Education Sector

United NationsEducational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization

Policy ReviewTVET

Zanzibar

Developing skills through the expansion of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is increasingly seen as critical to reducing poverty, economic recovery and sustainable development worldwide. UNESCO Member States are increasingly dedicating policy attention to responding to the demand for relevant skills in the world of work, which has led to TVET becoming one of the four priority

areas in UNESCO’s education programme.

UNESCO conducts TVET policy reviews to establish policy dialogues with the governments concerned on future developments in the sector in order to align it with the labour market and individual needs. This TVET system policy review for Zanzibar comes in response to an invitation from the Government of Zanzibar to conduct a review of its TVET system in order to support their actions in developing relevant policies.

Zanzibar has experienced rapid economic expansion in recent years, but high population growth has moderated any positive impact on poverty alleviation. With accelerating urbanisation and fertility rates among the highest in the world, Zanzibar will be facing a significant demand for education in the coming decades, coupled with large influxes of new entrants to the labour force. Meeting the changing skills needs of a growing economy with diversified demand means that developing an education and TVET system suited to the acquisition and adaptation of skills in line with evolving economic and social needs is necessary.

Although the Government of Zanzibar has shown to be making progress towards universal primary education, high dropout rates suggest that the education system offers little in the way of TVET opportunities. The Government of Zanzibar adopted the 2005 Vocational Education and Training (VET) policy, which has provided a key framework for the TVET system. However, what the report indicates is that the 2005 policy is in need of review in order to be fully relevant to overarching educational and economic needs.

With particular focus on reform the 2005 VET policy; this policy review identifies policy options and strategies for enhancing TVET relevance, efficiency and effectiveness in Zanzibar. The report highlights important developments in the TVET sector already underway, as well as key enabling factors needed to be in place to support the reform process.

3057_13 Zanzibar_policy_review_E_cov.indd 1-2 12/12/13 11:24

Policy ReviewTVET

Zanzibar

UNESCO 2013

This report has been coordinated by Borhene Chakroun, Section for Technical and Vocational Education and Training.

The review team consisted of: team leader Borhene Chakroun, Chief of Section for Technical and Vocational Education and Training at UNESCO Paris; Eddie Dutton, Education Project Officer at the UNESCO Office in Dar es Salaam; Luis Guillermo Hakim, External Expert; Eng. Dr. Idrissa M. Hija, (former) Executive Director at the Zanzibar Vocational Training Authority; Nafisa I. Omar, Planning Officer at the Zanzibar Vocational Training Authority.

The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this publication and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization.

The designations employed and the presentation of materials throughout this publication do not express any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Front cover photo credits: © Guillermo Hakim

© UNESCO 2013

by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 7, place de Fontenoy 75325 Paris 07 SP France

Composed and Printed by UNESCO

ED-2013/WS/35 CLD 3057.13

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Preface

UNESCO implements the Strategy for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) adopted by the 181st session of its Executive Board (181 EX/Decision 8) through actions focused on the three core areas of: (i) upstream policy advice and related capacity development provision; (ii) conceptual clarification of skills development and improvement of monitoring; and (iii) action as a clearinghouse and provision of information for the global TVET debate. The range of programmes and initiatives implemented covers advocacy, policy support and capacity development.

UNESCO responds actively to requests for upstream policy advice from Member States, strengthening their capacities to develop evidence-based policies using the analytical framework for policy reviews developed by the TVET Section at Headquarters.

UNESCO policy reviews aim to establish policy dialogue with the governments concerned and to support their actions in developing relevant policies. Policy reviews help identify options and strategies for improving TVET policies and the TVET system in the reviewed country. Simultaneously, the review process furthers local capacity to undertake strategic policy analyses and planning in TVET, in alignment with socio-economic goals and priorities that contribute to sustainable development in the country in question (UNESCO, 2010a). UNESCO work in this area emphasises the need to ensure coherence between TVET and education policies, the economy, the labour market and social needs, and to promote TVET systems and policies based on the principles of inclusion and social cohesion, gender equality and sustainability. Policy reviews are led by the TVET Section at UNESCO Headquarters in close coordination with regional and field offices and the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education plays an important role in delivering capacity-building and support. The two elements combine in a strategy that aims to blend upstream policy advice with downstream capacity building and the UNEVOC network will be reinforced to support these efforts.

In 2011, the Government of Zanzibar requested UNESCO provide upstream policy advice in a review of its TVET policies, and preparatory work was undertaken early in the year.

The present report outlines the key findings of the policy review mission and will form the basis of discussion by national stakeholders during the forthcoming validation workshop. The UNESCO mission to Zanzibar consisted of a country expert team member from the UNESCO Office in Dar es Salaam (Eddie Dutton), a representative of UNESCO-HQ (Borhene Chakroun) and an external expert (Luis Guillermo Hakim).

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Executive summary

IntroductionThis report on the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) system policy review for Zanzibar comes in response to an invitation to UNESCO from the Government of Zanzibar to conduct a review of the TVET system and engage in policy dialogue on future developments in the sector.

The report opens with an in-depth analysis of the national socio-economic development model and future imperatives for TVET. Zanzibar has experienced rapid economic expansion in recent years, but high population growth has moderated any positive impact on poverty alleviation. More than 43 per cent of the population is less than 15 years old, demographic trends point to accelerating urbanisation and fertility rates remain among the highest in the world, despite progress made in the last decade. Zanzibar will face a significant increase in demand for education in the coming decades, coupled with large influxes of new entrants to the labour force. A significant increase in the number of young people entering the labour force for the first time will exert pressure on the labour markets for the rapid generation of new jobs.

Further analysis stresses that the current employment structure generally produces a weak demand for higher skilled workers, but where demand for higher skills is generated – in sectors like tourism – the current local labour supply does not offer the skills needed. The economy consists largely of the informal sector and rural economic activities, and the predominance of low productivity and informal jobs reflects significant institutional constraints on the development of modern firms and a low number of jobs offering workers opportunities for better pay and social security coverage. Challenges for the coming decades include: achieving greater emphasis on the importance of higher productivity economic activities; the generation of more jobs with social security coverage; and developing an education and TVET system suited to the acquisition and adaptation of skills in line with evolving economic and social needs. Promotion of private sector involvement in the form of public-private partnerships is a key element in ensuring an adequate response to these challenges.

The following section highlights the significant constraints on decent job creation in Zanzibar and finds that removal of these constraints is an essential precondition to expansion of job creation. The report recognises that the agenda needed to approach this issue extends beyond the possibilities of the TVET sector alone and therefore lies beyond the scope of this report. In the medium term, nonetheless, Zanzibar must focus on expanding job opportunities to larger segments of the population and must create the institutional framework needed for an emerging education and training system capable of accompanying the evolution process and meeting the changing skills needs of a growing economy with diversified demand.

Zanzibar is shown to be making progress towards universal primary education and is expanding equitable access to education. However, high drop-out rates, particularly at the end of the lower-secondary level, indicate that the education system does not prepare young people sufficiently for further learning in a model that offers very little in the way of TVET opportunities.

The report then moves on to TVET policy development and discusses how the Government embarked upon a range of reform initiatives following the adoption of the 2005 VET policy. The discussion highlights the importance of changes already under way in the TVET sector in Zanzibar, most notably: establishment of institutions such as the Vocational Training Authority (VTA); definition of a set of priorities and the apprenticeship and employment programmes; and mobilisation of sustainable financial resources, particularly through the Training Fund.

Finally, the document highlights the progress made by the VTA in regulating and overseeing TVET and identifies the range of actions undertaken by the VTA to improve the quality of TVET; particularly through TVET institution registration and curriculum design.

The VTA has exerted a significant influence in strengthening the outcomes of government action on TVET. The VTA operated as a key institution, sharpening priorities, taking action to meet increased expectations and promoting cross-sector collaboration on elements such as the apprenticeship and employment policy. In addition, the establishment of

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the VTA as an entity has created a reference point for government action on TVET, providing the leadership needed to implement the 2005 Vocational Education and Training (VET) policy.

Key findings:The policy review found ten principal findings to guide future TVET policy development in Zanzibar. These findings are clustered around VET policy relevance and currency, unresolved tensions, unfinished actions and new policy challenges:

VET policy relevance and currency1. The 2005 VET policy took important steps to improve the equity, quality and relevance of TVET programmes,

but the initial diagnosis and design overlooked some important factors, including the inherent conflict between challenges that included: improving TVET quality and relevance, addressing equity, providing incentives for stakeholder involvement in VET policy implementation (particularly among employers), and the costing of VET policy and reform. There have also been delays in the implementation of some components and, more importantly, the content of the 2005 VET Policy is no longer fully relevant to overarching educational and economic needs, being unable to address the pressure on the labour market from youths and adults in need of training suited to the development of Zanzibar. Incomplete initial assessment and on-going piecemeal implementation, linked in part to the lack of available resources, lead to the conclusion that while the 2005 VET policy is undoubtedly a key framework for the whole TVET system, it is also in need of review.

Unresolved tensions2. A major consideration for TVET policy in Zanzibar is the consistent finding that TVET provision in the territory is

dependent upon a divergent set of sub-systems rather than a single unified and uniform TVET system. These branches are differentiated in terms of the level of formality, the articulation between the education provided and the world of work, and the characteristics of the target group. A broad selection of providers deliver non-formal training programmes to young people and adults, ranging from public alternative education centres, through private providers, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and small businesses offering informal apprenticeships, to community-based learning. Although similar models exist in many countries, the key issue in Zanzibar lies in the absence of a clear overarching TVET sector approach and the lack of articulation between the various parts of the system under a single institutional framework.

3. Evidence on the problems inherent to the various types of programmes suggests that policy could be focussed more productively on developing factors with the potential to transform TVET and create better links with the diverse labour market and individual needs, rather than concentrating only on expanding formal Vocational Training Centre (VTC) provision. For example, apprenticeships are a case in point of how TVET systems can effectively transform and expand skills development in partnership with enterprises, using work-place learning and enhancing the quality of learning in work-place settings.

Unfinished actions4. VTA efforts to establish a registry of TVET institutions have contributed toward the harmonisation and upgrading

of programmes, but this registration process does not currently address key quality issues through any support programme, meaning that it does not ensure TVET institutions are engaged in a quality-improvement process. This registration process can therefore only be classified as an initial effort toward the establishment of an overall quality control mechanism.

5. Many potential students have limited access to TVET learning, with fewer women than men accessing the sector. Insufficient effort has been made to expand TVET enrolment in VTCs. Furthermore, the coverage of other initiatives including NGO-led programmes, informal apprenticeships and community-based programmes is variable and little information is available on the quality and relevance of their provision.

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6. Strategic planning and evaluation functions are at an early stage of development, and very few tools are available or used by national stakeholders. This has resulted in the delayed implementation of several programmes and a lack of coordination between the different initiatives. The problem is further reflected in the absence of any evidence-based analytical system to assess TVET relevance and outcomes, despite the collection and analysis of some input data. Information-based and data-related research and analysis has a critical role to play in the expansion of TVET provision as the sector becomes more diversified.

7. The 2005 VET policy demonstrated that the Government and national stakeholders were aware that public-private partnerships and funding can provide powerful levers for promoting reform, and it is now time to put into place the frameworks needed to achieve this.

New policy challenges8. For a relevant TVET strategy to be achieved, TVET policies must be integrated with the goals of the Zanzibar

Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty 2010-2015 (MKUZA II) and emerging employment policy with the active participation of the productive sector. TVET must no longer be perceived as a source of remedy policies for failures in earlier levels of education.

9. Support for skills development in the informal sector and rural areas is essential to poverty alleviation. This review found a strong demand for TVET services among business associations, community groups and other stakeholders that are beyond the reach of TVET institutions and other public services and institutions. The Government and national stakeholders must address the needs of this large proportion of the population as a matter of urgency.

10. Just as importantly: a quality TVET option must be offered to students within the formal education system. This will require the provision of quality programmes and teachers, and the creation of new pathways between general, technical and VET that will both attract students and allow progression on to university and non-university tertiary education. The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) is an essential element of such an approach.

Preliminary policy recommendationsFurther policy dialogue and a deeper level of TVET development are required on top of current efforts, and recommendations for this are provided in the following sections. The set of possible policy recommendations listed provides a broad agenda for reform that will require prioritisation, trade-offs and further debate.

Moving policy review and reform forwardThe desire to expand and enhance the relevance of TVET is a common concern among TVET policy makers, professionals, the private sector and civil society representatives in Zanzibar. In addition, there is general agreement that TVET is important in enhanced youth employment, increased enterprise competitiveness and poverty reduction as is shown by the focus placed on skills in MKUZA II and in the newly adopted employment and apprenticeship policies. Government recognition of the importance of the TVET sector is also clear in the request to UNESCO to facilitate a policy review and the significant increase in the VTA budget. The current common vision and momentum provides conditions conducive for TVET policy review and reform.

