potential mechanisms and the effects of passive warm up on exerciseperformance. Sports Medicine, 33(6), pg 441

Bishop, D. (2003). Warm up I: Potential mechanisms and the effects of passivewarm up on exercise performance. Sports Medicine, 33(6), pg 442

Bishop, D. (2003). Warm up I: Potential mechanisms and the effects of passivewarm up on exercise performance. Sports Medicine, 33(6), pg 443

Figure 9.1Temperaturemeasured at rest,during moderateexercise and duringrecovery for the rectal(Tr), skin (Ts) andmuscle at a probedepth of approximately20mm (Tm20) and40mm (Tm40), incommonly-observedambient conditions (10-30ºC). [7-13]

Figure 9.2The effect ofchanging bloodtemperature(Tb) on theshape of theoxyhemoglobindissociation curve.PO2 = oxygenpartial pressure.

Figure 9.3Anaerobicadenosinetriphosphate(ATP) supplyduring exercise atdifferent muscletemperatures(Tm). Rates areexpressed as apercentage ofnormal (100%).[33,37]

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by the effect of temperature on the delivery of oxygen to exercising muscle identified by the

greater unloading of oxyhemoglobin as temperature increases (Figure 9.2). In addition to a

greater O2 availability, the working muscles express improved metabolic efficiency. This is asso-

ciated with cellular changes (particularly in enzyme activity) that result in accelerated

rate-limiting oxidative reactions, an increased response rate within glycolytic pathways, and

enhanced high-energy phosphate degradation with repeat muscle contractions (Figure 9.3). At

the neuromuscular level, the increased temperature also enhances central nervous system (CNS)

function and increases the nerve conduction rate. A caveat to temperature adjustments associ-

ated with activity prior to exercise is that it must be properly managed. Thermoregulatory stress

(strain) may occur due to a disproportionate increase in muscle temperature before performing

vigorous exercise. Risk for thermoregulatory strain is associated with a decrease in heat-storage

capacity and impaired thermoregulatory mechanisms from environmental factors such as high

heat, dehydration, or an overly-aggressive warm-up intensity.

Among the non-temperature related mechanisms, effort to increase

VO2 during the warm-up should receive specific attention. A height-

ened VO2 provides several benefits as it allows for an optimal

metabolic environment at the beginning of a competition or train-

ing bout. Essentially, elevating oxygen in working tissue primes the

environment for initial anaerobic demands and con sequently improves

the rate of buffering during anaerobic work. Figure 9.4 shows an

example of the aerobic and anaerobic con tribution to an all-out task

with and without a prior warm-up. It is fundamental to understand

two key elements to warming up for an event: 1) most of the warm-up

benefits will be lost if the recovery time between the warm-up and the

actual exercise session is too long and 2) the actions employed must be

continuous in nature and intense enough to trigger an increase in VO2.

At the neuromuscular level, some of the non-temperature related

benefits include a decrease in muscle stiffness associated with the

breaking of actin-myosin bonds and an improvement in neuromus-

cular efficiency due to the effects of post-activation potentiation.

Finally a difficult aspect to quantify is the psychological effect of

warm-up on performance. While some athletes have an intrinsic

motivation to get ready for an activity, others rely heavily on the

coach’s motivational strategies during the warm-up. Likewise, activity-specific focus and height-

ened awareness can be affected by a pre-competition activity as afferent data is affected by focus.

This underscores the attention to detail during this phase of physical readiness.

The use of an active warm-up has been shown to have positive effects in short-, mid- and

long-term athletic performance:

At the short-term level, 3-5 minutes of moderate jogging increases Tm by �2ºC, which seems

to be enough to improve jump performance as well as other short-term or burst activities;

however, careful management of the warm-up duration and intensity is required. Temper-

ature-related physiological mechanisms that explain short-term performance improvements

after a warm-up include: a reduction in resistance within muscles and joints, an increase in

the nerve conduction/transmission rate, an alteration in the force-velocity relationship, and

an increase in glycogenolysis, glycolysis and high-energy phosphate degradation. In addi-


Bishop, D. (2003). Warm up I: Potential mechanisms and the effects of passive warmup on exercise performance. Sports Medicine, 33(6), pg 444

Figure 9.4Schematicrepresentationof the aerobicand anaerobiccontributionto an all-outtask with (a)and without(b) prior warmup. O2 Eq =oxygenequivalents;VO2 = oxygenconsumption.

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tion, the separation of actin-myosin bonds mentioned earlier further contributes to reduce

restriction. Coaches should be cautious though as the warm-up can promote negative

effects related to performance when the intensity is too low, leading to inadequate muscle

temperature, or when it is too intense, resulting in decreased availability of high-energy

phosphates as well as the build-up of metabolites.

