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Exam 4 Results

• N = 390• Mean was 37.40• SD = 5.79• Median = 38• Mode = 38• Top Score = 49• The highest total score to date is 190.• 190 is locked in as highest possible score for the

four exams that count toward your grade.2

Personality

Chapter 15Spring, 2009

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PersonalityAn individual’s characteristic pattern of

thinking, feeling, and acting.

Each dwarf has a distinct and dominantpersonality trait. 4

Personality Theories• Core

– What all people have in common• Basic source of motivation• Stages that we pass through

• Periphery– How we become different from each other

• Fixations• Reinforcement histories• Arousal levels

• Measurement procedures– Projective tests– Scales

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Psychodynamic Perspective

In his clinical practice,Freud encountered

patients suffering fromnervous disorders.Their complaints

could not be explainedin terms of purelyphysical causes.

Sigmund Freud(1856-1939)

Culver Pictures

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Psychodynamic Perspective

Freud’s clinicalexperience led him to

develop the firstcomprehensive theoryof personality, which

included theunconscious mind,

psychosexual stages,and defensemechanisms. Sigmund Freud

(1856-1939)

Culver Pictures

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Exploring the Unconscious

A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostlyunacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and

memories. Freud asked patients to say whatevercame to their minds (free association) in order to

tap the unconscious.

http://www.english.upenn.edu

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Dream Analysis

Another method to analyze the unconscious mind isthrough interpreting manifest (what we remember) andlatent (what it means, symbolically) contents of dreams.

The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791)

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Psychoanalysis

The process of freeassociation (chain of

thoughts) leads topainful, embarrassing

unconscious memories.Once these memories

are retrieved andreleased (treatment:psychoanalysis) thepatient feels better.

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Model of MindThe mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden,

and below the surface lies the unconsciousmind. The preconscious stores temporary

memories.

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Personality Structure

Personality develops as a result of our efforts toresolve conflicts between our biological impulses

(id) and social restraints (superego).

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Id, Ego and SuperegoThe Id unconsciously strives to satisfy basic

sexual and aggressive drives, operating on thepleasure principle, demanding immediate

gratification.

The ego functions as the “executive” andmediates the demands of the id and superego.

The superego provides standards for judgment(the conscience) and for future aspirations.

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Personality Development

Freud believed that personality formed duringthe first few years of life divided into

psychosexual stages. During these stages theid’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on pleasure

sensitive body areas called erogenous zones.

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Psychosexual Stages

Freud divided the development of personalityinto five psychosexual stages.

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Oedipus Complex

A boy’s sexual desire for his mother andfeelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival

father. A girl’s desire for her father is called theElectra complex.

Males: Fear of castrationFemales: Penis envy

These fears/anxieties result in identification ofsame sex parent (but motivation is stronger for

males because they have something to lose).16

Identification

Children cope withthreatening feelings by

repressing them andby identifying with therival parent. Through

this process ofidentification, their

superego gainsstrength that

incorporates theirparents’ values.

From the K

. Vandervelde private collection

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Defense Mechanisms

The ego’s protective methods of reducinganxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

1. Repression banishes anxiety-arousingthoughts, feelings, and memories fromconsciousness.

2. Regression leads an individual faced withanxiety to retreat to a more infantilepsychosexual stage.

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Defense Mechanisms3. Reaction Formation causes the

ego to unconsciously switchunacceptable impulses intotheir opposites. People mayexpress feelings of purity whenthey may be suffering anxietyfrom unconscious feelingsabout sex.

4. Projection leads people todisguise their ownthreatening impulses byattributing them to others.

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Defense Mechanisms

5. Rationalization offers self-justifyingexplanations in place of the real, morethreatening, unconscious reasons for one’sactions.

6. Displacement shifts sexual or aggressiveimpulses toward a more acceptable or lessthreatening object or person, redirectinganger toward a safer outlet.