There are various complementary paths the Government could take the advance on policy review: 1) while policy coordination must be addressed and relevant structures established immediately, establishment of an inter-sector ad-hoc committee in the interim period could also be useful; 2) policy debate on the key building blocks of TVET policy, including funding and certification, could be initiated straight away, furthering progress already made toward establishment of the training fund and NQF; and 3) a unifying reform framework could be established on the basis of this policy review and other major stocktaking exercises.

Several key enabling factors need to be in place to support the reform process, including: participation and consensus building, policy support planning (including costing), management factors (including donors) and an established conceptual framework. These factors need to provide clear outlines of: (i) timing and support from national stakeholders

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and the international community; (ii) a unified reform framework; (iii) a project-based management approach; and (iv) assessment of the costs of reform and the implications for public financing.

Moving toward a more demand-driven TVET systemOne pervasive basic theme of this report is that too many potential learners are being denied TVET opportunities, while the TVET currently on offer is often far from the mark in terms of the skills needed in the labour market. This means TVET policymakers in Zanzibar face the major tasks of: (i) ensuring diversification so that different strands of TVET provision are developed to address the needs of different constituencies; (ii) undertaking actions to ensure that TVET is aligned with the needs of employers and learners; and (iii) ensuring that the relevant institutional arrangements and provisions are in place to respond to those needs.

Programmes must provide skills training for a range of diverse economic activities, running from subsistence activities, through ‘traditional’ crafts and trades, to areas of the formal sector such as international hospitality and tourism.

Building a strong supporting system for TVET learning, employment and entrepreneurship opportunities

Deeper stakeholder analysis has raised a key source of concern for policymakers, as the institutional setting they initially viewed as appropriate has proven insufficient for meeting the training demands of the wide range of communities and target groups requiring input.

In the current situation, the young people and adults of Zanzibar face an opportunity gap – a divide between those with access to skills development opportunities for success and those without. Closing this opportunity gap is one of the most important and urgent actions the Government can undertake to secure the future of youth and the economy.

There is currently no relevant institution and/or mechanism to support relevant actors in creating an enabling environment for TVET learning, entrepreneurship and jobs for young people and adults. Such an institution could operate as a ‘one stop shop’ for consultation on workforce development, providing the Government and other stakeholders with advice on jobs and skills development opportunities, micro-finance information and other services. Furthermore, rather than providing training themselves, the Government can focus on creating an enabling environment for TVET and skills development by: (i) providing a clear policy framework of regulations and incentives; (ii) supporting actions to improve the quality and relevance of TVET and skills development programmes through curriculum development, trainer training and skills assessment, and; (iii) providing relevant and reliable information to help prospective learners or job-seekers make informed choices.

Building stronger public-private partnershipIt is clear from meetings with individual employers, focus group discussions and informal sector associations that private sector intervention will generally not happen without facilitation by another party - be it a Government agency, donor or NGO. Employers are more likely to engage in skills development at any level if the benefits of doing so are apparent, the business environment is favourable and there is minimal bureaucracy attached. Their engagement is most effective if it takes place early in the planning process and results from proactive participation.

Hence, there is a need to build up stronger public-private partnerships within the TVET system and to engage individual employers in initiatives such as workplace learning, including internships and apprenticeships. There is also a need to strengthen the role of the Zanzibar National Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture and employer associations in the informal sector and to build their institutional capacity to participate in TVET.

Linking registration with the upgrading of TVET institutions The report commends the progress made in registering and assuring the quality of TVET institutions. Registration requirements provide a policy lever for upgrading TVET institutions and improving the quality and relevance of their provision. A competitive funding system can serve as a tool to direct the development of public and private TVET

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institutions in response to demand from enterprises and individuals. This also has consequences on changing registration requirements from input requirements such as courses, teachers and infrastructures, to output requirements, namely learning outcomes and labour market outcomes measured in multiple ways, including placements, wages, and self-employment.

Ensure an effective and sustainable funding systemA dramatic increase will be needed in available funds for all young people and adults to benefit from TVET, particularly in view of the likely shift towards funding of the lifelong TVET concept in the near future.

The national training fund envisaged will be established to co-ordinate and expand training provision. However, such a fund must have a clear purpose and procedures, with annually agreed targets and transparent management and decision-making practices. Strong involvement from the private sector, both formal and informal, is important for its credibility and to ensure a good public perception. Further policy discussion is also required before selecting the most appropriate type of fund, the most suitable location for this and the provision of capacity-building for fund management and governance.

Given the importance of such a fund, further policy discussion and national and international technical assistance would also be required.

Further strengthen the engines of change for the TVET systemThere are two key institutions that can act as engines of change for TVET: the VTA as a regulatory body, and the Karume Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) as the sole institution involved in TVET instructor training.

Appreciable attempts have been made to reinforce the regulatory and oversight roles of the VTA in areas such as quality assurance and funding. However, there is a need for the VTA mandate to be aligned with the real needs of TVET institutions and providers, and the challenges to be addressed in the reform process including: qualification and certification issues, strategic planning and evaluation, funding, etc. KIST is currently occupied with the provision of initial TVET at post-secondary level, but its potential in the field of instructor training and upgrading, and the introduction of new teaching, learning and assessment approaches can be enhanced. Actions taken at KIST under the African Development Bank Project are signalling improved coordination in the development of TVET and are expected to improve the performance of instructors with potential positive implications for the quality of the teaching and learning process.

Ensure gender mainstreaming in TVETThe promotion of gender equality should be an overarching priority for the Government in order to reverse discriminatory practices and promote gender equality and education and training as a basic human right. The four-As principle devised by former UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, Katarina Tomasevski, requires that TVET be available, accessible, acceptable and adaptable to the needs of all learners, especially girls.

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Table of contents

Preface 3

Executive summary 5

Introduction .............................................................................................................................5

Key findings: ...........................................................................................................................6VET policy relevance and currency .............................................................................................................................6

Unresolved tensions ....................................................................................................................................................6

Unfinished actions .......................................................................................................................................................6

New policy challenges .................................................................................................................................................7

Preliminary policy recommendations ......................................................................................7Moving policy review and reform forward ...................................................................................................................7

Moving toward a more demand-driven TVET system .................................................................................................8

Building a strong supporting system for TVET learning, employment and entrepreneurship opportunities ...............8

Building stronger public-private partnership ...............................................................................................................8

Linking registration with the upgrading of TVET institutions ......................................................................................8

Ensure an effective and sustainable funding system ..................................................................................................9

Further strengthen the engines of change for the TVET system .................................................................................9

Ensure gender mainstreaming in TVET .......................................................................................................................9

Part 1: Context 15

1.1 The socio-economic context in Zanzibar ........................................................................151.1.1 Demographic trends .........................................................................................................................................15

1.1.2 Social indicators ...............................................................................................................................................16

1.1.3 Macroeconomic performance ..........................................................................................................................17

1.1.4 The Zanzibar Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty 2010-2015 (MKUZA II) ....................................18

1.1.5 Constraints on private sector development .....................................................................................................19

1.2. The labour market ..........................................................................................................201.2.1 Quality of the labour force ................................................................................................................................23

1.2.2 Demand for skills from the productive sector ..................................................................................................25

1.3 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................26

Part 2: The education and training System 27

2.1 Structure of the education and training system ..............................................................27

2.2 Effectiveness, quality and equity of education ..............................................................28

2.3 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................32

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Part 3: The Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) system 33

3.1 Characteristics of TVET .................................................................................................33

3.2 TVET programme and provision .....................................................................................333.2.1 Typology of TVET programmes ........................................................................................................................33

3.2.2 TVET provision .................................................................................................................................................34

3.3 TVET policies and strategies ...........................................................................................35

3.4 Governance and oversight ..............................................................................................37

3.5 Policies on articulation with schooling, post-secondary and higher education .............37

3.6 Strategic planning and evaluation ...................................................................................38

3.7 TVET funding ..................................................................................................................393.7.1 Sources of funding ...........................................................................................................................................39

3.7.2 Allocation of funds ............................................................................................................................................41

3.7.3 Use of funding ..................................................................................................................................................41

3.7.4 Policy issues .....................................................................................................................................................42

3.8 Curriculum .......................................................................................................................433.8.1 Progress in curriculum reform ..........................................................................................................................44

3.8.2 Qualifications framework ..................................................................................................................................45

3.9 Teacher and instructor development ..............................................................................45

3.10 Guidance and counselling ............................................................................................47

3.11 Equity and gender mainstreaming in TVET ...................................................................47

3.12 Quality assurance .........................................................................................................48

3.13 Relevance and impact ..................................................................................................49

3.14 The knowledge and evidence base ..............................................................................50

3.15 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................50

Part 4: TVET links with the labour market 51

4.1 Labour Market Information System ................................................................................51

4.2 Employment and LMI services ........................................................................................52

4.3 Public-private partnership ...............................................................................................53

4.4 Work-place learning: apprenticeship, continuing training and earn and learn programmes ..........................................................................................................................544.4.1 Apprenticeship .................................................................................................................................................54

4.4.2 Continuing training ...........................................................................................................................................55

4.5 Earn and learn programmes ...........................................................................................56

4.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................57

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Part 5: Donor support to TVET 59

5.1 African Development Bank (AfDB) ..................................................................................59

Part 6: Conclusions, recommendations and points for further discussion 61

6.1 Progress achieved and remaining challenges ................................................................61Key findings ...............................................................................................................................................................61

Preliminary policy recommendations ........................................................................................................................62

Annexes 66

Annex 1: Structure of Education (1999) ................................................................................66

Annex 2: Structure of VTA .....................................................................................................67

Annex 3: Data on public and private institutions providing TVET and their enrolment figures ..................................................................................................................................68Vocational Training Centres and Skills Specialisation ...............................................................................................68

Annex 4: Student enrolment in Technical Secondary Schools .............................................71

Annex 5: Student enrolment in VTCs ....................................................................................71Year: 2011 ..................................................................................................................................................................71

Year: 2012 ..................................................................................................................................................................71

Enrolment details in VTA centres – 2012 ...................................................................................................................72

Bibliography 73

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Part 1: Context

This section provides a summary of information about the population, economy and labour market system of Zanzibar. More particularly, consideration is given to the development model applied, the growth and poverty reduction strategies implemented and the imperatives and expectations of TVET. The section also provides a detailed examination of elements driving demand for skills from the productive sector and the world of work.

1.1 The socio-economic context in Zanzibar

1.1.1 Demographic trendsIn Zanzibar, important progress has been made in several key social indicators during the first decade of the 21st century. Between 1988 and 2002, life expectancy at birth has improved from 47 years to 57 years, while infant mortality rates have decreased from 120 per 1000 births to 89 per 1000 births: a rate of progress superior to that registered on the mainland. Although population growth in both Zanzibar and Tanzania as a whole slowed between 1988 and 2010, Zanzibar’s annual population growth rate remained at 3.82 per cent from 2004 to 2010, making it one of the fastest growing regions in the world. Zanzibar saw a decline in total fertility rates from 6.9 children per woman in 1988, to 6.2 children per woman in 2002 and 5.1 children per woman in 2010, meaning the region continues to have one of the highest fertility rates in the world despite the progress made. Primary school enrolment improved from 75.7 per cent in 2006 to 81.4 per cent in 2010 (NBS, 2011).

Table 1 shows the population of Zanzibar is predominantly rural and young, with 68 per cent estimated to live in rural areas and 43 per cent of the population aged less than 15 years.

Table 1 Population Living in Rural and Urban Areas (in %)

Age Group (years)Rural Urban Total

2004/05 2009/10 2004/05 2009/10 2004/05 2009/10

0-4 17.4 17.8 14.2 13.4 16.1 15.9

5-9 15.1 14.3 13.9 12.4 14.6 13.5

10-14 13.8 13.8 12.3 13.7 13.3 13.7

15-19 11.6 11.6 12.1 12.2 11.8 11.9

20-24 7.2 7.1 10.3 9.1 8.4 8.0

25-29 6.4 6.3 8.0 7.1 7.0 6.7

30-34 5.8 5.1 6.9 6.3 6.2 5.6

35-39 5.1 5.2 5.2 6.1 5.2 5.6

40-44 4.8 4.5 5.1 4.9 4.9 4.7

45-49 3.2 4.6 3.6 4.7 3.4 4.6

50-54 3 3.1 2.8 3.2 2.9 3.1

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Age Group (years)Rural Urban Total

2004/05 2009/10 2004/05 2009/10 2004/05 2009/10

55-59 1.8 1.8 1.7 2.8 1.8 2.2

60-64 1.9 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7

65-69 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0

70-74 1.1 1.0 0.7 0.9 1.0 0.9

75-79 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4

80+ 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5

Total per cent 100 100 100 100 100 100

Total Population 640,098 727,594 415,827 545,729 1,055,925 1,273,323

Source: OCGS, 2012

Most of the population lives in rural areas but rapid urbanisation has reduced rural residence from 61 per cent to 57 per cent in five years.

