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Planning Implementation for Mitigating Loss of Green Areas in Peripheral Urbanized Areas of Greater Jakarta:
Case Study of Tangerang Selatan
Dyah Fatma*
Atsushi Deguchi*
Abstract Uncontrolled growth in Greater Jakarta has reduced the green area in Jakarta’s neighboring
municipalities. Projected population growth and associated growth in housing will cause further
loss of green areas. Spatial planning laws in these municipalities and the application of a
national target for urban green areas in each city have been implemented in an attempt to
mitigate the loss of green areas. However, further loss of green areas since these laws were
issued shows that there are underlying problems in their enactment. Tangerang Selatan has been
nominated as a new center for residential, service and trading activities, which provides an
opportunity for policy change to mitigate the loss of urban green space in peripheral
municipalities. This paper aims to mitigate further loss of green areas in Tangerang Selatan by
identifying the underlying problems for green area provision in Tangerang Selatan through
analysis of the current regulations and their implementation in different types of development.
Findings indicated that achieving sufficient urban green area is a challenge in Tangerang
Selatan due to insufficient planning and monitoring capabilities. However, it is found that
private sector has the potential for collaboration in green area provision. Keywords: Land use, Uncontrolled growth, Green coverage ratio, Mitigation of green area
loss, Indonesia
1. Introduction 1.1 Background
Greater Jakarta, which is also known as Jabodetabek, has experienced rapid growth since
Indonesia opened up for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the 1970s22) 24)
. Economic growth
in Jakarta following FDI triggered a population increase in the city and between 1970 and 1990,
Jakarta converted approximately 60% of its unbuilt area into built area61)
. The implementation
of a policy to extend urban growth to the east and west of Jakarta in 1976 caused the city to
expand into its surrounding municipalities56)
. Jakarta’s urban area expanded outwards to the
Depok and Bogor regions in the south, Bekasi region in the east, and Tangerang region in the
west (Figure 1) forming what is known as Greater Jakarta. Before the expansion, these
municipalities used to be agricultural areas27)
.
As the municipalities at Jakarta’s periphery transformed from rural to suburban and
started to show signs of early post-suburbanization28)
, green coverage in these municipalities
declined. Development in Jakarta’s periphery following FDI was dominated by residential
development. By 1996, development permits for residential areas released by the government
covered 16% of the total Greater Jakarta area59)
.
*Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo
Email: [email protected]
(C) 2016 City Planning Institute of Japan http://dx.doi.org/10.14398/urpr.3.85
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 85
This study defines green areas according to the definition included in Indonesian Spatial
Planning Law (2007), whereby green areas are defined as a plot intended for vegetation. It
includes, but is not limited to, urban forest, agriculture, and parks. This definition distinguishes
green areas from green coverage, whereby green coverage includes land plots that are
designated for other uses, including built areas that have not yet been developed.
1) Uncontrolled Growth in Greater Jakarta
Uncontrolled growth that happens in Greater Jakarta is often compared with sprawl in the
United States of America (USA), as both show leapfrog development, often along road
infrastructure 23)
. Despite these similarities, sprawl in the USA has grown under similar planning
and building codes, which explains the similarities between sprawl in different places across the
USA23)
. Growth in the periphery of Jakarta has followed two patterns: new areas developed by
private developers that share similarities with their US counterparts; and organic expansion
within and outside the settlement areas that preexisted the urbanization process 45)
.
2) Urbanized Area of Greater Jakarta
At the beginning of Jakarta’s expansion, growth was in the form of urban patches among rural
areas at the urban fringe, a trend known as desakota 43)
. Through the constant pressure of
urbanization, these municipalities gradually lost their rural land. The loss of rural characteristics
is reflected in the Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) of the municipalities directly
adjacent to Jakarta, which shows a low percentage of income from the agricultural sector
Figure-1 Municipalities in Greater Jakarta
Table-1 Urbanized municipalities of Greater Jakarta
Municipality Area (km2)
Population in 2010
Green Coverage GRDP from Agriculture
Jakarta 662.33 8,523,157 *1 10.38% *6 0.08% *11
Bekasi 210.49 2,334,871 *2 3.70% *7 0.16% *12
Depok 200.29 1,736,565 *3 3.82% *8 2.52% *13
Tangerang 164.54 1,798,601 *4
46.00% *9
(including privately
owned green area)
0.16% *14
Tangerang Selatan 147.19 1,290,322 *5 18.00% *10 0.86% *15
*1:3), *2:7), *3:10) *4:14), *5:12), *6:28), *7:57), *8:48), *9:50), *10:2), *11:4), *12:9), *13:11), *14:15),
*15:13)
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 86
(Table-1). These municipalities also have changed their status into kota (city, or urban
municipality, as referred to in this paper) from kabupaten (regency, or rural administrative area
or rural municipality as referred to in this paper), following the increase in their population Ease
of access and availability of infrastructure in these urban municipalities has increased the
tendency for further development. Based on the assumption that a change of land cover is
irreversible29)
, provision of green open space is more feasible by reassigning available unbuilt
land.
3) Previous Spatial Planning Policies
A number of spatial planning policies to control urbanization and land use change have
been applied in Greater Jakarta. A study for the masterplan of Jakarta was first done in 1965,
and a masterplan was issued which included the urbanized area of the municipalities
surrounding Jakarta54)
. In 1976, an authority for Greater Jakarta was formed 54) 56
, and a plan to
expand new development of industry and housing towards the west and east was enacted in
198156)
. These policies initiated rapid urbanization in Greater Jakarta and had caused a sharp
decrease of green coverage.