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The Neo-Freudians

Jung believed in the collectiveunconscious, which containeda common reservoir of images

derived from our species’past. This is why many

cultures share certain mythsand images (archetypes) suchas the mother being a symbol

of nurturance.Types: Introvert/Extravert;

Feeler/ThinkerCarl Jung (1875-1961)

Archive of the H

istory of Am

erican Psychology/ University of A

kron

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The Neo-Freudians

Like Freud, Adlerbelieved in childhood

tensions. However, thesetensions were social in

nature and not sexual. Achild struggles with an

inferiority complexduring growth and

strives for superiorityand power. Emphasized

the importance ofbelonging.

Alfred Adler (1870-1937)

National Library of M

edicine

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The Neo-Freudians

Like Adler, Horneybelieved in the socialaspects of childhood

growth anddevelopment. Shecountered Freud’sassumption that

women have weaksuperegos and sufferfrom “penis envy.”

Karen Horney (1885-1952)

The Bettm

ann Archive/ Corbis

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Assessing Unconscious Processes

Evaluating personality from an unconsciousmind’s perspective would require a

psychological instrument (projective tests) thatwould reveal the hidden unconscious mind.

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Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)

Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is aprojective test in which people express their inner

feelings and interests through the stories they makeup about ambiguous scenes.

Lew M

errim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

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Rorschach Inkblot TestThe most widely used projective test uses a setof 10 inkblots and was designed by HermannRorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner

feelings by analyzing their interpretations of theblots.

Lew M

errim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

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Projective Tests: Criticisms

Critics argue that projective tests lack bothreliability (consistency of results) and validity

(predicting what it is supposed to).

When evaluating the same patient, eventrained raters come up with differentinterpretations (reliability).

Projective tests may misdiagnose a normalindividual as pathological (validity).

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Evaluating the PsychoanalyticPerspective

Personality develops throughout life and isnot fixed in childhood.

Freud underemphasized peer influence onthe individual, which may be as powerfulas parental influence.

Gender identity may develop before 5-6years of age.

Modern Research

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Evaluating the PsychoanalyticPerspective

There may be other reasons for dreamsbesides wish fulfillment.

Verbal slips can be explained on the basis ofcognitive processing of verbal choices.

According to Freud, suppressed sexualityleads to psychological disorders. But, sexualinhibition has decreased, but psychologicaldisorders have not.

Modern Research

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Evaluating the PsychoanalyticPerspective

Freud's psychoanalytic theory rests on therepression of painful experiences into the

unconscious mind.

The majority of children, death camp survivors,and battle-scarred veterans are unable to

repress painful experiences into theirunconscious mind.

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Evaluating the PsychoanalyticPerspective

Freud was right about the unconscious mind.Modern research shows the existence ofnonconscious information processing.

Schemas that automatically control perceptions andinterpretations

Parallel processing during vision and thinking Implicit memories Implicit attitudes Emotions that activate instantly without

consciousness32

Evaluating the PsychoanalyticPerspective

The scientific merits of Freud’s theory havebeen criticized. Psychoanalysis is difficult totest. Most of its concepts arise out of clinical

practice, which are the after-the-factexplanation. When one tenet appears to befalsified, another one comes to the rescue.

Still, what it is an ingenious and clever theory,and a comprehensive template for others to

attempt with different premises.

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Humanistic PerspectiveBy the 1960s, psychologists became

discontented with Freud’s negativity and themechanistic psychology of the behaviorists.

Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)

Carl Rogers(1902-1987)

http://ww

w.ship.edu

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Self-Actualizing PersonMaslow proposed that we as individuals aremotivated by a hierarchy of needs. Beginningwith physiological needs, we try to reach the

state of self-actualization—fulfilling ourpotential.

http://ww

w.ship.edu

Ted Polumbaum

/ Time Pix/ G

etty Images

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Growth and Fulfillment

Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's self-actualization tendencies. He said that

Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude ofacceptance of others despite their failings.

Michael R

ougier/ Life Magazine ©

Time W

arner, Inc.