These trends pose a challenge for the future of youth employment. The growth rate in the processing and manufacturing industries, construction, tourism, fisheries, education and other sectors has failed to absorb the growing numbers of jobless individuals, and unemployment has reached a critical level among youth, at an rate estimated at 17 per cent in the 2009/2010 Household Budget Survey report. The combination of high population growth and rapid urbanisation will add to pressure for job creation, and more especially for jobs with social security coverage.

1.1.2 Social indicatorsSocial indicators are direct and valid statistical measures that monitor levels achieved in fundamental, identifiable and definable aspirations or concerns for human well-being in a way that can demonstrate changes over time. They can be used to provide basic information for decision-making, performance review and the implementation of new policies.

Table 2: Proportion of Households with Access to Piped Water, Toilets and Electricity According to Poverty Status.

Very Poor Poor Non-Poor

Private piped water 14% 25% 42%

Toilet 52% 67% 63%

Electricity 15% 27% 54%

Source: OCGS, 2012

Table 3 Access to Basic Services by Poverty Status

 2004/05 2009/10

Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total

Food Poverty Headcount 15.93 8.94 13.18 16.76 8.09 13.04

Food Poverty Gap 2.9 1.63 2.4 3.35 1.31 2.48

Basic Needs Poverty Headcount 54.61 40.54 49.07 50.74 35.97 44.41

Basic Needs Poverty Gap 15.07 10.05 13.09 13.87 8.11 11.41

Source: OCGS, 2012

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Although poverty incidence is estimated to have declined from 49 per cent in 2004/05 to 44 per cent in 2009/10 (using the Basic Needs Headcount Index), it has missed the target of a 25 per cent reduction by 2010 by a large margin. The country is unlikely to meet the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) target of halving income poverty by 2015 (IMF, 2012). While poverty incidence has declined, the absolute number of people living below the poverty line has actually increased, and estimates state that the number of poor people increased from 520,000 in 2004/05 to 644,000 in 2009/2010.

Rapid expansion of the population has limited the impact of economic growth on poverty reduction and poses challenges in terms of youth employment and the provision of social services in the medium and long term. Poverty incidence has declined in both urban and rural areas, although most of the poor live outside the conurbations.

The three occupations showing the highest incidence of poverty in 2010 were farming, fishing and self-employment. As Figure 1 demonstrates, there is a clear correlation between poverty incidence and the education level of the head of household.

Figure 1: Poverty Incidence by Educational Level in % (2010)

Source: RGoZ, 2012

1.1.3 Macroeconomic performanceZanzibar has seen an excellent economic performance in the last decade with growth in gross domestic product (GDP) of more than 5 per cent per year on average between 2002 and 2008. This good performance was linked with improvements in tax administration, consistent provision of foreign aid and steady debt relief that allowed for a significant expansion in public spending.

Most of the future growth potential in Zanzibar lies in a few sectors, mainly tourism, agricultural crops, fisheries, textiles and garments. The impact of investments and growth in these sectors is limited however, due to the low productivity and poor skills of the workforce. In the tourism sector, the higher paid jobs largely go to foreign workers as qualified local personnel are in short supply. Agriculture is dominated by small-scale subsistence farming and the sector suffers from inadequate production, poor marketing and a weak processing infrastructure for crops, fisheries and livestock alike. Crop production is also adversely affected by climatic factors, poor quality seed, low use of fertilizers and pesticides, outdated technologies and weak support services (including extension services and technical assistance to producers). Post-harvest losses are incurred through poor handling, defective storage facilities and inadequate processing technologies. A significant percentage of agricultural produce is wasted every year due to these factors.

The livestock subsector is beset by inadequate animal health and management services as well as weak production and marketing networks. Most fishery activity is limited to the over-exploited in-shore waters, while the great potential for offshore fishing remains unused due to the shortfall in new technologies and skills. Seaweed farming also offers great

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potential but quality issues mar performance, as secondary and tertiary processing services are lacking, and farmers have inadequate skills in production and post-harvest techniques.

Manufacturing exports were worth US$ 3.9 million in 2008, representing almost a quarter of total exports. Zanzibari manufacturing exports consist mainly of textiles and garments, but also include wood products, coconut oil, handicrafts and spices. The main constraints affecting the sector include a poor investment climate for businesses, unreliable and costly supply of key utilities (electricity, water and telecommunications), the inability to meet international norms and standards, poor sanitary and phytosanitary conditions, and poor packaging practices.

1.1.4 The Zanzibar Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty 2010-2015 (MKUZA II)

The Zanzibar Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty 2010-2015 (MKUZA II) presents a comprehensive agenda for growth and poverty reduction. This ambitious agenda should provide the framework for the development of a specific strategy for the TVET sector to accompany the MKUZA II. Some elements of the MKUZA II are highlighted in this section as areas with implications for TVET.

Goal 1: Create an enabling environment for growth

• Enhance the use of ICT in all sectors• Facilitate the construction of the new ports of Maruhubi and Wesha • Rehabilitate the ports of Wete and Mkoani • Provide adequate and reliable physical infrastructure for efficient management of industrial medical and

domestic waste

Goal 2: Promote sustainable and equitable pro-poor and broad-based growth

• Improve the quality of the workforce and working conditions in key growth sectors• Implement the Zanzibar employment policy, job creation programme and youth employment action plan with a

gender perspective• Ensure timely delivery of agriculture support services with a focus on private sector participation• Improve agricultural productivity (rice, root, tuber, fruit and vegetables)• Develop organic farming with a focus on exports• Encourage private sector involvement along the full length of the commodity value chains• Strengthen capacity to improve quality in technical agricultural education• Develop and implement a farmers’ training programme• Improve production and quality of livestock products• Provide adequate storage facilities for livestock products• Strengthen livestock support services• Support artisan fisheries through improved technologies• Promote deep sea fishing• Promote marine and fresh water fish farming• Improve the protection and conservation of marine resources in the fisheries sector• Promote up-market tourism

Goal 3: Reduce income poverty and attain overall food security

• Implement an employment policy and job creation programme• Increase labour productivity• Implement a gender-responsive employment policy• Establish a labour market information system• Promote TVET among youth• Institutionalise a labour market information system

Goal 4: Create a vibrant private sector for economic growth

• Build capacity on business management skills

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Goal 7: Promote sport and culture, and preserve historical and cultural heritage

• Enhance the conservation of Stone Town as a World Heritage Site• Promote community-based conservation programmes for the preservation of local heritage sites

It is clear that TVET policies cannot be conducted in isolation. TVET policies must be freed from their previous image as remedy policies to compensate for previous failings in the education system, and they must be articulated with the MKUZA II goals described above.

1.1.5 Constraints on private sector developmentIn a broad overview, the private sector in Zanzibar is negatively affected by multiple taxation, cumbersome licensing procedures, poor infrastructure, corruption, access to and the cost of finance, access to land, access to skilled labour and labour regulations.

The agriculture sector, in particular - which employs most of the workers in Zanzibar - is in transition from a public sector monopoly to greater private sector participation, but there is no clear legal framework in place to support the implementation of public-private partnerships and promote the development of a modern agribusiness sector. Also, the absence of clear guidelines and procedures leads to a lack of long-term financing instruments and appropriate risk-sharing mechanisms. Low capacity for procurement, management and implementation also constrains the development of public-private partnerships.

Agriculture also suffers from inadequate infrastructure in the crop, fishery and livestock sectors, with improvements needed to irrigation schemes, rural feeder roads, rural market centres and storage facilities, fish landing sites, slaughter houses and abattoirs. The private sector is not yet a key player in the provision of input supply, extension, research and financial services. Many of these services are provided in a subsidised form by the Government thus limiting private sector participation at market rate (ZATI, 2009).

The food crops subsector faces significant obstacles, including: the lack of improved seeds, inadequate use of fertilizers and pesticides, poor knowledge of and access to improved farming technologies, weak support services (research and extension), poor management of natural resources leading to degradation, and high post-harvest losses.

Key constraints in the livestock sector include: inadequate provision of animal health and management services, an out-dated regulatory framework for the sector, the poor genetic potential of livestock breeds, weak linkages between producers and markets, the low number of qualified technical personnel, inadequate equipment and lack of research facilities.

Fisheries are hampered by the over exploitation of resources in inshore waters and under exploitation of offshore waters. Seaweed farming faces restrictions in terms of limited investment in secondary and tertiary processing, poor farming skills and inadequate post-harvest handling techniques such as drying.

The agro-export sector must overcome the huge challenge of post-harvest losses due to poor handling, inadequate processing and poor storage technology and facilities. Farmers have little knowledge of marketing opportunities, both within the country and for export.

Evidence from the World Bank Enterprise Survey suggests that Zanzibari firms are less well integrated with the global economy than firms from mainland Tanzania (World Bank, 2007), and they also compare poorly against those of other island economies. The survey showed that only 18 per cent of firms from Zanzibar sell goods on the mainland.

Labour productivity is lower for the average firm in Zanzibar than for firms elsewhere in mainland Tanzania. Firms in Zanzibar produce less than US$1000 (in 2005 US$) of value added per worker, compared with US$2900 per worker in Dar-es-Salaam and US$2400 per worker elsewhere in Tanzania. This is also lower than value added per worker in other low-income Sub-Saharan African countries. Among small and medium enterprises (SMEs), wages are also lower than in mainland Tanzania by about 40 per cent.

Lower wages in Zanzibar are related to lower educational attainment. About 18 per cent of SME employees in Dar-es-Salaam and 11 per cent of SME employees elsewhere in Tanzania have a tertiary education, compared to only 0.2 per cent in Zanzibar. Although wages are lower in Zanzibar than in Tanzania and most African countries, productivity lags far

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behind, with the end result that unit labour costs (the ratio of wages to productivity) are in fact higher, rendering Zanzibari firms less competitive than their peers in other countries.

Perceptions of limitations on the investment climate among employers in Zanzibar are similar to those seen elsewhere in Tanzania, with the top five obstacles listed as: tax rates, tax administration, cost of financing, access to financing and electricity. Zanzibar only came off worse in terms of access to finance, where perceptions were far less favourable than on the mainland. Paradoxically, managers in Zanzibar are more worried about worker skills than managers in Tanzania, although enterprises on the island are less likely to provide formal training to employees: only 10 per cent of SMEs in Zanzibar reported a formal training programme, against 26 per cent in Dar es Salaam and 31 per cent elsewhere on the mainland. When the enterprises without formal programmes were asked to explain their reasoning, they most commonly reported that training was not affordable or that they found informal in-house training adequate for their needs.

1.2. The labour marketLabour Force Participation Rates (LFPR) are high in Zanzibar for both men and women. Table 4 breaks down LFPRs by gender and age group.

Table 4 Labour Force Participation Rates

Age Group (years) Male Female Total

15-19 64.7 58.0 61.4

20-24 80.7 79.6 80.1

25-29 95.8 90.7 92.8

30-34 98.0 93.5 95.5

35-39 99.2 94.7 96.7

40-44 98.9 95.3 97.1

45-49 99.1 92.3 95.9

50-54 98.8 86.6 93.1

55-59 95.2 82.2 89.8

60-64 90.2 73.5 82.4

65+ 76.6 48.7 62.6

Total 86.8 80.8 83.7

Source: NBS, 2006

Although LFPRs in Zanzibar are among the highest in the world for both men and women, they fall short of the levels seen on the mainland. There is an official unemployment rate of 5.5 per cent overall and 13 per cent for the 20-24 age group, estimated on the basis of the Integrated Labour Force Survey (ILFS) 2006.

Table 5 shows a significant difference in income sources between rural and urban households, for while a typical rural family derives most of its income from farm self-employment and agricultural activities, a typical urban household earns most from cash employment and non-farm self-employment. In fact, cash employment ranks as only the third most important source of household income in rural areas. It is important to note that remittances represent a similar proportion of total income for both rural and urban families.