The potential positive effects of a warm-up (≥ 5 minutes at a moderate intensity) on inter-mediate-duration performance appear to be affected by the same temperature-related factors

mentioned for short-term activity. Additionally, intermediate-duration performance

notably improves when adequate oxygen is available via reduction of the initial oxygen

deficit. As mentioned earlier, this very relevant non-temperature component allows subse-

quent sub-maximal exercise to begin at a higher VO2. This elevation in oxygen consumption

promotes higher-intensity performance by reducing the limiting effects of the anaerobic

system and related byproducts. The increased presence of oxygen enables athletes to quickly

clear anaerobic energy byproducts and can increase performance, particularly when anaer-

obic interval training is emphasized. Once again, when the volume and intensity of the

warm-up exceeds or fails to meet particular thresholds, the warm-up demonstrates no ben-

eficial (and often negative) effects on performance. A strength coach should also consider

the organization and structure of the training bout as the time between the warm-up and

the actual training or competitive activity affects performance outcomes. Again, when the

time between the warm-up and the event becomes longer than 5-10 min, the benefits of the

heightened VO2 decrease and the positive effects on performance may be lost.

Long-term performance also seems to be positively affected by temperature-related factors.

However, the actual benefit is specific to the duration and intensity employed; research shows

wide variability in warm-up derived outcomes for continuous events ranging from 5 min

to several hours. Part of the issue is the supportive literature has limited consistency. Most

papers vary in the warm-up strategies and modality employed (e.g., running, swimming,

cycling, etc.) making it difficult for straight comparisons among previously published

studies. Even with these inconsistencies, coaches should recognize the main issues are asso-

ciated with over-aggressive warm-ups. Excess intensity and duration contribute to the

depletion of muscle glycogen stores and increase the risk for temperature strain. Coaches

should monitor warm-up outcomes during practice and create a consistent plan for events.

It is very important to avoid deviating from customary behaviors before endurance sporting

events; no new techniques should be experimented with during competition.

Warm-up StructureStructure varies widely among practitioners but a general warm-upmodel can be employed

consistently for popular sports. The following model is intended to serve as a reference, which

should be modified to reflect the relative conditions, resources, and physical activity goals of the

training cycle. The warm-up strategy, like other components of the training program should be

progressively varied to reflect the training volume and specific elements. Therefore, most warm-

ups will not be completely repetitive over a given training cycle. The rationale here is two-fold:

1) the warm-up should be designed to evolve in a manner that affects multiple areas, and 2) the

warm-up should provide adequate diversity so athletes maintain the highest level of interest for

proper preparation. Similar to other components of training, a needs list must be constructed

to outline the warm-up goals.


DEFINITIONS

General warm-up –

Utilizes large muscles and grossmovements such as jogging or jumpingrope to promote muscle temperatureelevation

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Coaches should be cognizant of player apathy; there is a realistic need to ensure the warm-

up reflects the tendency of athletes to downplay rehearsal. Athletes tend to reduce effort in

response to warm-up redundancy, and there is always a tendency toward activity boredom in

sports that use choreographed preparations. The intensity and complexity of the movements as

well as the mental stimulus should gradually increase throughout the warm-up. In addition, dif-

ferent warm-up strategies should be used within weight training and conditioning phases and

may vary based on the different sports.

General Warm-up

The goal of the general warm-up is to increase muscle temperature and obtain all of the

associated benefits. As indicated in Figure 9.1, it may take between 5 to 10 minutes to increase

muscle temperature depending on ambient conditions and pre-activity temperature. Although

the modality may involve general whole-body movements such as jogging, cycling, or other repet-

itive stationary actions, the session may begin with some rest-work transitions. These transitions,

sometimes referred to as ice-breaking activities, include on-off jump roping or gross foot work

such as ladder drills to promote excitation and increase focus via afferent processing. The inten-

sity should be low-moderate, yet intense enough to adequately increase muscle temperature

without causing fatigue. In any case, there is an important component related to mental prepa-

ration for the subsequent activity; going from the passive to the active state requires a clear idea

of the training goal. Coaches should define the goal of the training session before engaging in

the actual warm-up. Again, attention is in the details. This is even more important when

rehearsal or sports-specific drills are the focal point of the training. Certainly, the main goal of

the warm-up is to increase body temperature, but it is possible to use any number of means

including sport-specific drills/movements to facilitate increased temperature.