Following the Earth Summit in 1992 and awareness of the impacts of global warming, the
government of Indonesia issued a law on spatial planning which mandated municipality and
provincial governments to provide spatial planning for their respective 26)
. In 2007, the law was
revised to require a national target for green areas of 20% public green areas and 10% privately
owned green areas in urban municipalities. Incentives and disincentives were included as part of
the controlling instrument. However, despite the enactment of the national plan, the percentage
of green coverage in Greater Jakarta urban areas is already below the targeted number (Table-1).
Previous reports show that the main impediment to the national-level policy
implementation lies in the condition of local-level government where executive power lies47)
.
Following decentralization, the municipality-level government gained autonomous power for
spatial planning, which includes green area provision60) 34)
, in its area as long as this did not
contradict national level regulations. Thus this research will focus on municipality-level green
area provision. 1.2 Purpose and Objective
This research aims to mitigate loss of green areas in Tangerang Selatan by identifying
potential improvements to the current implementation of green area provisions at the
municipality-level, by analyzing the local regulation of green area provision and by identifying
how the municipality-level regulation is implemented in different types of development in
Tangerang Selatan. To achieve this, the research will address the following objectives:
1) Document the chronological changes in peripheral cities around Jakarta using Tangerang
Selatan as case study, through historical study of urbanization and changes of land cover in
Tangerang Selatan. There is no official data from Tangerang Selatan regarding available
green area or land use in the municipality. Thus, it is essential to estimate unbuilt for
assessing the feasibility of green area provision in Tangerang Selatan considering change
from unbuilt to built area is irreversible.
2) Identify issues for the implementation of land use regulations in Tangerang Selatan.
3) Propose improvements for the implementation of land use regulations in peripheral cities of
Greater Jakarta to mitigate the loss of green areas.
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 87
1.3 Previous Studies 1) Need for Green Areas in Urban Areas
Growth in Greater Jakarta happens in the form of low-density housing, which shows a
tendency for uncontrolled growth. This type of growth has been suggested to negatively affect
environmental qualities owing to a decrease of green areas. Green coverage has been shown to
have benefits for rainwater infiltration and run-off mitigation16)
, better air quality32)
, potential for
carbon sequestration53)
, and ecosystem services33)
. Unbuilt areas also have the potential for
recreational benefits18)
. Considering these values for green areas, it is important to mitigate the
loss of green areas in the urbanized municipalities of Greater Jakarta, while aiming for better
green area planning.
2) Impacts of Uncontrolled Growth in Greater Jakarta
Previous research in Greater Jakarta on land cover change has shown the negative
impacts of growth on the metropolitan area. For example, the urbanization process in Greater
Jakarta has had negative impacts on its regional resilience and sustainability31)
. The growth of
population and built-area in Greater Jakarta has contributed to land subsidence and land
inundation through greater ground water consumption and less recharge area19)
. Issues of the
heat island effect42)
and insufficient public open space have also been felt in the Greater Jakarta
area26)
.
This paper will examine uncontrolled growth in Tangerang Selatan and how it impacts on
green coverage in the municipality (see 3.1 and 3.2).
3) Gaps in Previous Research on Land Use and Green Area Provision
Research on land use planning in Greater Jakarta has often focused on the regional level
and the development on the east side of Greater Jakarta21)
. It has indicated that uncontrolled
growth in Greater Jakarta is due to improper land management during the urbanization process
and has highlighted the absence of coordination between bureaus, lack of incentives, and an
absence of willingness to implement the regulations as the main causes of improper land use in
the metropolitan area21)
. Research on green area provision in Greater Jakarta at the municipality
level has also been carried out in relation to the area needed for water absorption based on the
population in Tangerang48)
and the allocation of the municipality budget in Bekasi55)
. However,
there has been little research into urban planning and design, and research that focuses on the
enactment of local regulations regarding green areas in the urbanized municipalities in Greater
Jakarta is not yet available. 1.4 Methodology To achieve the objectives of this research, the following methodologies were used:
1) To establish chronological changes in Tangerang Selatan
a. Previous research and international, national, and local assessment on the development
of Greater Jakarta in general and Tangerang Selatan in particular, including population
statistics data from Statistics Indonesia, was reviewed (see chapter 3.1)
b. Land cover classification was done using Landsat data from the United States
Geological Survey (USGS) in 1995, 2005, and 2015 (Table-2). Images with a cloud
percentage of less than 20% were chosen to increase accuracy. Remote sensing data
were analyzed using MultiSpec 3.4 by classifying land cover into built area, green
coverage, water body, and clouds through supervised classification. We used false
color composite comprising bands 4, 3 and 2. The composite accentuated green cover
as shades of red, built area as cyan, gray, or light blue, water bodies as dark blue or
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 88
black, and cloud as white. Samples were chosen based on the visual representation,
based on the accentuation of each land cover types in areas which land cover and land
use are known based on site observation and reference from Google Earth. Barren land
is automatically classified based on its reflectance. At least 60 samples were selected
for each class until accuracy levels were satisfactory. If accuracy was 50% or less,
then different sets of samples were selected. The final result of land cover
classification was double checked by comparing with images from Google Earth. To
obtain the area of each class, the classification result was processed using Arc GIS
10.1 to tabulate the built and unbuilt area in Tangerang Selatan.