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Table 5: A Comparison of Income Sources in Rural and Urban Areas

Income Source Rural Urban

Employment-cash 17.7% 36.5%

Employment-in kind 1.3% 1.9%

Non-farm self-employment 25.2% 27.4%

Agriculture 22.2% 3.5%

Cooperatives 0.1% 0.0%

Imputed rent 8.7% 10.9%

Interest 0.2% 0.1%

Dividend 0.0% 0.0%

Rent 1.2% 2.2%

Remittances 6.7% 7.8%

Other 16.8% 9.7%

Total Annual Income 100.0% 100.0%

Source: NBS, 2006

Figure 2 shows that education is positively correlated with income, where income for individuals with no education has been normalised to 1, and income for all other education levels is expressed as a multiple of 1. Thus, a person with tertiary education has an income 3.6 times that of a person without education. A word of caution is needed, however, as it is highly possible that the definition of ‘income’ used in this calculation does not distinguish sufficiently between wage income, self-employed income and other non-wage income sources, and a better comparison would be based on wage income only by level of education.

Figure 2: Earnings by Education Level, 2010 Index (No Education = 1)

Source: RGoZ, 2012

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The empirical evidence in Zanzibar points to a strong positive correlation between education and income, but, importantly, access to education is unequal for different socioeconomic groups in the region. Figure 3 shows that unequal access to education by income level (presented here as income quintiles) could conceivably be a strong predictor of future labour market outcomes. This figure shows the rate of access to Pre School, Basic and Form III to Form VI level education for five income groups. The distributions show access to be most unequal in Pre School and Form III to Form VI levels, where the children from richer households are overrepresented, while access to basic education is far more equal. Attending Pre School gives children an advantage and better chances of success in basic education, making it clear that children from lower income groups are at a disadvantage in Zanzibar. We have already shown that access to Form III to Form VI level education provides an income premium over students with just basic education, and students from lower income groups are again at a disadvantage here.

Figure 3: Access to Various Education Levels by Income Quintile

Source: RGoZ, 2012

Figure 4 shows employment distribution by employment status, clearly demonstrating that the majority of Zanzibari workers are employed as unpaid family workers (45 per cent of the total in both agriculture and non-agricultural activities). Only 17 per cent of the total employed work for wages (including government and private sector employment), while self-employment makes up about 38 per cent of the total.

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Figure 4: Distribution of Employment by Employment Status, 2006

Source: NBS, 2006

According to ILFS 2006, about 37 per cent of the labour force was employed in the agriculture sector, 18 per cent in the wholesale and retail trade, and 7 per cent each in fishing and manufacturing.

Tourism has become an important source of job growth in recent years with almost 175,000 tourists visiting Zanzibar in 2011, more than double the number of visitors from a decade before, and a sharp increase of 32 per cent on 2010. It is estimated that the sector employs 8000 workers directly (60 per cent of whom are foreigners) and about 38,000 indirectly. It is also important to note that traditional arts and crafts jobs are often overlooked in labour surveys as they are conducted alongside a daytime job, and are thus not considered a primary occupation. Souvenir products manufactured in Zanzibar have a market share of less than 10 per cent (Schrempp, 2010).

1.2.1 Quality of the labour forceAccording to ILFS 2006, almost 90 per cent of labour force participants have education of basic level or lower, where the basic education category comprises primary and lower secondary levels. Most females in the labour force have no education at all, while most males have primary education. Only about 10 per cent of the labour force has an education level of above basic.

The rapid expansion of enrolment in education has resulted in a decline in quality. The education sector agenda must consider a shift in the focus of the education budget away from subsidies to higher education and towards greater funding for primary and secondary education.

Figure 5 shows that in 2006, about 82 per cent of the labour force was not engaged in any form of training activity. The remaining 18 per cent were engaged in various different training activities, of which the most important were informal apprenticeships (27 per cent of total training) or on the job training (22 per cent).

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Figure 5: Type of Training Received by Individuals Participating in Any Form of Training, 2006

Source: NBS, 2006

Furthermore, Figure 6 shows that training at the tertiary level (university and non-university) is negligible.

Figure 6: Labour Force by Education Level, 2006

Source: NBS, 2006

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1.2.2 Demand for skills from the productive sectorAnalysis of the distribution of occupations shows that most workers are employed in elementary occupations (33 per cent), followed by agriculture and fisheries (21 per cent) and services (16 per cent). There are very few workers in the professional category (2 per cent) and in the groups for plant and machine operators (2 per cent) and technicians (6 per cent).

Figure 7: Employment Distribution by Occupation, 2006

Source: NBS, 2006

Only 31 per cent of workers were employed for more than 43 hours per week, and about 40 per cent of workers worked less than 30 hours per week.

Figure 8: Number of Hours Worked Per Week in Worker’s Main Economic Activity

Source: NBS, 2006

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The Government has plans in place to develop the transport (roads, airports and sea ports), communication (ICT, telecommunications) and energy infrastructure, but critical skill shortages have been identified in key areas such as: road maintenance and construction, the construction and operation of communications infrastructure and in the energy sector - particularly in new areas such as solar and wind energy.

Zanzibar also possesses a wealth of heritage buildings that require skill and knowledge to maintain. At the heart of this legacy lies the Stone Town World Heritage area. The core of this 96-hectare site contains approximately 1800 traditional buildings, 26 of which are Grade I listed and 233 of which are Grade II listed. In addition, the buffer zone, of a further 85 hectares, contains 2000 other buildings, many of which are of historic interest.

The maintenance and restoration of buildings and urban settings is central to the conservation of significant heritage assets that offer added value for the tourism economy, housing and an attraction for domestic investors. The skills required include a wide range of elements related to the cleaning and repair of roofs, wooden structures, coral stone and lime-mortar masonry, glass and ornamental features, and even the steel and concrete that has been used in landmark buildings since the late 19th century. The conservation process also involves the production of reconstructed and new elements such as wood carvings, iron and lead work.

The Stone Town Conservation and Development Authority (STCDA), is engaged in the training of skilled craftsmen and women, but a range of institutional and financial challenges prevent skills and knowledge from being passed on to the next generation of workers.

1.3 ConclusionZanzibar has experienced rapid economic growth in recent years, but the rate of population expansion has moderated the impact of economic growth on poverty alleviation. More than 43 per cent of the population is younger than 15 years-old and demographic trends point to an accelerating rate of urbanisation. Despite the progress made in the last decade, fertility rates remain among the highest in the world. In the next few decades, Zanzibar will face a significant increase in the demand for education and large influxes of new entrants to the labour force. This surge of young people entering the labour force for the first time will put pressure on labour markets to rapidly generate new jobs suited to the rapidly expanding labour force.

The current employment structure points to a weak demand for higher skilled workers, but even in sectors generating a demand for higher skills – such as tourism – the current local supply is not capable of producing workers with the necessary skills. The predominance of low productivity and informal jobs reflects the significant institutional constraints on the development of modern firms and the creation of jobs offering better wages and social security coverage.

Significant constraints impede job creation in Zanzibar. Removal of these constraints is a precondition to expanding the job offer that implies an agenda extending beyond the boundaries of TVET. In the medium term, Zanzibar must focus on expanding job opportunities to larger segments of the population and on creating the institutional framework for the emergence of an education and training system able to accompany the evolution and the changing skills needs of a growing economy and diversified demand.

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Part 2: The education and training system

This section introduces the overall architecture of the education and training system in Zanzibar, assesses the quality of education and considers its effectiveness in equipping graduates with knowledge and skills for the labour market and further learning.

2.1 Structure of the education and training systemThe current structure of the education system (see Annex 1, Pre- 2006 Education Policy) consists of 7 years of primary education known as ‘standard education’ followed by 3 years of first cycle secondary or ‘junior secondary’, 2 years of second cycle or ‘senior’ secondary and 2 years of advanced level secondary education. The official age of entry into Standard I is seven years. Basic education, which is compulsory, consists of primary education plus the first cycle of secondary, for a total of 10 years of instruction. The first and second cycles of secondary education together form what is normally referred to as ordinary level (O-level) secondary education. The Education Policy of 2006 introduced a new structure that is being gradually implemented consisting of a mandatory 2 years of pre-primary (official entry age is four years), 6 years of primary education (official entry age is six years), 4 years of ordinary level secondary education (official entry age is twelve years), 2 years of advanced level secondary education (official entry age is sixteen years), and a minimum of 3 years of higher education. The ‘Form II Examination’, previously the terminal examination of compulsory education after ‘junior secondary’, will no longer be a qualifying examination although it will still be used to measure student progress. The two education structures currently coexist, but the pre-2006 structure is gradually being phased out. All students up to Standard III (are now following the new model. The 2006 Policy also sets a new language policy, with English as the language of instruction from Standard V for mathematics and science (RGoZ, 2006).

For the next six years, student cohorts will continue to be subject to the pre-2006 structure where promotion to second cycle secondary education at the end of basic education is competitive and conditional on passing the selective Form II Examination, where the average transition rate is estimated at 35 per cent (RGoZ, 2010). The only exception to this procedure occurs at the end of primary school (Standard VII), when a restricted number of the best-performing students are selected to enter specialised technical, commercial, Islamic and language secondary schools. Students from these specialised streams are exempt from the Form II Examination, gaining automatic entry to the second cycle of secondary education.

At present, at the end of Form IV, the O-level students must pass the Certificate for Secondary Education (CSE) Examination in order to continue on to the A-level secondary cycle, and only an estimated 10 per cent of students are successful. In the new structure, compulsory basic education ends at Form IV with promotion to Forms V-VI based on success in the Form IV examination. The recently released 2012 Form IV examination results indicate that 60.6 per cent of students taking the examination failed.

Students who fail the selective exam at the end of basic education have two options: they can drop out from education and enter the labour market, or they can continue their studies in one- or two-year vocational training programmes. At the moment, VET training is a dead end as it offers no possibilities for further education, while A-level technical education streams do offer pathways on into higher education. Some alternative education programmes operate to streamline students back into formal education, but most of these centres are located in urban areas, especially in Unguja.

Coverage has been improving at various education levels. In 2012/13, gross enrolment in primary education (GER) reached 121.5 per cent with net enrolment (NER) equivalent to 81.5 per cent in 2010 - well in excess of the 75.7 per cent NER in 2006. About 96 per cent of students in primary education are enrolled in public schools.

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2.2 Effectiveness, quality and equity of education From the skills development perspective, one of the main challenges to overcome in Zanzibar is the low coverage at secondary level. The scattered data compiled support the idea that the low quality of the labour force can be explained by the large number of students who do not complete primary education and the fact that few among the survivors are able to progress through the three cycles of secondary education. Very few students have mastered fundamental competencies such as reading and numeracy by Grade 6 of primary school. Students who continue through junior and senior secondary levels (the O-level) but who fail the Form IV examination can either continue their education in TVET programmes or enter the labour force. Only a small number of students opt to enrol in TVET programmes.

The low quality of education is also shown in data taken from the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ) ‘Pupil Achievement in Reading and Mathematics’ survey undertaken in 2007 (SACMEQ, 2010), which evaluated Grade 6 level students in several African countries.

The reading test measured the level of achievement of students in the following elements:

• Level 1: Pre Reading• Level 2: Emergent Reading• Level 3: Basic Reading• Level 4: Reading for Meaning• Level 5: Interpretive Reading• Level 6: Inferential Reading• Level 7: Analytical Reading• Level 8: Critical Reading

Table 6: SACMEQ Reading Test Outcomes in 2007

Source: SACMEQ, 2010

Table 6 shows that 21 per cent of Grade 6 students in Zanzibar scored no higher than Level 3 (Basic Reading) and slightly fewer than 60 per cent of students had achieved Level 5 or above. This actually compares positively with the average for the countries that undertook the reading test, as only 42 per cent of children across all SACMEQ countries had achieved a Level 5 or above.

Mathematics was scored by the achievement levels of:

• Level 1: Pre Numeracy• Level 2: Emergent Numeracy• Level 3: Basic Numeracy

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• Level 4: Beginning Numeracy• Level 5: Competent Numeracy• Level 6: Mathematically Skilled• Level 7: Concrete Problem Solving• Level 8: Abstract Problem Solving

Table 7: SACMEQ Mathematical Test Outcomes 2007

Source: SACMEQ, 2010

In Zanzibar, 73 per cent of Grade 6 students had achieved Level 3 (Basic Numeracy) and slightly fewer than 6 per cent of students had achieved Level 5 or above. This compares negatively with the overall average for countries undertaking the mathematics test, where the average for all SACMEQ countries was 16.8 per cent achieving a Level 5 or above. It is important to note that no students in Zanzibar scored at Level 8 (abstract problem solving).

When these results are disaggregated by gender, girls tend to perform better than boys in reading, but boys perform slightly better in maths (Table 8). The average reading score is higher for girls and the average maths score is slightly higher for boys. The performance distribution by levels of achievement shows that about 64 per cent of boys perform at Level 5 or lower, compared to 57 per cent of girls. Almost 21 per cent of girls perform at the top two levels compared with only 16.5 per cent of boys.