When specific aspects of the warm-up are differentiated, the total duration may be broken

into progressive segments. Here the elements may include a general component, goal-oriented

applications and then neural-specific preparation. For instance, in preparation for a ballistic

workout centered on the Olympic lifts, an athlete may jump rope for 30 second intervals for three

minutes, perform closed chain (Olympic-specific) dynamic movements to promote range of

motion (ROM) and activation for five minutes, before performing a neural rehearsal of light

Olympic movements prior to engaging in the actual lifts. In the case of speed or agility training

the same sequence may be used but would be continuous to increase VO2 to aid in metabolic

attenuation for shorter recovery periods. Line drills are commonly employed to transition from

rest to initial work before repeated gross agility movements are added for heightened readiness;

which transition into more challenging acts. In some cases, a strength coach may feel pressures

from sport coaches and tenured players regarding “traditional actions” they believe are founda-


The warm-up may simultaneously function to:

Correctmusculoskeletal

distortions

Promoteactivation of

inhibited tissue

Createmetabolic

homeostasis

Increase forcecoupling via

lower-intensityrehearsal

Practicemovements

prior to loading

Encouragemovement-

specific efficiency

Figure 9.5 Potential benefits of an optimal warm-up structure

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tions of success. As part of the general component, many teams still engage in five (5) minutes

of static stretching activities for injury prevention, regardless of the evidence and potential neg-

ative effects on force production. Providing education and the rationale behind performance

decisions should occur in the event an outside influence is involved in this process. Static stretch-

ing is clearly antiquated and may reduce force output, particularly in the lower body musculature.

There is one caveat to static stretching prior to activity – when an athlete has or has had a signif-

icant muscle strain. If an athlete has an increased susceptibility to strains, or has re-occurring

issues (e.g., hamstring pulls), the tissue can be stretched before activity. The important catch to

this scenario is the tissue needs to be warmed up, then stretched, and then re-activated through

neural excitation. Performing neural activation drills following the stretch will reinitiate neural

signaling from a relaxed state. Often times, after a general warm-up, static stretching via active

isolation and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) techniques can be employed as

long as a neural reset is used before the actual activity. In most cases, placement of the stretches

before the dynamic component will resolve the issue.

Sport-Specific Warm-up

Sport-specific warm-up components may last 7 to 12 minutes and involve movements

and activities that resemble in whole or in part the sport-specific actions commonly engaged in

a competitive event. This design functions to maintain muscle temperature and prepare the mus-

cular-tendinous system for sport actions to be performed in the training segment. Dynamic

sport-specific ROM drills will be incorporated as the core component, while the intensity is main-

tained at a low to moderate level. Corrective exercises may be incorporated as well, particularly

if the movement efficiency of the athletes must be addressed. While this may be a common staple

throughout a training cycle, it certainly is an important part of the preparation and endurance

phases of training. By the end of this segment, the participating athletes should be ready to

increase their work intensity with reduced musculoskeletal restrictions.

The introduction of the sport element may further increase the intensity to a desired level,

therefore it makes sense to control and mix dynamic stretching techniques with sport-specific

actions in a progressive manner. The actions should be ordered in a way that governs the relative

intensity of the warm-up. For instance, if traditional line drills are employed, movement actions

such as varied marches come before broad ROM movements like lunges which should precede

skips, prior to adding the more powerful movements. Consider the concept of progression –

activate the tissue, then move it though a progressively increasing ROM, challenge it by adding

some complexity between systems, and then increase speed.

Neuromuscular Activation

Increasing the intensity of a warm-up using phosphagen-fueled activities will best fulfill the

neural portion of a given training segment. It should not be intense enough to compromise avail-

able energy, but should employ sport-specific movements as well as agility- and velocity-related

actions to increase neuromuscular activation. The warm-up progression should allow an athlete

to safely achieve maximum intensities by the end of the segment with no signs of neuromuscular

or metabolic fatigue. For single event sports, appropriate activation of the working tissues, level

of intensity, and time of “recovery” from the warm-up should promote the benefits associated

with post-activation potentiation (PAP). If an athlete has specific activation issues, precise motor

patterns should be rehearsed in the preceding segment. Overactive hip flexors and low back

musculature are common examples. Therefore, specific activation of the gluteals, central


DEFINITIONS

Active isolation –

A flexibility technique that employs acontraction of the antagonist muscle toincrease relaxation of the stretchedmuscle (agonist) through reciprocalinhibition

Proprioceptive neuromuscularfacilitation –

A method of enhancing range of motionin a lengthened muscle by contractingthe stretched muscle once terminalROM has been reached; the proprio -ceptors (such as golgi tendon organs)allow for an increase in range throughmechanical modulation known asautogenic inhibition

Sport-specific warm-up –

A method of physical readiness thatinvolves the use of movements andactivities that resemble in whole or inpart the sport-specific actions commonlyengaged in a competitive event

Dynamic stretching –

A method of stretching that emphasizescontrolled movements through a fullrange of motion to gain improvementsin movement-specific flexibility

A sport-specific warm-up involves movementsand activities that resemble in whole or in partthe sport-specific actions commonly engaged in a competitive event.