Table-2 Data Used for Land Cover Classification
Year Sensor Date Resolution 1995 TM August 24, 1995 30 m
2005 TM July 2, 2005 30 m
2015 ETM May 19, 2015 30 m
Table-3 Wavelength of Bands Used for Land Cover Classification
Sensor Type Band Wavelength (micrometers)
Landsat TM
Band 2 0.52-0.60
Band 3 0.63-0.69
Band 4 0.76-0.90
Landsat ETM
Band 2 0.52-0.60
Band 3 0.63-0.69
Band 4 0.77-0.90
2) To identify issues for implementation of land use regulations in Tangerang Selatan
(Chapters 4 and 5), the following steps were taken:
a. Literature on the national, provincial, and municipality-level regulations and policies
that applied to Tangerang Selatan was reviewed, including reports from Tangerang
Regency. b. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with the following key informants on the
availability of regulations on spatial planning and the provision of green areas, in both
Greater Jakarta and Tangerang Selatan: i. Badan Lingkungan Hidup Tangerang Selatan (BLHD Tangerang Selatan,
Tangerang Selatan Environmental Agency) Municipality-level government agency responsible for planning,
implementation and control of activities related to environmental issues. ii. Dinas Tata Kota Bangunan dan Permukiman Tangerang Selatan (DTK Bang
Kim, Office of Town Planning Building and Residential of Tangerang Selatan)
Government agency responsible for spatial planning, building control, housing,
and settlement. The Spatial Planning Division and Housing and Settlement
Division were chosen for interview based on their responsibilities related to
green area provision.
iii. Badan Pembangunan Daerah Tangerang Selatan (BAPPEDA, Regional
Development Planning Board of Tangerang Selatan)
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 89
Government agency responsible for the socio-economic development of the
municipality as well as participating in spatial planning and coordinating with
higher level of government.
iv. Badan Pelayanan Perizinan Terpadu (BP2T, Integrated Licensing Service
Agency)
The agency responsible in issuing building and development permits, based on
directives given by the Office of Town Planning Building and Residential of
Tangerang Selatan and assessment from the Environmental Agency.
v. New Town Developer (Bumi Serpong Damai/ BSD City)
vi. Expert interview with a green building evaluator and green consultant, a
researcher focusing on Jakarta Metropolitan Area, an architect who is involved
in public area provision in Pondok Pucung, and urban design practitioners. c. For illustration of implementation at the micro-level of Tangerang Selatan, Chapter 5
examines the green area provision that happened in three types of developments in
Tangerang Selatan. The first was a new town development, which is a large-scale
development designed as a new independent town. The second type of development
was a small housing development, a common type of development on the periphery of
Jakarta, often in the form of a gated cluster. The third type of development was a self-
help development which happens outside the previous types of formal and designed
development. To represent green area provision in the small residential development and self-help
development, high-resolution images from Google Earth are georeferenced and traced
using ArcGIS 10.1 to estimate the percentage of green coverage in these sample
residential developments. Private green areas in small residential area are assumed to
comprise of front and back yards of each houses, and instead of public green area, the
term common green area is used for other green areas. This assumption is taken
because despite the ownership of the green area might be transferred to the
government; it is only accessible to the residents of the small residential developments.
Buildings, common green area, private green area and roads are traced separately and
each were compared with the total area of the development to obtain the ratio of each
category. In self-help development, the boundaries of each private land are not well-
defined. Thus, built and unbuilt area ratio from year 2004 and 2014 were used to
show how development reduced the unbuilt area.
2. Profile of Tangerang Selatan The municipality lies 25 km to the south-west of Jakarta’s center. It is 147.19 km
2 with a
total population of 1.4 million people. Compared with other municipalities in Greater Jakarta, it
has the smallest contribution to the region’s GRDP, amounting to less than 1% 30)
. This city was
established in 2008 after its separation from the Tangerang Regency and obtained autonomous
status. The municipality is divided into seven districts (Figure-2). Commuter data indicated that
Tangerang Selatan currently serves Jakarta as bedroom town. The municipality is connected to
Jakarta by the Ulujami-Pondok Aren Toll Road and BSD Toll Road and commuter rail line.
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 90
Tangerang Selatan is dominated by residential areas, mostly in the form of landed
housing. There are three development areas built as independent new towns: Bintaro Jaya, Bumi
Serpong Damai (BSD City), and Alam Sutera. These new town developments are mainly to the
north of the toll road (see Figure-2). The southern half of Tangerang Selatan is dominated by a
mixture of smaller residential clusters and kampongs, which grow organically.
3. Chronological Change in Tangerang Selatan
3.1 History of Tangerang Selatan In the Dutch colonial era, the Tangerang area was mainly used for agriculture and
plantations. By end of the 1950s, kampongs already existed near the railway stations in Serpong
and Ciputat and along the road towards Bogor in Pamulang. Although the expansion of Jakarta
has happened since the mid-1960s, rapid urbanization in Tangerang Selatan did not occur until
the mid-1980s following the rapid population increase in Jakarta after FDI. Rapid growth of
Figure-2 Districts of Tangerang Selatan and its main transportation
Figure-3 Population projection in each district of Tangerang Selatan
38)
0
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
2,500,000
3,000,000
3,500,000
4,000,000
Setu
Pondok Aren
Pamulang
Ciputat Timur
Ciputat
Serpong Utara
Serpong
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 91
Tangerang Selatan was driven by policies which promoted new housing development areas in
the urban fringes of Jakarta in 198156)
. Three new town developments, BSD City, Bintaro Jaya,
and Alam Sutera were developed in Tangerang Selatan (Figure-4). Aside from these new towns
built by big developers, smaller residential complexes and clusters also grew within the
municipality especially on the south-west side of the municipality 58)
.