Table 8: SACMEQ Reading Performance by Gender Outcomes 2007

Source:SACMEQ, 2010

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The maths test results show that the average boy performs better than the average girl in terms of mean scores. None of the students, either boys or girls, performed at the two top maths levels and outcomes of Level 3 or lower were achieved by 74 per cent of boys and 76.7 per cent of girls.

The results from the SACMEQ test illustrate an additional important dimension in terms of academic achievement by socioeconomic status (see Figure 9).

Figure 9: Grade 6 Level of Achievement by Socioeconomic Status (Reading Test)

Source: SACMEQ, 2010

Children from families in the bottom 25 per cent of socio-economic groupings are over-represented in the lowest levels of achievement. For example, in the Level 3 (basic reading), almost 20 per cent of students from the bottom income level performed at Level 3 compared with only 5.5 per cent of students from the top income level. On the other hand, over 26 per cent of students in the top income level performed at Level 7 compared with less than 8 per cent of students in the bottom income level.

The disparities are even more pronounced when looking at the maths test results as shown in Figure 10.

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Figure 10: Grade 6: Level of Achievement by Socioeconomic Status (Maths Test)

Source: SACMEQ, 2010

While 40 per cent of the students in the bottom income level performed at Level 2 (emergent numeracy), only 18 per cent of students from the top income level performed at this level. Among the high performers, more than 8 per cent of the students from the top income level performed at Level 5 or better, compared with only 3 per cent for students from the lowest income level. These results are relevant because students with low academic achievement are less likely to complete secondary education and move on to higher education. They are far more likely to enter the labour force before having acquired the necessary general competencies for work, or they will enrol in non-formal education programmes with limited prospects for further learning. Students from the lower income classes are over-represented in this group.

Figure 11 shows how the National Examinations at Form II, Form IV and Form VI, progressively filter students out of the formal education system. In 2008 almost 15,000 students sat the Form II Examination, but only 7,500 passed and obtained certificates enabling them to continue towards senior secondary. At O-level, about 8,000 students sat the Form IV Examination and 6,500 passed. However, the overall transition rate to A-level was only 23.3 per cent as a significant number of those who passed the examination decided not to continue in A-level education. Less than 1,500 students sat the Form VI Examination and almost 1,200 passed.

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Figure 11: National Examination Enrolment and Pass Levels, 2008

Source: SACMEQ, 2010

2.3 ConclusionsZanzibar is making progress toward achievement of universal primary education and is expanding equitable access to education. However, high drop-out rates, particularly at the end of the lower-secondary level, indicate that the education system does not prepare young people sufficiently to seize TVET opportunities. Furthermore, understanding of the current and future education situation for out of school children and youth is important as this has direct implications for TVET policy planning, in particular for those policies aimed at skills development and employment opportunities for this target group.

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Part 3: The Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) system

This section introduces the characteristics of the TVET system in Zanzibar, the TVET policy and the legal framework, TVET system steering and institutional governance. It goes on to consider how TVET is funded and discusses issues of access and participation, curriculum, pedagogy and quality.

3.1 Characteristics of TVET The TVET system includes all forms of learning and development with a major technical or vocational component. This inclusive approach to learning and development associated with TVET comprises all formal technical or vocational education and training provision - whether in school, college, university, training or work settings - together with formal training programmes and less formal/more informal learning while working and other forms of technical and vocational learning which may be self-directed or involve peer learning, including community-based learning. Non-formal training offered by governmental ministries, NGOs and private providers adds to a complex mix. These programmes vary in duration, quality and level of skills offered.

In Zanzibar, VET is governed by the Vocational Training Act of 2006, which defines Vocational Training as education or training conducted outside the regular education system that empowers the trainee to secure employment in the employment market, self-employment or to return to the regular education system. Learners in VET centres are hence pursuing training in skills fitted to the specific requirements of occupations and trades such as masonry and bricklaying, carpentry and joinery, welding and fabrication, electrical installation, secretarial duties and other areas of a similar nature. Entry qualifications for the longer VET courses vary from lower secondary to advanced secondary school education.

The key institutions involved in TVET are the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT), the Vocational Training Authority (VTA), the Zanzibar Institute for Tourism Development (ZIToD) and the Karume Institute of Science and Technology (KIST). Other stakeholders include the private and public sectors as well as Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and local communities who conduct training and benefit from skills development.

3.2 TVET programme and provision

3.2.1 Typology of TVET programmesThe TVET system is made up of several different tracks that can roughly be divided into four main clusters:

a) Technical education:

• The secondary technical education system offers long term (3-year) technical and technological instruction with a large proportion of academic subjects offered in technical schools. There are two Technical Secondary Schools: Mikunguni Technical Secondary School and Kengeja Technical Secondary School (see Annex 4 for details on enrolment). The courses offered include: civil, mechanical and electrical engineering, electronics, information and communication technology. The best achievers can move on to university or to the KIST.

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• Post-secondary technical education is offered in Technician Education and Training (TET) institutions. To date, there is no legal framework or legislation governing TET in Zanzibar as there is effectively only one TET institution that fits the definition of tertiary education obtained in a non-university institution. Upon successful completion, graduates are awarded a certificate, diploma or degree.

b) VET programme leading to a formal qualification and regulated by the VTA

• The vocational training system is regulated by the VTA in both the public and private sector. It covers a range of programmes with a large proportion of vocational subjects. The main clientele of vocational training centres is young people of all educational backgrounds.

c) VET and skills development programmes

• Earn and learn programmes provide short-term training for learners in a narrow range of basic skills for specific productive activities such as soap production and shampoo manufacture.

• Alternative Learning and Skills Development providing short-term training for marginalised groups in literacy, life skills and basic vocational skills. These programmes are organised by the public Alternative Learning and Skills Development Centres as well as NGOs such as the Handloom Cloth and Clothing Association (HCCA).

d) Work-based learning

• Enterprise training covers in-service training (on the job and otherwise) provided or financed by public and private enterprises for their workers.

• Informal apprenticeship: A considerable amount of TVET is provided through informal apprenticeships in small shops and informal enterprises. Although, there are no estimates for the number of apprentices enrolled in informal apprenticeships, discussions with informal enterprises and the focus group organised with the association of these enterprises indicate that informal apprenticeship is the most prominent way of developing the skills needed to access the informal sector labour market.

3.2.2 TVET provisionThe VTA operates three TVET institutions: the Mkokotoni Skills Development Centre, the Vitongoji Skills Development Centre and the Mwanakwerekwe Skills Development Centre. The three centres offer courses at different levels of qualification that range from two weeks to thirty-six months in duration.

Annex 5 provides detailed information on the courses offered and enrolment in the VTA-operated institutions. Training covers a range of trades and sectors including: food and beverages, construction, electrical engineering and electronics, air conditioning and refrigeration.

In addition, several public institutions provide post-secondary education and vocational training for specific sectors, falling under the responsibility of other line ministries. These include the College of Health Science, the College of Agriculture, the Zanzibar Institute of Finance Administration and ZIToD.

ZIToD provides a range of programmes that include a mixture of long academic and vocational courses and as well as short-term programmes (see Box 1). All of the above programmes are conducted in English and some incorporate study tours where the participants are able to visit public and private tourism and hospitality agencies throughout the country.

Much of the current TVET provision, however, comes from private, for profit institutions as illustrated further in Annex 3. Enrolment numbers in private TVET institutions range from 15 students in the Hamoup Hotel and Catering Institute to 245 in the Modern Polytechnic. Most of these institutions offer TVET in computers and information technology, tailoring and business. According to VTA staff, the current list of TVET institutions represents only a small fraction of all providers – with NGO and community-based training for traditional craft skills and the like particularly underrepresented. VTA staff confirmed that many providers remain unmapped.

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Box 1: Zanzibar Institute of Tourism Development

ZIToD Academic Programmes:

Diploma courses (2 years)

1. Diploma in Hospitality and Tourism Management

2. Diploma in ICT and Accounting

Full Technician Certificate (FTC) Programmes (2 years)

1. FTC in Front Office Operations

2. FTC in Housekeeping and Laundry

3. FTC in Food preparation and Pastry

4. FTC in Food and Beverage Sales and Services

5. FTC in ICT and Accounting

Foundation Programmes (1 year)

1. Front Office Operations

2. Housekeeping and Laundry

3. Food Preparation and Pastry

4. Food and Beverage Sales and Services

5. Tour Guiding

Intensive Short Programmes

1. Secretarial Management

2. Small Business Management

3. Customer care

4. Travel

Source: ZIToD, 2013

3.3 TVET policies and strategiesIn 2005, national stakeholders preparing the ground for development of the VET policy stated that the VET system ‘has not yet responded to widespread unemployment not to wider implications of employability of the Zanzibar labour force’ (MoYEWCD, 2005, p. 8). Box 2 shows a number of weaknesses in need of attention as identified by national stakeholders.

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Box 2: Weaknesses identified in the VET system in 2005

Relevance

The existing Zanzibar VET system lacks relevance as it responds to neither the needs of trainees nor those of employers. Employers are unable to find qualified Zanzibar workers for the jobs available, particularly in the industry and tourism sectors. As a result, they either hire workers from foreign countries or they are forced to train workers on-the-job.

Effectiveness

The VET system is not effective as the elements are highly fragmented and do not focus on common goals.

Efficiency

The VET system lacks internal and external efficiency because of out-dated training delivery tools, the lack of training materials and equipment, the high unit costs of instruction and the low employment rates and earning levels of graduates.

Equity

The VET system is not equitable in that it fails to address the economic plight of women and other disadvantaged groups.

The 2005 VET policy was initiated in response to these problems and provides a basic framework to guide the activities of the ministries involved in VET provision and sets out strategic objectives for VET education and human resource management. The current policy review team was unable to find reliable and clear information on progress toward the goals described in the policy document. In fact, there does not seem to be any follow-up mechanism to deal with quantitative and qualitative issues.

The 2006 Education Policy (RGoZ, 2006) also proposes a strategy for TVET with the following features:

• Identify and diversify skills needed to satisfy labour market demands• Develop and expand vocational and technical education centres• Train educators for pre-vocational, vocational and technical education and training• Involve the community in providing apprenticeship to vocational education trainees• Increase the budget for technical and vocational education at the secondary and basic level• Establish a national vocational training agency to regulate the development of vocational education• Make vocational and technical education and training accessible to children with special needs• Introduce pre-vocational skills at the basic education cycle• Make ICT training an integral part of vocational training• Establish business and technological incubators to provide expertise and to nurture undeveloped centres• Establish multipurpose workshops for pre-vocational training in secondary schools• Establish links between the ministries responsible for commerce and industry, vocational training and the

private sector

In addition, the Zanzibar Education Development Programme 2008-2016 identifies four strategic orientations linked to TVET:

• Enhance entrepreneurial skills among youth• Design technical and vocational education and training in line with labour market demands• Provide pre-vocational training and pre-technical skills in general secondary schools as a means for introducing

and exposing young people to various career possibilities• Establish a single body responsible for coordinating, regulating, controlling, evaluating, certifying and

monitoring technical and vocational education and training.

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3.4 Governance and oversightThis sub-section analyses the governance model of the Zanzibar TVET system with a focus on understanding how institutional arrangements contribute to the goal of ensuring high-quality TVET provision.

The 2005 VET policy envisaged a tripartite Zanzibar Vocational Education and Training Council (ZVETC) to assist and advise the Minister responsible for VET on all matters relating to VET in fulfilment of the following functions: (i) to formulate and review VET policy and plans; (ii) to establish uniform occupational standards, testing procedures and certification systems for skilled workers; (iii) to ensure that VET provided is in line with needs, within the framework of VET and other national policies; (iv) to maintain and coordinate VET on a national basis; and (v) to establish and maintain a strong relationship and collaboration between ZVETC and the National Council for Technical Education (NACTE) in mainland Tanzania, and with other governing boards in the East African and Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries.

One of the biggest advances made in implementing the 2005 policy has been the establishment of the TVET regulatory body: the Vocational Training Authority (VTA). The inner structure of this entity is illustrated in the organisational schematic in Annex 2.

The VTA was established under Vocational Training Act No. 8 of 2006 to supervise vocational training through: the determination of standards of training; the assessment, evaluation and registration of VET centres; and the assessment, evaluation and approval of the capacity and skills of trainers and trainees. The VTA is also mandated by the Act to coordinate vocational training by conducting research into the employment market, preparing and formulating curricula, providing vocational training, enhancing the capacity and skills of VET trainers and leaders, confirming all certificates issued by registered vocational centres, and ensuring the availability of adequate funds for operation of the vocational training system (RGoZ, 2006, p.4-5).

The VTA Board of Directors has members from both the public and private sectors and the chairman is appointed by the president of Zanzibar. The chairman of the VTA board traditionally works with the Minister of MoEVT and the VTA Executive Director works with the Principal Secretary at MoEVT.