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stabilizers, and the vastus medialis oblique (VMO) may precede the sport-specific actions

described in this segment as part of a corrective strategy. This concept is important as inhibition

of key muscles affects ballistic movements and creates faulty firing patterns during performance

of Olympic and plyometric exercises.

Metabolic Preparedness

As part of the final preparation for training or competition, it is recommended to incorpo-

rate a five (5) minute segment that focuses on achieving a training/competition intensity and

metabolic stabilization. The cardiovascular system should be stabilized so the consequent

elevation in oxygen consumption improves anaerobic recovery. This should be done using sport-

specific activities balanced with appropriate rest intervals to create a progressive oxidative state.

The rest time immediately following this segment also needs to be controlled. The coach’s deci-

sions related to this segment will be based on the specific needs of the subsequent event, but in

any case the participating athletes should be given adequate time to fully recover. Again, the

period between the warm-up and main activity should not be excessive as the warm-up benefits

may be partially negated. A common example of readiness is improved responses within all

working systems. For instance, without physical readiness and the metabolic preparation pro-

vided by an adequate warm-up, an athlete may perform repeat sprints and experience

hyperventilation between early repetitions. Commonly, performance is compromised in early

segments as the body attains a work homeostasis which should be attained during the warm-up.

An athlete who is prepared from a metabolic and neural standpoint will perform optimally and

not experience acute physiological stress at the beginning of the exercise segment. Essentially,

when an athlete is at a heightened oxidative state and maintains warm tissues, he or she will expe-

rience less movement resistance and less cardiopulmonary stress, making it much easier to

manage the metabolic requirements of anaerobic training between intensity shifts.

Designing an Athletic Performance Warm-upWarm-ups may vary with some significance based on the goal, available time, and nature of

the activities incorporated. In many cases, logistics interfere with the development of a “perfect”

programmatic template due to the fact that a coach may have a team for a defined period of time

with a long list of needs. In cases like these the warm-up may be abridged to meet the specific

time availability and place more or less emphasis on a particular segment. When time allows,

warm-ups may extend from 10-30 minutes depending on the nature of the event and the need

for specific readiness (Figure 9.6).


Time Segment Goal

5-10 min General Warm-up

5-12 min Sport-Specific Movements

5-7 min Neuromuscular Activation

5 min Metabolic Preparedness

5 min Recovery

Figure 9.6 Potential Breakdown of an Athletic Warm-up Segment

The final segment of a warm up should focus onachieving a training/competition intensity andmetabolic stabilization.

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Warm-ups intended to prepare an athlete for phosphagen-based activities should recognize

the role the nervous system plays in the actions as well as the need to minimize movement restric-

tion. When the training demands allow for longer rest intervals, as seen during weightlifting, the

actions employed in the warm-up should resemble (in whole or part) the activities to be per-

formed while allocating time for activation and ROM. This is particularly relevant for the most

active joint segments used during the intended activity. Therefore, warm-ups for ballistic

weightlifting should recognize the site-specific work demands of the body. Key elements include

central stabilization, connection across the kinetic chain to support triple extension, as well as

full ROM in resistive segments such as the latissimus dorsi and triceps (for Olympic receives).

The hips, trunk, and shoulders all must be active, connected, and be free from restriction when

initiating higher-intensity movements. For the purposes of weightlifting, the body can be split

into discernible kinetic segments and then joined to complete kinetic chains in a manner consis-

tent with the planned loading. Consider the following example:

Utilizing this type of warm-up methodology allows the body to prepare for management of

progressively intensified efforts. Whereas any activity selected may mirror an intended exercise

in whole, (i.e., Olympic bar split jerks), it may also resemble the action in part (i.e., overhead

squat with band pull). In these examples the unloaded bar split jerk is meant to function to

enhance neural preparation with the goal of rehearsal and activation whereas the squat with over-

head band pull is selected to activate the mid/low fibers of the trapezius and core musculature.

They both are useful prior to performing OH squats, jerks, or snatches which require significant

stability and ROM.