Residential development was followed by a rapid increase in population, especially after
the opening of a toll road that connects South Jakarta and Serpong. By 2007, the population in
the current area of Tangerang Selatan had reached one million (Figure-3). It was decided that
Serpong, Serpong Utara, Ciputat, Ciputat Timur, Pamulang, Pondok Aren, and a part of Cisauk
(renamed as Setu) should be formed into a new municipality to improve public services, and
these districts separated into Tangerang Selatan. The municipality gained its full autonomy in
2008.
Following the masterplan of Greater Jakarta issued in 2008, Tangerang Selatan is
intended to be a new sub-center. It is also mentioned as a Jakarta Metropolitan Priority Area 31)
,
which suggests that the municipality is intended as a residential area for Jakarta and a center for
education. As part of the regional masterplan, a toll road is planned to connect Soekarno-Hatta
International Airport and the Setu District (Figure-2). The Tangerang Selatan population is
predicted to more than double by 2030 (Figure-3) 38)
, indicating that conversion from unbuilt to
built area is likely to continue in the future. This highlights the need for a development plan that
can preserve green areas. 3.2 Growth of Built Area in Tangerang Selatan
The impact of population growth in Tangerang Selatan is reflected by the growth of built
areas. Rapid change of land use/cover in Tangerang Selatan began with the area nearest to
Jakarta and expanded outwards. This can be seen through the change of built area in the
municipality between 1995, 2005, and 2015 (Figure-5). Analysis showed that the built area in
Tangerang Selatan increased from 21.60% in 1995 to 29.60% in 2005, and by May 2015 it had
Figure-4 Chronological timeline for Tangerang Selatan
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 92
Figure-5 Growth of built area in urban municipalities of Greater Jakarta
Source of remote sensing data: USGS
reached 62% (Figure-6). The growth pattern in Tangerang Selatan happened gradually from the
border of Jakarta in 1995 but by 2015 built area dominated the greater part of the municipality.
Only part of the Pondok Aren District and Setu District showed lower levels of built area.
Although there was still more than 30% of unbuilt area in Tangerang Selatan based on
the remote sensing analysis, according to the interview with the Tangerang Selatan
Environmental Agency the municipality only owned 9% of the municipality total area as green
area. The rest of the unbuilt area was owned by private land-owners, and is at risk of conversion
to built areas in view of the projected population growth (Figure-3) and the plan to build a toll
road (Figure-2). If the government wishes to protect the remaining privately-owned unbuilt area,
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 93
it will have to acquire the land from those private owners as indicated in Law No. 2/2012 on
Land Provision for Public Interest. However, according to the interview with the Regional
Development Planning Board, although the municipality has a target of 30% green area, the
municipality budget is mainly allocated to other infrastructures and services.
3.3 Findings 1) Based on the timeline (3.1) and change of land cover (3.2), growth in Tangerang Selatan
preceded the formation of the autonomous municipality and was done mostly by private
developers. This suggests two points. First, private developers form some of the main
stakeholders in the growth of Tangerang Selatan, and second, municipality regulations were
drafted after the development and land cover change in Tangerang Selatan had happened.
2) Considering the percentage of unbuilt area owned by private land-owners in Tangerang
Selatan (see 3.2), the chance to fulfil the national target of urban green areas is slim. An increase
in the municipality budget for green area provision will play an important part in green area
provision 55)
. Without a sufficient budget for land acquisition, the contribution of privately-
owned land should be considered to add to the total urban green area, as private developers are
willing to contribute to public needs as long as they can sell their property 57)
.
Following these findings, the policies and regulations on green area provision that are
currently applied in Tangerang Selatan are discussed in Chapter 4, followed by discussions on
implementation at the local level in Chapter 5.
4. Policies and Regulation on Green Area Provision Figure-7 shows the structure of regulations relating to green area provision that is applied
in Tangerang Selatan. The hierarchy of the regulation structure can be divided into national and
municipal levels. Before 1999, the Indonesian government was centralized. However, following
governmental reformation it was decentralized. Municipalities gained the autonomy to regulate
the spatial planning of their own areas and are no longer under the control of the provincial
government. Because of this, this paper will only cover the national policies and municipality-
level policies that are applied in Tangerang Selatan.
Figure-6: Percentage of built and unbuilt area in Tangerang Selatan based on remote
sensing data classification analysis compared with its population.
21.60% 29.60%
62.48%
78.40% 70.40%
37.34%
684.454
950.529
1671.338
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1995 2005 2015
Tho
usan
d Pe
ople
Unbuilt
Built
Population
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 94
Figure-7 Structure of regulation related to green area provision in Tangerang Selatan and
governmental agencies related to development permits
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 95
Law No. 26/2007 is the highest level regulation on spatial planning, followed by
Government Regulation No. 26/2008, Presidential Decree No. 54/2008, and the Ministerial
Decree. In the municipality regulations, shown in the lower part of Figure-7, all three
regulations are at the same level of the hierarchy.