The Board of Directors oversees strategic development and operations within the VTA, but is also the single body with overall responsibility for policy determination and consultative and monitoring authority for TVET in Zanzibar. The Minister of Education and Vocational Training appoints the Board members and representatives are taken from the ministries and public providers involved, as well as the Zanzibar National Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture and other private sector associations. The Board meets regularly to discuss the quarterly implementation reports and plans and once yearly to discuss and authorise the annual VTA budget.

In addition to funding issues, the VTA must seek approval for changes to courses and curricula from the MoEVT. Staff is hired and salaries paid directly by the VTA, although VTCs are able to make recommendations on their staffing needs. Each centre also has an advisory committee that comprises private sector enterprises.

In sum, the TVET system governance model has changed with the establishment of the VTA and the involvement of civil society and social partners in the policy decision-making process (mainly through the VTA Board). The change is not yet accompanied by clear policy on the responsibilities and accountability of institutions and actors, or details of how the necessary performance goals, monitoring and evaluation mechanisms will operate.

3.5 Policies on articulation with schooling, post-secondary and higher education

Some policy provisions are in place on the articulation of TVET with basic education, post basic non-university education and universities. The Zanzibar Education Act of 1982 establishes that the provision of basic education is compulsory up to secondary level, and basic education in Zanzibar has been operating on a dual structure for the past few years, where the old system of ordinary secondary education sub-divided into two 2-year cycles is gradually being replaced by a full uninterrupted 4-year secondary cycle in specialised schools – a pattern that is expected to prevail in the longer term. The 1982 Education Act only allows ordinary secondary school education graduates to join vocational training

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after completion of the first cycle of secondary education when they are not eligible to progress to the second cycle. Later on, following the completion of the second cycle of ordinary secondary education (or Form IV for those from the uninterrupted specialised secondary schools), candidates may either proceed to advanced secondary education or join the VET stream, dependant on performance. Form VI graduates are also opting for VET when they are unable to secure a place at university, university college or any other higher learning institution.

The Zanzibar Education Policy of 2006 has provided for the introduction of pre-vocational skills training and pre-technical skills training within the basic education cycle. The intention is to introduce various career possibilities to young people and to promote articulation (RGoZ, 2006, p. 21-22). In more concrete terms; the Zanzibar Vocational Education and Training Policy requires VET to begin with broad basic vocational education that will facilitate horizontal and vertical articulation within the education system. In doing so, VET will form an integral part of basic general education and will take the form of exposure to science and technology. In this manner, VET programmes will allow access to other aspects and areas of education and training at all levels as they will be grounded in a solid general education. The ultimate aim is to provide opportunities for continuing education and training for skilled personnel, enabling them develop their individual and professional potential (RGoZ, 2005, p. 13-14).

VET graduates (including those from Zanzibar VET institutions with Vocational Education and Training Authority [VETA] qualifications) are being accepted onto the Ordinary Diploma programmes offered by relevant tertiary institutions upon successful completion of a 12-week upgrading course. At KIST, the minimum entry qualification for Basic Technician Certificate (level 4) is either: the CSE with a minimum pass of ‘C’ grade in Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics; students from Technical Secondary Education with a minimum pass of ‘C’ in all technical subjects and mathematics; or, a pre-entry certificate provided by KIST or; VETA certificate level 3, subject to the availability of vacancies.

The Tanzania Commission for Universities (TCU) also allows the admission of graduates into universities from TET institutions (including those in Zanzibar) with equivalent qualifications such as the FTC or Diploma (National Technical Awards [NTA] Level 6). According to the admission regulations of the State University of Zanzibar (SUZA), holders of good recognised diplomas are eligible for admission into SUZA degree courses, and those with certificates from TVET institutions are admitted into the diploma programmes. Similar rules apply to those wishing to join tertiary institutions in mainland Tanzania. For example: candidates with FTC and Ordinary Diplomas from KIST in Zanzibar are among those being admitted by arrangement to degree programmes in engineering and science faculties of universities and other degree level training institutions in the country under the equivalent qualifications agreement.

3.6 Strategic planning and evaluationThe Zanzibari TVET system basically consists of a network of organisations and institutions providing different services to different target groups, operating under the responsibility of the VTA and other ministerial authorities.

The aim of strategic planning is to set objectives and a timeframe in which to achieve them. The 2005 policy and the MKUZA II plan provide most of the framework for the Zanzibar system, but industry-training needs were not assessed within current strategic planning activities. The only base-line data available for building such strategies appears to lie in the training demand from young people, although the ministries and vocational institutions do not have a clear picture of employment trends or labour market conditions. Information on training outcomes is also usually scarce and unreliable.

The economic branches priority within TVET, as mentioned in Part 1 of this document, are not connected to the real-world human resource issues in the market, and while the Zanzibar Investment Promotion Authority (ZIPA) has completed strategic studies in some economic sectors, and has plans to carry out more, these studies are not available to TVET actors. Also, while ZIPA has a programme to attract private investment it does not have contact with the VTA and the information on new investments is not shared.

The current overall approach to strategic planning can be assessed as weak: (i) economic and skills development planning are not well integrated; (ii) there are no significant studies on labour market needs; (iii) enrolment is determined in line with proposals from TVET institution directors and demographic pressure; and (iv) new investment is poorly planned without any basis in feasibility studies focussed on labour market needs and cost-benefit analysis.

In addition, specific national evaluation policies remain undeveloped and the Zanzibar VET system lacks mechanisms to evaluate cost-benefit, quality and training outcomes. No tracer studies on post-training employment and wages are conducted.

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Current evaluation practices tend to concentrate on student achievements and ignore institutional performance without presenting any comparative assessment of institutions. Evaluation should be organised to fit with the overall organisation of the VET system and should be ‘layered’ along the same lines: national-ministerial-individual public and private vocational institutions.

The 2005 VET policy highlighted the importance of monitoring and evaluation with regard to good quality operation in all aspects of the system. The policy considered that evaluation should be undertaken on a continual basis, with provision made for the application of corrective measures where necessary. MoEVT and the VTA currently use indicators mainly based on administrative data and the situation could be improved with better use of available data such as the unit cost per student year and the dropout and repetition rates.

The absence of a coherent and systemic strategic planning and evaluation system negatively affects the capacity of policy-makers to develop a comprehensive TVET strategy. The main issues to be addressed are: gaining fuller understanding of the effectiveness and efficiency of the TVET system; greater understanding of how changes in the socio-economic situation will influence demand and supply for TVET; and seeking the most cost-effective alternatives.

3.7 TVET funding This sub-section examines the availability of financial resources for TVET and the challenges faced by Zanzibar as it seeks to expand enrolment and improve quality in a financially sustainable manner. Financing is discussed from the viewpoint of resource mobilisation, allocation and utilisation and equity impact. The sub-section closes with a discussion of the need to mobilise sustainable resources for TVET and to implement mechanisms capable of stimulating effective and innovative management practices.

3.7.1 Sources of fundingThe 2007 Vocational Training (Amendments) Act established a Vocational Training Fund managed by VTA (RGoZ, 2007, p. 7-8) and imposed the Vocational Training (Skills Development) Levy (SDL) as a major source of financing. The levy is payable monthly by all employers and is equivalent to 5 per cent of total gross monthly pay (RGoZ, 2007, p. 3).

Establishment of the SDL is a key element of current strategy and Table 9 shows the impact of this on the collection of funds over the 2008-2011 period.

Table 9: Skills Development Levy Collections 2008-2011 (TSH ‘000)

2008/2009 2009/2010 2010/2011 2011/2012

Government 2,253 3,000 3,000 Nil

Private 771 939 2,065 2,231

Total 3,024 3,939 5,065 2,231

Source: TRA, 2012

It is clear that the private sector contribution has increased substantially as the Government contribution has been phased out.

The Government recently regulated the allocation of funds collected from employers, with 60 per cent going to Higher Education. Employer representatives, speaking at the workshop held with national stakeholders at the end of the UNESCO policy review mission, stated that their sector could see no point in paying the SDL as they do not see the benefit, adding that it would be far more appropriate for the funds to be spent on apprenticeships and Vocational Training Centres.

National sources of funding are complemented by contributions from a small number of donors active in the field such as the African Development Bank (AfDB) (further details are available in Part 5 of this document).

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The Government ability to implement strategic plans in TVET largely hinges on the availability of sufficient and sustainable financial resources. From a policy perspective, the Government should concentrate on efforts to: (i) mobilise resources of the skills development fund; and (ii) improve efficient use of existing resources by seeking more cost-effective training solutions.

Discussions relating to the mobilisation of a payroll levy can be partially informed by international experience and regional benchmarks. Table 10 provides a synthesis of the advantages and limitations of such schemes, where the key advantages relate to the stability and sustainability of resources particularly in the context of insecure public budgets.

Table 10: Advantages and Limitations of Levy Systems

Advantages Limitations

Earmarked payroll levies can be viewed as ‘benefit taxation’, i.e. the beneficiaries (employers and workers) pay for the training.

Earmarked taxation does not conform well to the principles of sound public finance and weakens attempts to unify the national tax system.

Levy systems can substantially augment the resource base for training.

Payroll levies raise the cost of labour to the employer, possibly discouraging employment.

Increased training resources can, in turn, substantially increase the incidence of training.

Employers may shift the cost of the levy onto to workers in the form of lowered wages; in this case, both workers and employers bear the tax burden.

Levies can provide a steady and protected source of funding for training, particularly in the context of unstable public budgets.

Insecurity of income: under fiscal pressure, government may divert levy proceeds into general public tax revenues for non-training uses.

Levy-grant systems can encourage firms to intensify their training efforts, increase training capacity and improve training quality.

Unequal access: many firms, particularly small concerns, do not benefit from the scheme; this breeds resentment, opposition and compromises the status of training levies as ‘benefit taxation’.

Training levies collected from formal sector employers can serve as a vehicle for cross subsidisation, e.g. for smaller employers and especially for firms in the informal sector.

Inefficiency: payroll levies may constitute an over-sheltered source of funding, leading to unspent surpluses, inefficiencies and top-heavy bureaucracies.

Funds with tripartite management can forge cooperation among the social partners and facilitate formulation of appropriate training policies.

Red tape may erect high barriers for firms in accessing funds.

Funds can influence the quality of training through accreditation procedures and help to stimulate a competitive training market.

Levy-financed funds can also help correct imbalances in training access by pooling funds –e.g. for training disadvantaged segments of society, the unemployed or informal sector workers. This redistribution can be termed ‘cross-subsidisation’.

Establishment of a separate training fund account can facilitate transparency and minimise distrust between employers and the public sector.

Source: Adapted from Ziderman 2003, Johanson 2009

A key limitation highlighted in this review is that payroll levies increase the cost of labour to the employer, possibly discouraging them from creating further employment. This means that further consideration of this device is needed, especially in view of the high rate of the levy in Zanzibar and other related issues.

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3.7.2 Allocation of fundsInterviews and focus group sessions with representatives from the private sector highlighted their concern that there is no information available on the utilisation of these resources. Apparently, the funds are collected alongside the general revenue of the Tanzanian government and are thus not directly earmarked for TVET. Further discussion is also required to ensure whether a 5 per cent payroll tax for training is actually appropriate.

The 2005 VET policy envisaged establishment of an Industrial Training Fund, with the following stated objectives:

1. To ensure an adequate supply of funds and resources for appropriate training of men and women at all levels in industry, commerce and other services;

2. To share the cost of training more equitably with beneficiary firms and organisations;

3. To ensure an improvement in the quality and efficiency of industrial training;

4. To supplement government funding, as far as possible, by sharing the cost of VET with the organisations that directly benefit from it;

5. To encourage VET institutions to embark on income-generating activities to supplement their financial resources; and

6. To provide loans of equipment and tools for VET graduates, enabling them to start and run a business on the basis of what they have learned.

These objectives demonstrate that the Training Fund is expected to serve a wide range of needs and drive change on several fronts. The main provisions address financial constraints in the public sector after the Government recognised that it was unable to provide full financing for VET. This modality is capable of providing the high expenditure required to expand VET provision, introducing a sustainable source of income and sharing the costs with those enterprises ‘that directly benefit from (VET)’. Furthermore, the Fund can be used to cover VET provision but also the school-to-work transition of young people in areas including entrepreneurship.

3.7.3 Use of fundingOn the basis of our visits to VTCs, we can argue that most VET institution directors are not planning their institutional budgets themselves as this is being done for them by the VTA. Governance and funding of the VTCs is highly centralised, with the VTA taking responsibility for preparing the annual budget on the basis of input from the VTCs. The completed budget plan is vetted by MoEVT and is then sent to the Ministry of Finance for approval and the disbursement of funds. The Executive Director of the VTA controls the allocations made to each VTC.