General warm-up segment• Jump rope 3 minutes

Corrective segment(activation and ROM) Rationale for each component

Segment 1 – Tri-set 2x • MB Goodmorning Connect posterior sling system• MB Swings with step back ROM in the anterior trunk/lats• MB Side reach (lateral lunge) Frontal/transverse plane ROM and activation

Segment 2 – Tri-set 2x• IYT reaches Posterior sling w/shoulder ext. rotation ROM• OH reverse lunge ROM in hip flexors/lats and glute activation• Lateral crossover reach Transverse plane activation and ROM

Segment 3 Tri-set 2x• Split stance reaches Posterior longitudinal ROM/activation• Rev lunge with OH swings Connection and ROM hip flexors/lats • SL rotational reach Connection/activation in transverse plane

Neural 1• Bar clean cycle Motor rehearsal• Bar clean and jerk Motor rehearsal

Neural 2• Clean pull from floor (50% 1RM) Neural prep• Clean from floor (60% 1RM) Neural prep

Figure 9.7 Example Athletic Warm-up Segment with a Corrective Exercise Emphasis

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If the training segment will be dominated by phosphagen system work joined with relatively

short rest intervals, as seen during loaded/unloaded sprints and agility activities, the warm-up

must be designed to optimally prepare the athlete from a metabolic standpoint. Based on the

fact that an increase in VO2 results in lower heart rates and shorter (effective) rest intervals; sprint-

based training, metabolic stations, and similar conditioning work require a warm-up design of a

more continuous nature. As previously mentioned, line drills have historically been used to suc-

cessfully prepare athletes for these types of endeavors. Line drills describe a sequence of

movements performed back and forth over a select distance, with minimal to no rest between

bouts of activity. The actions should be applied is a progressive fashion, and should reflect the

nature of the high tension/velocity events to follow. In many cases, the movement speed and

kinetic chain dictate the decision-making process related to activity selection. For instance, gen-

eral movement marches are used for mobilization: ankling, knee and hip flexion, and knee

extension movements provide a good start. Mobilization is followed by increased ROM of

the same musculature. Using drills that lengthen tissue dynamically can address the require-

ments of game speed movements. Skips and fast movements will help activate the hip

musculature used for linear speed and multidirectional movements. In this manner, the

movement speed and kinetic chain interactions are progressively managed. See Figure 9.9

for an example of a metabolic preparation warm-up.

When metabolic conditioning is blended into a sport practice session, activity selections

should reflect a given level of sports-specificity. In sports like American football, the warm-

up drills in the initial segment can be general with a focus on multidirectional movements

(e.g. forward, backward, and lateral drills or gross cone agilities) and then migrate into posi-

tional-specific actions as the segments progress into the second and third components. In

soccer, positional roles and similarities make team and ball drills quite applicable. The pro-

gressive manner and emphasis should maintain consistency with other types of warm-up

formats, however they should closely mimic actions performed during a competitive event.

The following on-field, soccer-specific warm-up example is demonstrative of this type of

preparation model (Figure 9.10).


Figure 9.8 Variations in Warm-up Activity Progression

Sprint/agility preparation (Lines 20yd

2x each)

• Marches – plantar flexion

• B marches flat foot heel reach

• B marches plantar flex toe reach

• A march

• A march arm cycles

• Stride march w/lateral lean (field lunges)

• Walking lunges w/hands behind head

• Low skips – ankling

• A skips

• B skips

• Lateral shuffle

• Carioca

• Butt kickers – hip extended

• Butt kickers – flexed hip

• Fast knees

• ½ and ½

• Power skips

Jog-run-jog drills 15-30m

• 50-70-50% x4

• 60-80-60% x2

Figure 9.9 Metabolic Preparation Warm-up

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Duration Goal Description

5 minGeneralwarm-up

20 players and 10 soccer ballsPlayers constantly move within the penalty boxwhile receiving and passing the ball.

Variation: right or left foot dribbling/passing;limit number of touches

10 min

Dynamicstretching

+soccer-specificmovements

Players line up in groups of 3 with a ball.Each player will dribble the ball 20 yds and thenpass it back to the line. On the way back eachplayer will perform dynamic line drills.

Line drills: Forward lunges, high-knee pulls, lateral squats, butt kickers, high-knee run, carioca, power skip, etc.

5 minNeuromuscularactivation

Each player will speed dribble the ball to theright cone, leave it there and accelerate to theopposite cone to check a second ball; then, theplayer approaches the first ball and passes itback to the line to finish with a 10 yd sprint.1 set of 4 reps with 1 min restVary each repetition: to the right or left first,check the ball on the ground, volley or header,etc.

5 minMetabolicpreparedness

Small side, (3 v. 3) game on a40 yds x 40 yds pitch.

Keep possession of the ball while marking man to man.

5 min RecoveryIndividual movements:long passes, shots on goal and field position specific movements

Figure 9.10 Soccer-specific Warm-up

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Recovery StrategiesA common error in many training programs and following sports practice is failure

to employ a reasonable cool down segment. This is not optimal as the physiological

systems tend to deal with abrupt changes in stress far less effectively than gradual shifts.

Too often athletes are asked to exert high levels of force leading to disrupted physiolog-

ical systems and then “hit the showers” without returning the body to its pre-excited

state. The major error here is expecting the environment to return to a baseline

state in a manner that will promote adequate recovery. A strength coach should

understand that preparing the body for the next workout or practice session starts as

soon as tension/ stress is removed. Adequate cool downs mixed with proper nutritional

follow-up promote recovery and limit a gamut of obstacles to performance.

Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)

Variations in training volume and methodology as well as individual characteristics will

affect the ability of an athlete to recover. Muscular adaptations to exercise vary depending on

gender, age, nature of exercise being performed, and training age. A common occurrence follow-

ing a bout of unaccustomed physical activity is the delayed sensation of skeletal muscle discomfort

or pain, known as delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) [2,3,4]. The discomfort associated with

DOMS is often characterized by muscle stiffness and tenderness. It is generally accepted that

DOMS follows an inverted U-shape curve over time, in which the intensity of discomfort

increases during the first 24 hours following the cessation of exercise, peaks between 24 to 72

hours, then subsides and eventually disappears by 5-7 days post-exercise [5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14]. This

inverted U-shape has been shown to be affected by the type of activity contributing to the DOMS[15]. Eccentric exercises are primarily cited for evoking DOMS as the nature of the contraction

promotes more muscle damage than concentric or isometric contractions [7,13,15,15]. Three ele-

ments increase the risk for DOMS including: the level of fitness of the participant (sedentary or

novice recreational athletes experience the greatest magnitude), the performance of eccentric

exercises using small muscle groups such as the musculature of the arm, and faster movement

velocities [15]. Detraining can also promote DOMS when an athlete reinitiates the training regi-

men from a period of reduced stress. Other factors that can influence DOMS include the

incorporation of new exercises, dramatic changes in volume, the performance of exercises

through an increased ROM and the performance of exercises at varying angles which alters

recruitment dynamics not previously experienced.

The mechanisms associated with DOMS have been historically explained using diverse

theories like lactic acid accumulation, muscle spasm, microtrauma, connective tissue damage,

inflammation, and electrolytes and enzyme efflux [16]. Since a single theory cannot explain DOMS

alone, integration theories are well accepted and include a number of events at the structural and

functional level, such as the initial disruption of sarcomeres, the impairment of the excitation-

contraction (E-C) coupling process and more recently, metabolic and mechanical damage that

is accompanied by inflammation, soreness, and changes in muscle function [16]. The damage

induced at the structural level of skeletal muscle has been confirmed by sarcomere and membrane

disruption as well as cytoskeletal elements (desmin and dystrophin). The alterations seen at the

structural level induce changes at the functional level which explains the majority of muscle

performance changes.

DEFINITIONS

Cool down –

The segment at the end of a workout orpractice used to bring the body back toa pre-exercise state via the use ofrhythmic, low-intensity activities andstretching immediately following theintense aspects of a training bout

Delayed onset muscle soreness(DOMS)–

The sensation of skeletal musclediscomfort or pain caused by severalbiomechanical/metabolic factors whichoften begins 24-72 hours afterperforming a bout of unaccustomedexercise, and usually subsides withinfive to seven days

Sarcomere –

Smallest functional units of a musclefiber, composed of contractilemyofilaments

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Several methods have been proposed to counteract soreness after unaccustomed exercise,

including those with limited or no effect on restoring muscle functionality [16]. Figure 9.11 shows

a comparison among recovery methods and the specific outcomes at the perceptive level

(soreness). Although it is a common practice to use one or more of these recovery methods to

help athletes to recover, there is no protocol or combination considered to be the gold standard;

particularly since comparison among methods is difficult. It is important to understand that

the placebo effect of some of these methods may be greater than the actual physical performance

change demonstrated under laboratory conditions. Anecdotally, performance may improve due

to the combination of the positive effects of the recovery methods in addition to the placebo

effect. Strength coaches should analyze and understand not only the physio-mechanical aspects

of the sport, but also environmental characteristics. In addition, the practicality for the selected

method plays an important role as the most effective methods may not be possible due to

resource limitations.

More recently, creative approaches have been used to address an athlete’s recovery. For

example, the use of whole body vibration therapy (WBVT) as a recovery method has generated

some interest. WBVT uses vibrations from moving platforms that are transmitted to the body

via contact with specific muscle groups. These vibrations are thought to enhance local blood

flow and improve proprioceptive feedback. Even though results from different studies have been

mixed, a recent study showed a single WBVT session, consisting of one 60-second bout at 35 Hz

was effective in controlling DOMS and strength loss after a bout of eccentric exercise [17].


It is generally accepted that DOMS follows aninverted U-shape curve over time, in which theintensity of discomfort increases during the first24 hours following the cessation of exercise andpeaks between 24 to 72 hours.