4.1 Spatial Planning Policies and Regulation at a National Level Although the law on spatial planning was first enacted in 1992, Indonesia did not have a
national target for urban green areas until 2007. Law No. 26/2007 on Spatial Planning states the
target of urban green area is 30% of a city’s total area. It is further defined as 20% public green
areas provided by the government and 10% provided by green areas within private properties
such as back yards or home gardens. The target is a reference for other regulations on green area
provision in urban areas. It is mentioned in article 30 of Law no. 26/2007 that further
regulations are stated in relevant ministerial decree (Figure-7a).
The Ministry of Public Works released a guideline for green area provision in urban areas
in Ministerial Decree of Ministry of Public Works No. 5/2008. This guideline mentions that
spatial planning at the municipality level should indicate the minimum green area required for
the city as well as its type and location, implementation stages, function, and typology and
vegetation. This decree also mentions that the green area percentage in a land parcel should be
regulated by building codes.
The National Spatial Plan was issued in 2008 as a derivative of the spatial planning law
(Figure-7b). Governmental Regulation No.26/2008 on the National Spatial Plan emphasized the
need for spatial planning to reduce the negative impacts of growth on water and land resources.
The regulation also contains the national spatial structure plan as well as the national spatial
pattern. It is also indicated in the regulation that Greater Jakarta is considered one of the
national strategic areas. The urban spatial planning directs that Greater Jakarta is intended as a
medium- to high-density residential area and vertical development is recommended.
Following the appointment of Greater Jakarta as national strategic area, a spatial plan for
Extended Greater Jakarta, which also includes Puncak and Cianjur in addition to the
municipalities of Greater Jakarta, was enacted in Presidential Regulation No.54/2008 (Figure-
7c). Despite the fact that the municipalities in Indonesia have authority over their spatial
planning, the municipalities in Extended Greater Jakarta cannot deviate from this regulation. It
is stated that the use of space is controlled by the municipality so long as it agrees with the set of
regulations above it in the hierarchy. Under this regulation, Tangerang Selatan is dominated by
high-density residential areas in the districts of Serpong, Setu, Ciputat, Ciputat Timur,
Pamulang, and a part of Serpong Utara; while the districts of Pondok Aren and a part of
Serpong Utara will be low-density housing, agriculture, and water absorption areas (see Figure-
2 for district locations).
In addition to the spatial plan, Law No.26/2007 on Spatial Planning and Governmental
Regulation No. 26/2008 include incentives, disincentives, and sanctions as part of their
instruments to control land use. This inclusion is in addition to the 1992 spatial planning law.
However, the Presidential Decree No.54/2008, which includes the Greater Jakarta spatial plan,
only mentions sanctions towards development that does not follow the zoning regulations
through rehabilitation and revitalization of the land.
Under these regulations, incentives are granted when a project is built in compliance with
the regulations. The discussion on incentives is debated at the national level, in regard to the
implementation cost and whether it benefits the government. The most common incentive is by
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 96
tax holiday or discount, which could disadvantage the local government 20)
. However, interviews
with the private sector revealed that developers and investors look for incentives for green
development, including for green area provision. Similar ideas were raised by the green building
enumerator who mentioned an increase in interest in obtaining environmentally friendly
certification, such as given by the Green Building Council, including for development projects
in Tangerang Selatan. This shows that there is a tendency for developers to provide
environment-friendly projects.
Aside from the above-mentioned regulations, Indonesia also issued national standards on
housing planning in urban areas (Figure-7d). This standard shows the minimum area needed for
green areas or public places within the different scales of localities in residential areas. However,
this document does not hold legal power, and is used only as a reference for planners and
designers.
4.2 Regulations on Land Use in Tangerang Selatan As mandated by the law on spatial planning that each municipality is responsible for
spatial planning in its area, Tangerang Selatan released its spatial plan as Local Government
Regulation No. 15/2011 (Figure-7e), which applies until 2031. Despite being a derivative of the
Extended Greater Jakarta spatial plan (Figure-7c), zoning in Tangerang Selatan differs in the
area intended for high-density development. An interview with the Regional Development
Planning Board of Tangerang Selatan revealed that the municipality zone was adjusted to the
existing development in the municipality, because the areas in Pondok Aren, Ciputat, Ciputat
Timur, and Pamulang mentioned for low- to medium-density in the regional masterplan are
already high-density.
The municipality states that the target of public and private green space in the city is in
accordance with the law on spatial planning and intends to recover the green area in river and
lake setbacks. In order to control development, Tangerang Selatan passed a spatial plan that
consists of a land use plan, infrastructure plan, and green area plan as part of Local Government
Regulation No. 15/2011. The land use plan in Tangerang Selatan is dominated by residential
area, roughly divided into high-density residential areas in Pondok Aren, Ciputat, Ciputat Timur,
and Pamulang, and medium-density residential area in Serpong Utara, Serpong, and Setu (see
Figure-2). The municipality’s zoning plan also shows plans for commercial districts in Pondok
Aren, Ciputat, and in Serpong (see Figure-2 and Figure-5).
The definition of green areas in this municipality-level regulation follows the national
spatial planning law. It is mentioned that green areas within public buildings are considered as
public green areas, as are green areas on the right of way, under high tension cables, and public
parks. The green area plan, however, does not mention the intended timeline.
The regulation also includes incentives, disincentives, and sanctions in a similar manner
to the national spatial plan. During the interview with the Tangerang Selatan licensing agency, it
was mentioned that the incentives and disincentives are not yet practiced in Tangerang Selatan
beside acknowledging private land-owners for contributions to the municipality. Other forms of
incentives are still not applied because there are no regulations for incentives and disincentives
in the municipality.