Table 11 shows that the VTA budget for 2012/2013 is almost double that of 2011/2012, with the overall budget equal to the funds collected through the 2011/2012 levy, as shown in Table 9. However, the large increase in budget does not correlate to a high increase in student enrolment, and the truth of the matter is that more resources are now allocated to other activities such as registration and other oversight functions.

Table 11: VTA Approved Budget

YEAR BUDGET (TSH)*

2010/2011 1,200,000,000.00

2011/2012 1,200,000,000.00

2012/2013 2,200,000,000.00

*1.00 US$ = 1,613.97 TSH (September 2013)

Source: TRA, April 2011

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The policy review team had no access to the detailed VTC budgets; however the information in Table 12 shows how budget allocations for the running costs of VTCs decreased dramatically in 2011/2012 in comparison to 2010/2011. A slight increase occurred in 2012/2013, but 2010/2011 levels were not recovered, and the totals clearly show that budget allocations to VTCs only constitute around 13 per cent of the VTA budget.

Paradoxically, student numbers have increased since 2011 in a trend that can be interpreted in many ways. The figures could mean that the VTCs are operating more efficiently and that they are generating their own revenue to cover the shortfall. An alternative assumption is that the major increase may actually be exclusively related to staff salaries, as managed centrally by the VTA, and that the increased enrolment levels with no extra funding may be triggering lower quality TVET provision in the institutions concerned.

Table 12: Budget for the VTA Vocational Training Centres

YEAR MKOKOTONI VTC VITONGOJI VTC MWANAKWEREKWE VTC TOTAL (TSH)*

2010/2011 228,794,000.00 133,093,000.00 82,943,000.00 444,830,000.00

2011/2012 102,099,000.00 19,131,250.00 56,185,000.00 177,415,250.00

2012/2013 120,256,000.00 77,272,000.00 77,890,000.00 275,418,000.00

TOTAL 451,149,000.00 229,496,250.00 217,018,000.00 897,663,250.00

*1.00 US$ = 1,613.97 TSH (September 2013)

Source: TRA, 2011

Furthermore, the UNESCO mission was unable to establish the level of involvement of the local community and enterprises in budget planning and execution, although active involvement seems highly unlikely. The absence of any detailed costing for curriculum implementation is another key weakness of the present system. A clearer form of bottom-up budgeting based on teaching and learning activities, enrolments and pedagogical organisation is necessary for effective improvement of resource utilisation. This will be difficult to achieve until the VTCs are given greater autonomy under the VTA, allowing them a more flexible outlook in terms of educational processes, administrative procedures and rules on financial management.

3.7.4 Policy issuesIn November 2012, the Government decided to allocate part of the funding collected from the payroll levy to Higher Education and the remainder to TVET. This decision had an impact on the level of resources for TVET programmes and the administration structure and modality for fund allocation.

The establishment of the Skills Development Fund is a key element of the strategy currently under implementation. The Government is expected to take a key policy action regarding establishment of the Skills Development Fund (SDF) operations including criteria for funding allocation and mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating performances and impact. In this context, there are several policy options that the government might consider for effective funding.

The World Bank review of skills development in Sub-Saharan Africa (Johansen et al., 2004) defined the characteristics of effective training funds as being: transparent rules for allocation, good governance including employers and worker representatives, sound management, effective targeting instruments, regular monitoring and evaluation of training results, and attention to fiscal sustainability.

Also, in his international review of training funds, Johansen (2009) provided a useful typology of training funds: (i) pre-employment training fund; (ii) equity training fund; and (iii) enterprise training fund.

Box 3 provides international lessons learned regarding key conditions for Training Fund Success.

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Box 3: Key Conditions for Training Fund Success

Key condition Justification

Security of incomeEnsure adequate, sustainable and stable volume of training fund incomes

Autonomy and controlSecure decision-making autonomy of management board and its control over budget allocations

Stakeholder ownership Foster ownership through substantial board representation of major stakeholders, particularly employer groups, where training levies are in place

Activities (and disbursements) for national training needs only

Ensure targeting of training fund policies and disbursements according to defined national training needs and avoidance of extraneous activities

Avoidance of training provider role

Limit subsidies and preferential treatment to training centres if run (and financed) by a training fund lest they distort training markets and inhibit movement toward an open, competitive training system

Decision-making transparency Keep decision-making open and make sure the basis for fund allocation is known and understood

Source: Ziderman, 2003, p. 81

3.8 CurriculumThe new VET policy considers curriculum reform to be an important component in ensuring that the national employment and poverty reduction goals are met. The policy provided the following key features for every curriculum, stating that it must be:

1. Relevant to the needs of today’s workplace;

2. Developed in collaboration with current practitioners and employers;

3. Developed in response to identified labour market needs;

4. Articulated as learning outcomes describing the competencies required for successful job performance; and

5. Reviewed and updated at regular intervals by an Advisory Committee with representation from the private sector or industry.

The new curricula are expected to be inclusive and help ‘provide access to the diverse learners, who are most likely to pursue VET, including out-of-school youths, women and under-skilled or under-prepared adults’ (MoYEWCD, 2005, p. 17), and the curricula must support training which: (i) is modular in design; (ii) provides multiple entry and exit points; (iii) allows laddering from one level of certification to the next; (iv) is learner focused; (v) is practical in nature; (vi) is linked to a relevant certification system; and (vii) is based on clearly-stated performance standards.

The VET policy also establishes an ‘institutional home’ for curriculum design by proposing an Advisory Committee be created within the Zanzibar Vocational Education and Training Council. This Committee will deal with curriculum development, research and review, and it will fulfil the following functions: (i) propose and provide in-service training to VET Instructors; (ii) prepare, develop and review curricula; (iii) perform research on VET; (iv) provide recommendations on all curricula prior to approval by the Ministry responsible for VET; (v) monitor and evaluate the subjects and training provided by VET institutions at all levels; (vi) advise the Ministry responsible for VET on courses and training at various levels and the quality of these; and (vii) advise the Ministry responsible for VET on how to arrange examinations, standards and certification.

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The curriculum reform agenda can be summarised as follows:

1. Content – the provisions on curriculum content within the VET policy reveal an understanding of the instrumental role of curricula and an intention to move toward a more demand-driven TVET system, in which a competency-based approach and modularisation will form the key building blocks of increased flexibility within the system, increasing the potential for learners to select learning pathways better suited to their needs.

2. Finance – no mention is made of finance or the important consideration of the costs involved in delivering the curriculum in terms of facilities and infrastructure and other teaching and learning equipment and materials.

3. Evaluation – no clear provision is made for evaluation of curriculum implementation.

4. Pedagogical approach – the desired curriculum is defined as being learner-centred, but no reference is made to other innovative approaches such as the use of information technologies, work-based learning, project-based learning, etc.

3.8.1 Progress in curriculum reformThere is evidence that work has started on curriculum design within the VTA. Curriculum frameworks for areas such as carpentry and electrical installation have been already developed following the procedures required by MoEVT. These use a standardised approach and template and correspond to the approved occupational analysis.

These curriculum documents identify the learning outcomes to be achieved by all graduates and provide a recommended programme delivery sequence and estimated time periods. They also contain assessment tools for use in summative evaluation at the end of each unit.

However, there does not appear to be any coherent sustainable capacity for curriculum development and updating. More particularly, there is no apparent capacity for a coherent skills development strategy at the sector level that would then be translated into the relevant curricula, and curriculum design is currently in the hands of ad-hoc committees. Committee members are recruited from the various organisations and institutions concerned: directors of vocational institutions, representatives of enterprises and others depending on the occupation in question.

The curriculum development process involves individual workers and employers’ representatives but not the relevant employers’ organisations. The process and curriculum documents also lack important components such as analysis of labour market needs, costing of implementation and the application of evaluation and updating mechanisms. Discussion with the VTA showed that while further curriculum updating is planned, there is no clear agenda or outline for this process and current procedures make for very slow progress.

In the TVET institutions visited, the curricula used were often obsolete due to changes in the labour market and international standards, and discussions with instructors also revealed that they were poorly informed regarding VTA efforts to develop new curricula. The situation is especially bleak in some of the private TVET institutions visited. Many of the instructors appeared unaware of their changing role and the new functions they should be undertaking in this context, including the development of relevant teaching and learning tools and materials, as well as formative assessment tools.

Employability and mobility skills are a key feature for the new curricula, but while these documents do highlight the importance of soft skills such as communication and entrepreneurial skills, there is no indication of appropriate consideration of the other soft skills such as problem-solving and learning-to-learn skills in curriculum design and provision. Also, while the carpentry and electrical installation curricula include reference to communication in English and business skills, there was no indication of the implementation of these entrepreneurial skills in the TVET institutions visited. There was also no sign of an innovative teaching and learning approaches being used and no project-based approaches or enabling learner-centred environments were seen.

The curriculum design process should be continuous, as content and standards must be constantly adjusted in response to new signals from the labour market. At the same time, new curricula cannot be implemented without the full commitment and wide involvement of teachers and trainers. Policies for curriculum reform should therefore include measures to ensure stronger involvement of enterprises in the various phases and to reinforce the capacity of TVET institutions to support their teachers and trainers in order to gain their interest and adherence.

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In sum, three main problems must be resolved to improve the curriculum design and implementation process: 1) curriculum updating should take place within a clear framework and curriculum policy, consistent with those elements provided in the VET policy; 2) a sustainable capacity (institutional home) is needed for the curriculum development and updating process (an Advisory Committee is envisaged by the Government it has not yet been established); and 3) the roles of the various actors and stakeholders involved the process must be clarified and their capacities to fulfil the expected function must be enhanced. The key body in all of this with be the Advisory Committee, once it is established, and this entity must be fitted with a relevant capacity development programme.

3.8.2 Qualifications frameworkA recent UNESCO review of TVET systems in SADC region (UNESCO, 2010b) notes that TVET qualifications in Zanzibar form part of the Tanzania National Qualification Framework (TzQF) as higher education is one of the matters covered in the union process of the United Republic of Tanzania. The report indicates that the TzQF has defined 10 levels of competence (TCU, 2010, p. 34-36) and levels of qualification (e.g. certificate and diploma) differentiated on the basis of the breadth, depth and complexity of knowledge and skills covered (TCU, 2010, p. 40-45).

TVET qualifications from institutions in Zanzibar will also be registered in the national framework provided that they comply with the prescribed competency descriptors and credit guidelines at the respective VET levels offered and regulated by the VTA. All qualifications in the TzQF have a clearly defined purpose and are interrelated in a manner that allows articulation between one qualification and another through the recognition of prior learning (TCU, 2010, p. 36). The clear credit guidelines for the various levels provide the principal means of measuring and expressing learning equivalence.

A national qualifications authority responsible for tasks including the establishment and maintenance of an electronic register for all qualifications and training providers within the TzQF is anticipated. New legislation will be required for the establishment of such an Authority in Acts that should also clearly stipulate its role and responsibilities in relation to those of the National Examination Council of Tanzania, the Zanzibar VTA, VETA, NACTE, TCU and professional bodies (TCU, 2010, p. 61).

This work on the NQF has the potential to contribute to TVET reform, to provide added value that will raise the status and attractiveness of TVET qualifications and to facilitate coordination across education sectors and departments. A well-designed and implemented NQF could outline flexible, transparent and systematic learning pathways capable of providing recognition of experiential and prior learning and support the removal of boundaries between the different education sectors. It could also offer support for cross-sector links between programmes, expand access, increase learning productivity and improve the relevance of graduate supply to labour market needs.

Qualifications frameworks are useful technical instruments, but the process of developing and maintaining them can also have important knock-on effects on wider democratic processes as the modern approach to governance adopted in the creation of an NQF requires agreement to be reached with stakeholders in the place of a top-down decision imposed by a ministry or the Government.

The policy and practical dimensions of developing national and regional frameworks have been well documented at the European level by Castejon et al. (2011) and internationally by Allais (2010) in an International Labour Organization (ILO) cross-regional study of developments in 16 countries. A helpful conclusion drawn from these publications is that policymakers should not expect a single policy tool such as an NQF to accomplish great things alone, but they should view progress as dependent upon a judicious combination of policies and actions sustained and updated over time in line with the surrounding situations. An NQF can be a useful policy tool when used alongside others in just such an approach.

3.9 Teacher and instructor developmentThe 2005 VET policy placed particular importance on the recruitment of competent instructors, stating that employees with sufficient professional experience and good VET qualifications will be prioritised for employment as VET instructors following completion of teacher training courses.