Figure 9.11 Recovery Method Outcomes for Muscle Soreness

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Self-Myofascial ReleaseRestrictions at the myofascial level are commonly experienced in athletes due to repeated

mechanical loading without adequate fascia treatment and flexibility. When experiencing

myofascial restrictions, certain areas of the fascia may become entrapped, leading to hypersensi-

tive points along the tissue. This is often expressed at the mechanical level by decreased ROM,

changes in movement biomechanics and pain sensitive areas due to the active (symptomatic) and

latent (non-symptomatic) trigger points found along the muscle fascia. Possible mechanisms

that contribute to myofascial restriction include the autonomic effect on soft tissues and the

induced mechanical or histological changes in the myofascial structures. Researchers have

explained the interaction and participation of several mechanoreceptors in myofascial restriction

as well (i.e., Golgi, Pacini, Ruffini and interstitial) [18,19]. Essentially, there is a known CNS feedback

loop (Figure 9.12) that partially explains the changes associated with tissue manipulation and

acupressure response.

Although limited research is available on the utilization of myofascial release as a recovery

method for performance, it has become a common practice in fitness and sport environments.

As a muscle recovery method, self-myofascial release (SMR) combines localized pressure and

stretching techniques which are generally applied at the myofascial level of the trained tissues.

The main goal of SMR is to release the myofascial restrictions that limit soft-tissue extensibility.

This technique may also be used as an effective component to warm-up as the promotion of tissue

extensibility seems to come without decrease in force production [20]. SMR exercise protocol

requires the application of pressure at the greatest point of restriction within the fascia level. A

compressive rolling action is engaged in a repeated fashion in the line of force of the fascia for

segments of 30 to 60 seconds. It is recommended to progressively apply the force (additional

compressive forces) so that deeper tissues can be reached over time. Three second holds should

be performed directly over major trigger points. One of the challenges is to be able to isolate the

target areas and apply enough pressure; therefore, different applications with varied stiffness may

be used to separate layers of restriction. The use of foam rollers, sticks, and hard or soft balls

facilitate this task under the pressure of body weight. Load can be increased or attenuated by

changing the pressure in the desired area through positional changes and muscle contractions.

Again, it is necessary to progressively increase the pressure to ultimately reach deeper areas and

further release superficial tissues.


Figure 9.12 Mechanoreceptor and Myofascial Deformation Feedback Loop

DEFINITIONS

Trigger points –

A hypersensitive point along a giventissue due to myofascial restrictionand/or neural entrapment; can beactively symptomatic or latent

Mechanoreceptors –

A specialized sensory organ thatresponds to mechanical stimuli such astension, pressure, or displacement

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Sample Self-Myofascial Release ExercisesThe following examples demonstrate possible techniques for reducing myofascial restriction

in select areas and musculature prone to deformation. However, as mentioned previously, SMR

can be employed in many different ways with various modalities. The bodily position used must

provide adequate compressive forces to be optimally applied across disrupted tissues and held at

trigger points for effective relief.

Medial Calf/Peroneals

Fascia within the lower leg often experiences deformation/restriction

due to a rapid increase in high-impact plyometric training volume or

long-distance running. Running on harder surfaces is anecdotally pur-

posed to increase the risk for discomfort in these tissues as well. Some

athletes are more prone than others to myofascial deformation leading to

pain along the medial aspect of the lower leg due to muscular imbalance,

tightness, and/or biomechanical incompetence during athletic activities

or basic locomotion. Restriction in this area is frequently associated

(sometimes incorrectly so) with shin splints.

Gastrocnemius

This exercise differs from the medial calf application as the position-

ing allows for compressive forces along the medial and lateral fibers of the

superficial gastrocnemius muscle, down to a position where the Achilles

tendon inserts at the ankle. Due to the directional pennation this tech-

nique can be very useful for athletes engaged in higher-volume vertical

ballistics, jump training, and the Olympic lifts which can promote sore-

ness and restriction in the musculature of the lower leg until the tissues

are accustomed to the stress (particularly eccentric). SMR for the calf

may precede squatting for athletes with dorsiflexion restricted capabilities.

Tibialis Anterior

In conjunction with SMR of the medial calf musculature and gastroc-

nemius, addressing the tibialis anterior in a more isolative fashion by

using a modified body position can be useful for athletes especially

prone to lower leg discomfort and pain associated with shin splints.

The lateral-anterior border of the lower leg should be the focus area for

compression.

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Quadriceps/Hip Flexors

SMR techniques for the quadriceps and iliopsoas are relatively easy to

employ, and can be quite beneficial during phases of training that place high

eccentric stresses/loads on the lower body (strength/power phases) and/or

significantly high time-under-tension (hypertrophy/anaerobic endurance

phases). As can be implemented with many other foam rolling techniques

(accomplished here by grasping the ipsilateral ankle), a light stretching

action (about 80% of full ROM) can be simultaneously employed while

providing compression to areas especially prone to tightness/deformation

due to repetitive action. Hard balls of various sizes can be used to localize

pressure on specific trigger points.