The municipality spatial plan also includes building codes that apply in Tangerang
Selatan as indicated in the Ministerial Decree of Ministry of Public Works No. 5/2008 (see 4.2).
However, building codes in Tangerang Selatan are not applied to designated land parcels, but as
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 97
directed by the Office of Town Planning, Building, and Settlement. Building codes and their
implementation in Tangerang Selatan are explained in 4.3.
The municipality regulation mentions that the government has to issue detailed spatial
planning (Figure-7f) for each district of the municipality within 36 months of the introduction of
the municipality spatial planning laws in 2011. However, as of February 2015, the detailed
spatial planning was not yet published. During interviews with the Spatial Planning Division of
the Office of Town Planning, Building, and Residential of Tangerang Selatan, it was mentioned
that the lack of detailed existing building data from the geospatial agency and the lack of human
resources within the town planning agency itself were impeding factors. This aligns with
findings from Douglass during his observation in the 1980s21)
, showing that the problem persists.
In 2012, the municipality government issued Local Government Regulation of Tangerang
Selatan No. 13/2012 on Environmental Management (Figure-7g) in Tangerang Selatan. The
regulation stresses addressing pollution, by limiting logging and tree cutting and states that each
development project must provide 2% of its total area for rain water infiltration, as well as
penalties for violation of the regulation.
The municipality also issued Local Government Regulation of Tangerang Selatan No.
3/2014 on Implementation of the Housing and Settlement Area (Figure-7h). The regulation
suggests that green areas could be put on land left over from development as opposed to other
facilities which should be designed as central activities. However, because this regulation was
only issued in 2014, the impact of implementation of the regulation has not yet been seen.
4.3 Regulations on Privately-Owned Land At the micro-level, required green coverage for a land parcel in Indonesia is controlled by
the building codes as defined by the building coverage area and green area coefficient,
identifying areas not allowed to be built per total land parcel area. Building regulation in
Tangerang Selatan is decided by the Office of Town Planning, Building, and Settlement based
on the municipality land use zone in the Spatial Plan of Tangerang Selatan and the land area of
the parcel (Figure-7i), depending on the location of the land parcel in the municipality zoning
and its land surface area. The building codes cannot effectively provide good spatial quality
outside new residential developments due to irregular land parcel sizes and shapes52)
.
Control of green areas for privately-owned land parcels is provided through the building
permit process. Assessment of development projects in Tangerang Selatan is done only at the
planning stage as part of the development permission process by the Licensing Service Agency
(Figure-7j). Plans for green areas within the land parcel are included in the list of design and
plan documents required to obtain a building permit. During the building permit process, the
Regional Environmental Agency is in charge of providing an impact assessment on the
proposed project from the design and plan document as a reference for the Integrated Licensing
Agency for decision making on building permits (Figure-7k).
During the interview with the Integrated Licensing Service Agency, it was found that
post-building assessment is not yet intended for green area provision, and it is focused on
buildings with commercial and business use. Lack of human resources was mentioned as the
impeding factor for this type of assessment. The post-building assessment check list is not
available in Tangerang Selatan, although according to the interview with the green building
enumerator, the availability of the assessment checklist is essential. Despite a lack of human
resources in the government agencies, it was revealed that the citizens of Tangerang Selatan are
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 98
active in reporting complaints regarding development. These reports, however, are only limited
to violations that can easily assessed visually.
4.4 Findings Explanations provided in 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3 show that Tangerang Selatan has passed
regulations for green area provision. However, there are three points that seem to be lacking
within the regulations on green area provision in Tangerang Selatan.
1) Issues of incentives
There are still difficulties in applying incentives and disincentives in Tangerang Selatan. First,
this issue is still in discussion at the national level and second, the municipality does not have
guidelines and more detailed regulations to apply incentives and disincentives for green area
provision. However, based on interviews with both the developer and green building enumerator,
interest among developers on sustainability issues could be increased by giving incentives for
additional contributions, such as increasing green areas on private-owned land.
2) Lack of detailed spatial planning and building regulation
To provide green areas within the privately-owned area, the building code is important.
Building codes in Tangerang Selatan depends on the zone and land area of parcel of a
development project. They also depend on the recommendations given during the issue of
building permits. Lack of available data and human resources were mentioned as underlying
causes. This finding supports previous findings that the impediments for national policy often
lie in local government 47)
. However, building codes such as applied in Tangerang Selatan might
not be effective in settlements with irregular land parcels 52)
.
3) Lack of post-building assessment for green area provision on private land
Lack of human resources and no check-list for post-building assessment were mentioned as
factors that impede post-building assessment in Tangerang Selatan. However, the mention of
citizen reports for building projects that do not follow regulation shows the potential to increase
people’s awareness of building regulations as part of public participation.
5. Implementation of Green Area Provision in Tangerang Selatan As mentioned previously (see 3.2), the green areas in Tangerang Selatan still fall short of the
targeted total green area by 11%. Because the government will need to pay for the land
necessary for infrastructure and facilities currently owned privately (see 3.3.2), infrastructure
and facilities planning depends greatly on the available land assets that the government can
afford. Lack of monetary resources is one of the impediments to purchasing land assets for
Figure-9: Example of public green areas in BSD City (left) and Bintaro Jaya (right)
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 99
green areas.