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Assessing the Self

All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in ananswer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-Concept.

In an effort to assess personality, Rogers askedpeople to describe themselves as they would liketo be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If thetwo descriptions were close the individual had a

positive self-concept.

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Evaluating the HumanisticPerspective

Humanistic psychology has a pervasiveimpact on counseling, education, child-rearing, and management.

Concepts in humanistic psychology arevague and subjective and lack scientificbasis.

Very difficult to even figure out what totest, let alone, how to test.

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The Trait PerspectiveAs an outgrowth and more complex version of earlier

TYPE theories.An individual’s unique constellation of durable

dispositions and consistent ways of behaving (traits)constitutes his or her personality.

HonestDependable

MoodyImpulsive

Examples of Traits

Allport & Odbert (1936), identified 18,000 wordsrepresenting traits.

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Personality Type

Personality types, assessed by measures like theMyers-Briggs Type Indicator*, consist of a

number of traits. For example, a feeling typepersonality is sympathetic, appreciative, and

tactful.

SympatheticAppreciative

Tactful

Feeling Type Personality

*based on Jung’s theory

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Exploring Traits

Factor analysis is astatistical approach

used to describe andrelate personality

traits.

Cattell used thisapproach to develop a16 Personality Factor

(16PF) inventory. Raymond Cattell(1905-1998)

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Factor Analysis

Cattell found that large groups of traits couldbe reduced down to 16 core personality traits

based on statistical correlations.

Impulsive

Excitement

Impatient

Irritable

Boisterous

BasictraitSuperficial

traits 42

Personality DimensionsHans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that

personality could be reduced down to twopolar dimensions, extraversion-introversion

and emotional stability-instability.

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Assessing Traits

Personality inventories are questionnaires(often with true-false or agree-disagree items)

designed to gauge a wide range of feelings andbehaviors assessing several traits at once.

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MMPI

The Minnesota Multiphasic PersonalityInventory (MMPI) is the most widely

researched and clinically used of all personalitytests. It was originally developed to identify

emotional disorders.567 true-false items!!

The MMPI was developed by empiricallytesting a pool of items and then selecting thosethat discriminated between diagnostic groups.

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MMPI Test Profile

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The Big Five FactorsToday’s trait researchers believe that Eysencks’

personality dimensions are too narrow and Cattell’s 16PFtoo large. So, a middle range (five factors) of traits does abetter job of assessment. First mention of the Big 5 was by

L. L. Thurstone in his presidential address to the APA,published in 1934 in Psychological Bulletin.

ConscientiousnessAgreeablenessNeuroticism

OpennessExtraversion

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Endpoints

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Questions about the Big Five

Yes. Conscientious people aremorning type and extravertedare evening type.

4. Can they predict otherpersonal attributes?

These traits are common acrosscultures.

3. How about other cultures?

Fifty percent or so for eachtrait.

2. How heritable are they?

Quite stable in adulthood.However, they change overdevelopment.

1. How stable are these traits?

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Evaluating the Trait Perspective

The Person-Situation Controversy

Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traitsmay be enduring, but the resulting behavior in varioussituations is different. Therefore, traits, by themselves,

are insufficient predictors of behavior.

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The Person-Situation Controversy

Trait theorists argue that behaviors from asituation may be different, but average behavior

remains the same. Therefore, traits matter.

With age, personality traits become morestable, as reflected in the correlation of traitscores with follow-up scores seven yearslater (Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000).

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The Person-Situation Controversy

Traits are socially significant and influence ourhealth, thinking, and performance

(Gosling et al., 2000).

Samuel Gosling

John Langford Photography

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z1g8C-r0Mhsa52

A Person X Situation Example

• If we have high levels of trust in our co-workers, should we be less or more likely tosocially loaf on collective tasks?– In 1979 (Psychology Today), Latané, Harkins,

& Williams guessed “less.”– In 1991, (JPSP), Williams & Karau

hypothesized “more.”