Hamstrings

SMR for the hamstrings is useful for the same reasons as the quadriceps and

iliopsoas. The upper fibers are prone to restriction when high workloads are

placed on the hips and gluteals as they function to assist in hip extension.

The technique can also be very useful for athletes who have experienced a

hamstring strain as it can help relax the tissues in a manner that does not

reduce force or power output such as static stretching.

Piriformis

Tightness or deformation in the piriformis causes a medial-lateral pull on

the spine that can lead to lower back pain and pelvic instability. With hyper-

tonicity, a tight piriformis will contribute to a toe-out gait. Optimal SMR

technique requires the athlete to get into a position that places the muscu-

lature under a slight stretch as the tissues are relatively deep and blocked by

the gluteal muscles.

Hip Adductors

As with all muscle groups within the lumbo-pelvic region, tight or

restricted hip adductors can significantly compromise biomechanics dur-

ing foundational lifts – increasing the risk for injury. For example, an

athlete with tightness in this area will experience medial translation at the

knees during a loaded back squat during the concentric phase. This is

also relevant in conjunction with quadratus lumborum and abductor

work for individuals who experience lateral deviations and limb length

disparities.

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Hip Abductors (TFL, IT band, and Gluteus Medius/Minimus

Similar to the adductors, the hip abductors are prone to tightness that can

lead to pelvic instability and pain in the hips, lower back, and/or knees.

The TFL helps to prevent the knee from collapsing during movement or

landing, so maintaining functionality is especially pertinent to sports per-

formance. The gluteus medius and minimus are frequently hypertonic

and develop trigger points that can cause pain that mimics sciatica or

sacroiliac joint dysfunction. Targeting the gluteus medius requires a

slightly more supine position without cross-over stance as seen in the

image.

Gluteus Maximus

SMR techniques can be useful for reducing hypertonicity or restriction in

the gluteus maximus that can easily cause pelvic instability by pulling the

pelvis posteriorly. This negates kinetic chain efficiency and proper muscle

activation during compound, closed kinetic chain exercises such as squats

and deadlifts; placing excessive stresses on the erector spinae, thoracolum-

bar fascia, and associated connective tissues that serve to stabilize and

protect the vertebrae.

Erector Spinae (lower back and thoracic)

The erector spinae serves as a principle phasic stabilizer during numerous

compound lifts used during sport performance training, and therefore

can benefit greatly from supplemental SMR techniques. The lumbar and

thoracic regions can be directly addressed, while the upper thoracic and

cervical regions can be worked on while addressing the rhomboids and

trapezius.

Upper Back (Lower Trapezius, Rhomboids, and Posterior Deltoid)

Myofascial restriction in the upper back is extremely common among ath-

letes with muscular imbalances associated with the glenohumeral joint

and shoulder girdle (e.g., upper-cross syndrome). In many cases unilat-

eral loading or dominance leads to bilateral disparities in restriction.

Utilizing the technique shown with the elbows abducted above the head

can help an athlete address the lower fibers of the trapezius more aggres-

sively, while folding the arms across the chest will allow for greater

compressive forces on the rhomboids in a stretched position. Note that


294


the rhomboids often become lax and relatively weak when an anterior shift in the shoulders exists,

so stretching is sometimes contraindicated. The trunk can be slightly rotated from this position

in either direction to provide a greater emphasis on the posterior deltoid. For bilateral disparities

a hard ball (commonly a lacrosse ball) can be used to localize the acupressure for better results.

Latissimus Dorsi

Tightness in the latissimus dorsi is very common and causes many issues

during the performance of overhead and Olympic lifts. SMR can help

address the intense trigger points and consequent restriction commonly

experienced in the region slightly inferior to the armpit due to tightness at

the muscle’s insertion points. This technique can precede Olympic weight -

lifting movements; particularly receives and overhead actions.

Pectoralis Major/Minor

SMR can be very useful for reducing hypertonicity in the pectorals due to

overuse, which can lead to scapular and shoulder joint dysfunction via pos-

tural shifts. Emphasis at the region close to the shoulder joint will help

ensure the pectoralis minor (an internal rotator prone to tightness) is fully

addressed.

Levator Scapulae/Upper Trapezius

The levator scapulae and upper trapezius are common culprits to dysfunc-

tion and pain among athletes with major strength/postural imbalances in

the shoulder girdle. Both muscles will become hypertonic if they must com-

pensate for mid/lower trapezius weakness as seen in upper-cross syndrome.

These tissues are one of the most common sites for debilitating trigger

points, but appropriate SMR as well as a focus on fixing any muscular imbal-

ances can alleviate these issues.


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