Land development in Indonesia requires developers to provide public green areas, which
should be given to the municipality government. However, the percentage of required green
area differs depending on the type of development. This chapter aims to illustrate different
requirements applied in three types of developments in Tangerang Selatan.
5.1 Green Area Provision in New Town Development As indicated in 3.1, development in Tangerang Selatan cannot be separated from the new
town development. To obtain permission to develop this area, developers are required to return
a part of their land area to the municipality government in the form of infrastructure, social
facilities, and green open spaces. According to interviews with both BSD City and the Office of
Town Planning Building and Residential of Tangerang Selatan, the requirement for green open
space is 20% of the total area, in the form of urban parks and other green areas, which should be
returned after at least one year of maintenance by the developer, following the completion of
construction. The process of giving back the required area can be negotiated between the
developer and the government in the development stage for the residential area.
In Tangerang Selatan, green open spaces such as urban parks and green corridors along
the main streets in new town development are managed by the developer even after being
returned to the government. This collaboration is possible because the developers of new town
areas do not renounce the management of their development area. BSD City indicated its
intention to manage the green areas within their development area because of market preference
for residential areas with lush green areas, which is beneficial for the government. Based on
field observations, Bintaro Jaya also provides and manages its public green space. Despite the
developers’ willingness to provide green areas, there are still impeding factors. Within the
partnership between the municipality government and the developer, rights and responsibilities
on the green areas are decided through negotiation. This kind of partnership is yet to have
regulations to control such partnerships.
Green areas within residential clusters can be managed by the residents of the cluster or
by the developer. In clusters where infrastructure and services have been given to the public, a
maintenance fee is divided between residents or building owners and that amount should be paid
to the managing organization, such as the sub-contractors for maintenance in Graha Raya,
which is part of Bintaro Jaya 37)
.
5.2 Small Residential Development Although small residential developments are also required to provide green areas and
give these back to the government in a similar way to new town developments, the same policy
cannot be applied. According to the Division of Spatial Planning from Office of Town Planning,
Building, and Residential, because the area of such developments is relatively small, requiring a
high percentage for green areas is not considered feasible economically, especially if the area is
redistributed into medium and small houses, because an increase in green space reduces the
saleable area of the development, and increases the price charged to consumers. Instead, each
development project is assigned different requirements in the recommendation process by the
Office of Town Planning, Building, and Residential before proceeding with the building permit.
Management of the open space in such developments, therefore, differs from one
development to another. According to the Housing and Settlement Division of the Office of
Town Planning, Building and Settlement, developers of small housing areas often renounce the
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 100
management of the development area to the residents of the area. There are more than 200 small
developers in Tangerang Selatan, and many of them are not members of Real Estate Indonesia.
Thus, it is difficult for the government to track the developers if they find that the green areas in
the development are less than the agreed area mentioned in the building permit.
As an illustration, two small residential developments, both middle-upper class residential
clusters, built after 2007 and already completed, were chosen (Figure-10). Limitations to image
quality reduced the accuracy of estimation but, as seen in the estimated land cover, common
green areas in both of the developments are less than 20%. However, it can also be seen that the
privately-owned green areas have a bigger proportion in the share of land cover.
5.3 Green Areas outside Housing Development Built area also increases in the settlements which were established before Indonesia’s
independence. Although there are still unbuilt areas scattered in these settlements, there is no
measure to preserve public green space. Based on observation, building regulation in this area is
not able to keep the available unbuilt area as green space, because in these organically growing
settlements; land is divided and sold by individual owners without planning. It is also noted that
when land is divided by the owner into different certifications, there is no requirement for
access or assessment on the percentage of green areas in the overall land area to decide on the
building coverage of the new land parcel.
Figure-10: Land cover in small residential development
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 101
As an illustration, a settlement area in Pondok Pucung, Pondok Aren District was chosen.
A comparison between built area in 2004 and 2014 shows the increase of built area from
19.87% to 36.46% (Figure-11). The settlement area used to belong to one family. The land was
divided among the descendants of the first owner, and some of the parcels were sold to buyers
outside the family. The remaining unbuilt areas are owned by the landlords of the settlements,
and there has been a tendency to develop these over time, as the practice of constructing rental
housing and selling land parcels continues. It is also noted that building permits in this area are
loose and it is difficult to define the borders of each land parcel to be able to decide the left-over
building rights in the area.
5.4 Findings 1) Comparing findings in the three types of developments, public green area provision is
stressed in new town development areas compared with the other two types of developments.
This can be seen from the percentage of public green areas a new town development should
provide (see 5.1). New town developers also show interest in collaboration to manage green
open space because availability of green areas is considered to be one of the selling points of
Figure-11: Comparison of figure and percentage of built-unbuilt area in Pondok Pucung,
Pondok Aren District in 2004 and 2014
Figure-12: (from left) (a) Condition in densified area of settlement, (b) Access towards
unbuilt area in the inner part of settlement, (c) Condition of unbuilt area in the settlement
(Refer to Figure-11 for location)
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 102
new town development. This finding is in line with other research that mentions that the
availability of green areas increases the value of property62)
.
2) An interview with a developer (5.1) indicates that developers want clearer regulation on
public-private partnership in green area provision and management. Although the lack of
regulation that covers partnership in the green areas in Tangerang Selatan provides the
possibility of flexibility through negotiation, its ambiguity can disadvantage one side. Similar
research in Jakarta also indicates the need for clearer regulation on private participation in
public green area provision 49)
.