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Rotter’s Interpersonal Trust Scale

• Trust in the sense that– you can depend on others;– you can rely on others;– others keep their word;– others don’t cheat.

• Gave scale to 1,085 introductory psychologystudents

• Selected lowest quintile (n = 42); middle quintile(n = 41); top quintile (n = 43).

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Method & Results• People worked in groups of

6-8• Either coactively or

collectively• Results:

– Low trusters sociallycompensated

– Medium trusters sociallyloafed

– High trusters sociallyloafed (big time).loafing

compensation

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Consistency of Expressive Style

Expressive styles in speaking and gesturesdemonstrate trait consistency.

Observers are able to judge people’s behaviorand feelings in as little as 30 seconds and in one

particular case as little as 2 seconds.

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Social-Cognitive Perspective

Bandura (1986, 2001,2005) believes thatpersonality is the

result of an interactionthat takes place

between a person andtheir social context.

Albert Bandura

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Bandura called the process of interacting withour environment reciprocal determinism.The three factors, behavior, cognition, and

environment, are interlocking determinants ofeach other.

Reciprocal Influences

Stephen Wade/ A

llsport/ Getty Im

ages

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Individuals & Environments

How we view and treat peopleinfluences how they treat us.

Our personalities shapesituations.

Anxious people react tosituations differently than calmpeople.

Our personalities shape howwe react to events.

The school you attend and themusic you listen to are partlybased on your dispositions.

Different people choosedifferent environments.

Specific ways in which individuals andenvironments interact

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BehaviorBehavior emerges from an interplay of external

and internal influences.

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Personal Control

External locus of control refers to the perceptionthat chance or outside forces beyond our

personal control determine our fate.

Internal locus of control refers to the perceptionthat we can control our own fate.

Personality Videos…

Social-cognitive psychologists emphasize oursense of personal control, whether we controlthe environment or the environment controls

us.

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Optimism vs. Pessimism

An optimistic or pessimistic attributional style isyour way of explaining positive or negative

events.

Positive psychology aims to discover andpromote conditions that enable individuals and

communities to thrive.

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Happiness

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Personality and the Brain

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Learned Helplessness

When unable to avoid repeated adverse eventsan animal or human learns helplessness.

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Assessing Behavior in Situations

Social-cognitive psychologists observe people inrealistic and simulated situations because they

find that it is the best way to predict the behaviorof others in similar situations.

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Evaluating the Social-CognitivePerspective

Critics say that social-cognitive psychologistspay a lot of attention to the situation and pay

less attention to individuals, their unconsciousmind, emotions, and genetics.

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Positive Psychology and HumanisticPsychology

Positive psychology, such as humanisticpsychology, attempts to foster human

fulfillment. Positive psychology, in addition,seeks positive subjective well-being, positive

character, and positive social groups.

Martin Seligman

Courtesy of M

artin E.P. Seligman, PhD

Director,

Positive Psychology Center/ U

niversity of Pennsylvania

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Exploring the Self

Research on the self has a long history because theself organizes thinking, feelings, and actions and is a

critical part of our personality.

Research focuses on the different selves wepossess. Some we dream and others we dread.

Research studies how we overestimate ourconcern that others evaluate our appearance,performance, and blunders (spotlight effect).

Research studies the self-reference effect inrecall.

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Benefits of Self-Esteem

Maslow and Rogers argued that a successfullife results from a healthy self-image (self-

esteem). The following are two reasons whylow self-esteem results in personal problems.

When self-esteem is deflated, we viewourselves and others critically.

Low self-esteem focuses on our failure inmeeting challenges, or surmountingdifficulties.

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Culture & Self-Esteem

People maintain their self-esteem even with a low statusby valuing things they achieve and comparing

themselves to people with similar positions.

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Self-Serving Bias

We accept responsibility for good deeds andsuccesses more than for bad deeds and

failures. Defensive self-esteem is fragile andegotistic whereas secure self-esteem is less

fragile and less dependent on externalevaluation.