3) Challenges in public green area provision happen especially in the areas outside the new
town developments. Although small residential areas still provide green areas, the surface area
does not reflect the required target of the national policy (see 5.2). In addition, access is also
limited to residents of the residential development although after the land asset is returned to the
government, its status becomes public land. Unlike new town developments and small
residential developments, organically growing settlements do not specifically have green open
space plans.
4) Building codes are not effective for green area provision in the kampong areas because of the
irregular patterns of land parcels in the kampongs (Figure-11) which result in difficulty in
redistributing the building code when a land parcel is divided. This emphasizes the finding in
4.4, which indicates the difficulty of applying spatial codes within the duality of the Tangerang
Selatan spatial pattern.
6. Recommendations With the main goal to mitigate loss of urban green areas, based on the findings mentioned in 3.3,
4.4, and 5.4, several recommendations are proposed for green area provision in areas in
Tangerang Selatan, both for public and privately-owned land parcels.
6.1 Increasing contribution of privately-owned green areas Findings in Chapter 3 emphasized the challenge for the Tangerang Selatan government to
provide green areas because of the decrease in unbuilt area in the municipality and the low
budget for green area provision. However, findings in Chapter 5 show that private developers in
Tangerang Selatan have an interest in green area provision. This shows a likelihood of
increasing private contributions to provide green areas. Increasing private sector contributions in
green area provision have been applied in Jakarta in the form of Corporate Social Responsibility 49)
. Private sector participants, including developers and investors, could contribute in providing
land and managing green areas. The private sector could profit from the increase in environment
quality and asset value 62)
and obtain a positive company image 49)
.
6.2 Recommendation for regulation 1) Incentives to increase private participation in green area provision
Following the recommendation in 6.1, guidelines on incentives and disincentives are
needed to increase the private sector’s willingness to provide green areas (see 4.4.1). One point
that needs revision is that according to the current regulations, incentives are awarded for
compliance with regulation. If the initial intention of an incentive is to stimulate a greater
contribution than the standard regulation, then incentives should be awarded for contributions
that exceed regulatory requirements 1)
. Following this, it is necessary to find a form of incentive
that can attract private land owners to contribute more land to green area provision, but at the
same time not put too much burden on the government 20)
.
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 103
2) Providing clearer regulation
Tangerang Selatan has a set of regulations that consist land use zoning, building codes,
and requirements for residential developments. However, as shown in 4.4, the necessary
detailed spatial plan has not yet been issued and the current procedure to decide building codes
on a parcel of land demands a high input from the Office of Town Planning, Building, and
Settlement because the codes have to be decided for each building project proposal submitted by
land owners. Clearer building regulations and easier access to the regulations could lessen the
burden on government agencies. This action would also support the development of a post-
building checklist (see 4.4.3), which might help control of implementation of the regulations.
3) Data provision for land use control
Although Tangerang Selatan has clearly defined green area targets based on the national
policy, it is not easy to formulate the necessary regulations. As indicated in 4.4.2 and 5.3, the
Tangerang Selatan municipality government does not have data to draft necessary regulations.
This should be obtained by collaboration among different government agencies, both within the
municipality as well as at higher levels of government.
6.3 Recommendation on implementation of green area provisions 1) Providing further guidelines or regulations on public-private collaboration
Following findings mentioned in 5.4.1 and 5.4.2, as well as the recommendation that
private owners make a greater contribution to green area provision (6.1), and in addition to
findings that point out green area provision and management for developers has to be negotiated
(5.4.1), further regulations or guidelines regarding the process or scheme of collaboration
between government and private sector are needed. Although very strict regulations with
sanctions could make developers lose motivation, the same also applies when too many
negotiations need to be made 17)
.
2) Public education on the importance of green areas
Not only the private sector (5.3), but also residents of the kampongs should be
encouraged to have a higher appreciation for a greener environment (5.1). Residents of
Tangerang Selatan showed interest in monitoring development (4.3). This indicates that public
education on the importance of green areas might benefit green area provision, including
compliance with building codes, monitoring non-compliance of land use regulation and
motivation of citizens to make use of unbuilt areas to provide green areas to the municipality.
This point should be combined with recommendations on incentives (6.2.1) and guidelines or
regulations on public-private collaboration (6.3.1).
7. Conclusion Despite the Indonesian national policy to increase urban green areas, implementation of green
area provision at the municipality level still faces impediments. Rapid and uncontrolled growth
such as has occurred in the Tangerang Selatan has caused significant loss of green coverage in
the municipalities. This research has provided an empirical discussion on the enactment of
regulations on green area provision at the municipality level using Tangerang Selatan as a case
study. However, Tangerang Selatan might not be able to fulfill the national target of urban green
areas. Municipalities on the periphery of Jakarta are not ready to implement the national policy
because of insufficient funds, planning and monitoring capabilities. Further, findings in this
research signify the need for public and private sectors to collaborate.
Urban and Regional Planning Review Vol. 3, 2016 | 104
This research shows that developers at different scales in Tangerang Selatan contribute to
green area provision, by compliance with regulations set by the government. Despite this, many
steps still need to be taken to ensure the fulfillment of green areas for sustainability in
Tangerang Selatan. This research was focused on the surface area for green area provision.
However, to ensure a sustainable city, the quality of green areas, as well as access to green areas,
should also be considered.
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