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The VET policy (MoYEWCD, 2005, p.19-20) acknowledged the changing role of TVET instructors and defined a set of key functions they are expected to perform including:

1. To inform the parents/guardians/sponsors of the purposes of training and actions of the College/Centre before and after planning and implementing the programmes of the respective College/Centres;

2. To provide advice to parents/guardians/sponsors regarding those programmes and include them in order to ensure understanding and agreement;

3. To advise parents/guardians/sponsors frequently on the progress made by learners;

4. To understand and attempt to meet the demands and expectations of learners by using the required curricula;

5. To use the best training methods possible in order to upgrade the quality of training;

6. To monitor discipline in trainees and to take the necessary disciplinary actions;

7. To understand their responsibilities and implement these in accordance with the VET Act and bylaws;

8. To agree that they form part and parcel of the Nation and are therefore obliged to understand the political situation in the country and VET Policies so as to be able to follow and elucidate them better to their students;

9. To use all of the resources available in their Colleges/Centres and their surrounding environments;

10. To promote the status of their Institutions;

11. To act accordingly from all gratitude (praise) and blames (complaint) directed to them;

12. To promote and defend the status of training as a professional pursuit.

The policy indicates that in order to attract and retain high-quality teaching staff, the Government will follow a special scheme of service different to that used for public employees in general. Salaries and further details of the scheme of service will depend on the education level, training period and experience of the instructor, combined with their skill in delivering the curriculum.

However, on the visits to TVET institutions and in the analysis of Teachers profiles in VTCs, most instructors were found to have a low-level academic background, with more than half at only certificate level (see Table 13). Furthermore, most teachers have little or no industry experience and lack the means to update knowledge in their fields of expertise. The implication is that teachers need support to help them change their teaching approaches and organise the learning and assessment processes.

Table 13: Teacher Qualifications

Academic background of teacher

Number

Certificate level 40

Form VI 1

FTC 9

Diploma 15

Advanced Diploma 4

Total 69

Source: Director of KIST (personal communication, 2013)

Although the Government adopted a competency-based approach, substantial change has yet to be achieved in the pedagogical approach delivered to learners. Many factors are involved in the successful implementation of a competency-based reform and teachers need to be empowered and supported at TVET-institution level for this to be delivered adequately. In other words: even if adequate teacher training is provided, other institutional and organisational

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constraints will have key implications on the effectiveness of the teaching and learning processes and will limit efforts to place the learner at the centre of the learning process.

The competency-based and learner-centred approaches adopted at national levels require resources and teacher capacities that do not seem to be immediately available at operational levels in the TVET institutions visited by the UNESCO team (given the teacher approaches directly observed in the classrooms and workshops). Moreover, teachers did not appear to display the capacity to contribute as a team to the development process, with generally weak and disorganised contributions (exceptions to this pattern occurred in KIST where the situation was better, and on selected courses such as the VTC in carpentry one private VET institution where instructors were using relevant training materials).

3.10 Guidance and counsellingThe VET policy emphasises guidance and counselling and envisages the establishment of a special section to deliver such services on VET. The section was to deliver a two-pronged service that would: provide general advice to VET stakeholders and beneficiaries on the importance of VET for their development and for that of the nation at large; and help stakeholders make an appropriate choice of education, training and job. According to the policy, the guidance and counselling service must form an integral part of the entire VET process and must support young people and adults in making the right choices in order to manage their careers through the stages of initial education and training, accessing the labour market and changing their line of work once in the labour market.

The UNESCO team visits and discussions with national stakeholders and youth found no evidence for a well-established mechanism on information, counselling and guidance. Guidance and counselling for individuals is uncoordinated and does not yet provide relevant information for career options, prospects and alternatives. The efforts undertaken within the VTA should ideally be linked up with those of the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Labour.

There is also a need for stronger vocational guidance to underpin career education for young people and to advise the choices they make in relation to their education, training and employment. Support is needed at all of those points where major choices are made throughout the education and training career of the individual.

For Zanzibar, one particularly important element would be to encourage people into switching jobs as more opportunities arise in growing sectors such as tourism. More substantive careers guidance could also contribute to more effective employment programmes (see Part 4 for further discussion of this point).

3.11 Equity and gender mainstreaming in TVETThe Government has already embarked upon a range of initiatives to improve access and equity. The situation is critical for poor youth from both urban and rural areas and details of further disparities were shown in Section 2.2. The VET policy agenda already includes incentives, for example through the Alternative Learning and Skills Development public Centres, but data show that children from families in the bottom 25 per cent of the socioeconomic scale are over-represented in the lowest levels of achievement and highest levels of drop-outs. Children who remain out of school may face increasingly complex and compounding disadvantages that will prevent them from participating in education and make them hardly eligible for any form of formal TVET. Efforts to meet the skills development needs of out-of-school young people will have to be improved upon and scaled up as this group is at the highest risk of struggling in the labour market. Moreover, these difficulties are likely to create lasting problems with respect to social integration and social cohesion. It is therefore important to develop and support relevant and alternative programmes targeting the hardest to reach groups.

Zanzibar has made progress on gender equality and continues to formulate and implement gender-sensitive policies and programmes. For example, the Education Policy formulated in 2006 offers married students, pregnant girls and young mothers the opportunity to continue their education (RGoZ, 2010, p. 8). In addition, the construction of Alternative Learning Centres is expected to further address the issue of the low primary school completion rate among girls by supporting community sensitisation on girls’ education and skills training and ensuring 50 per cent of participants in Alternative Learning and Skills Development Centres are girls (idem).

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The 2005 VET policy also intended to develop and introduce specific strategies and programmes to counteract and eliminate the negative aspects of sex stereotyping within the socialisation process from outset of strategy implementation. The policy also made a commitment to expose male and female students to the same curriculum and to increase female access to non-traditional areas of VET and apprenticeship-style provision. The policy also expressed the intention to achieve a social impact by ensuring that society abandons the notion of VET being a domain exclusively for men (RGoZ, 2006, p.12).

In spite of the good intentions, however, the situation of women in the labour market is worsening; about 51 per cent of unemployed youth are women, while analysis of VTC statistics on enrolment shows the number of girls enrolled in TVET programmes is low compared to boys. Table 14 shows lower enrolment of girls than boys in VTCs under the VTA, although the numbers have increased from 29 per cent in 2011 to 33 per cent in 2012. Furthermore, girls are mainly enrolled in traditional trades such as tailoring and food processing. The one exception is the Mwanakwerekwe Vocational Training Centre electronic programme where only girls are enrolled at level I.

More substantial effort is required to improve access to TVET learning in traditional areas and also in new and job-oriented areas as suggested by the VET policy. In broader terms, the skills acquired through TVET programmes should position women to take up jobs in both the formal and informal sectors.

Table 14: Male and Female Enrolment in VTCs

CENTRE YEAR 2011 YEAR 2012

LEVEL I

M F TOTAL M F TOTAL

267 110 377 197 110 307

LEVEL II 131 57 188 151 73 224

LEVEL III 116 45 161

TOTAL 398 167 565 464 228 693

Source: VTA

3.12 Quality assuranceQuality assurance covers aspects related to institutions, qualifications, assessment and teaching staff. In Zanzibar, few quality assurance mechanisms are in place or being implemented. The wide variation in the types of provider generates significant challenges regarding quality assurance.

Progress is being made, however, at policy and implementation levels, with national stakeholders agreeing to the establishment of an NQF and the related quality assurance structure.

At an operational level, the VTA initiated the important task of registering vocational training providers including the three centres operating under its remit. According to VTA data, by November 2012, 17 providers were engaged in the registration process. 4 VET providers were fully registered, 10 under provisional registration and 3 in preparatory registration. This situation is being rapidly updated as the 60 VET providers made contact with the VTA for prospective registration in the same period.

The UNESCO policy review team visited several VET providers and came to the key conclusion that the quality of training varies considerably from one centre to another, while the small training centres seem to suffer from outdated curricula, poor infrastructure and low quality teaching and learning processes.

The registered VET providers visited demonstrated that a number of changes are still needed to fully implement quality assurance systems.

While the registration process offers an important opportunity that carries quality assurance benefits for providers, visits by the policy review team clearly showed that many quality assurance aspects were still in need of attention within the sector. Further implementation of the registration process may be hindered by the fact that the policy is mainly focussed

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on designing controls to direct the system through the registration process, while there is little capacity in place within the VTA to support individual institutions and managers.

Given the pressure on time and policy, the lack of financial and human resources and the poor availability of relevant expertise, there is a risk that the VTA will only be able to conduct a cursory inspection of most institutions.

Another major weakness in the institutional role of the VTA lies in the organisational structure and the lack of effective reporting systems: reports on the registration of institutions are filed only in hard copy in a format compiled for decision makers, making them difficult to process. Furthermore, these reports are not published and shared with national stakeholders, meaning that the lessons learned on proven processes for improvement, best practices and overall progress are not passed on and made available to other institutions and stakeholders.

Finally, international experiences have shown it is desirable for the accreditation body to organise external evaluation of the initial stages leading up to agreements on quality assurance and programme validation procedures for training providers. This evaluation can then be used to identify emerging policy issues for the registration and accreditation process and can provide deeper understanding of how the registration process might effectively operate.

3.13 Relevance and impactTVET programmes range from short-term training programmes of several weeks or months in length through to technical and vocational training programmes of several years in duration, including those delivered by KIST.

Many of those completing TVET courses only received training on a short-course (ranging from 3 days in rural areas to a few weeks at VTCs). However, as such training is largely not assessed or accredited, there is no mechanism for judging the quality of provision or outcomes. Short courses like these can vary in usefulness, depending on the opportunities available in the local labour market and the future plans of individuals, as well as upon the quality of provision itself.

Some of the content covered in short courses is focused upon the development of practical skills such as soap production, but even in such cases it seemed a matter of urgency for the provision to be placed within the broader TVET system so as to facilitate progression in learning, training or work. For the time being, the wide variation in course length and mode of delivery, as well as the lack of assessment and quality control, mean there is no way of knowing or monitoring precisely what skills and knowledge are expected to be gained by those completing the training. Courses such as these therefore carry no recognition and provide no clear progression path.

The formal long-course TVET programmes examined by the UNESCO team appeared to be effective, but the number of such courses was relatively small, with far lower enrolment than for the non-formal programmes.

The lack of evidence compiled on outcomes in terms of income supplementation, self-employment or employment is problematic for TVET programme decision-making and planning. Information about the post-training employment experiences of TVET course completers is either patchy or non-existent. At the micro level, there is also little follow-up information about TVET graduates. As a result, the Zanzibari TVET system lacks mechanisms to evaluate the cost-benefit, quality and outcomes of training. Tracer studies focusing on post-training employment and wages are not conducted.

Impact evaluation should be given greater consideration as this TVET policy issue affects monitoring and control of the system while also providing useful data for guiding and steering TVET policy. The relevant ministries and VTA must adhere to the principle that education and training policies should be evaluated, and that evaluation should be an integral stage of the policy-making cycle.

The Ministry of Education and VTA currently use enrolment indicators that can be improved and better used, but further indicators are needed for effective steering and management of the system. Internal effectiveness could be better monitored by using indicators such as unit cost per student per year, dropout and repetition rates and external effectiveness could be viewed via placement rates.

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3.14 The knowledge and evidence baseLack of a sound knowledge and evidence base is a major weakness in the TVET system. Information is mainly collected by the VTA with respect to implementation of the 2005 VET policy. However, there is no indication of reporting from other relevant ministries on what has been accomplished.

In addition, the policy review team were unable to access any relevant research on TVET system development. There have been no efforts by the VTA, the University of Zanzibar and KIST to cooperate in the design and implementation of a relevant research programme to enhance the knowledge and evidence base using well-established scientific approaches.

There is little documentation available on pilot projects and innovations, and these are not used in testing the quality and relevance of new TVET initiatives.

At an operational level, no actions appear to be undertaken to enhance local knowledge and to establish relationships with communities and informal sector associations. Simple instruments such as focus groups and informal meetings could be used to inform the work and improve its relevance.

3.15 ConclusionExamination of TVET system development in Zanzibar, and Government policy on TVET in particular, shows that the 2005 VET policy represents a shift in the conceptualisation of VET among State institutions. Under the 2005 Policy, the Government will retain only partial responsibility for the funding of VET, while private VET Colleges and Centres will be welcomed in to meet the increased demand for VET in Zanzibar and to help counter growing unemployment. While emphasising continued Government responsibility for access to TVET learning opportunities, the role of other stakeholders in steering and financing VET is firmly acknowledged in the policy. The analysis provided in this section also demonstrates that some of these reforms have been implemented while others are still in the design phase, for instance: while VETA has been established to improve VET coordination and regulation and to ensure that the training provided meets labour market needs, the training fund is not yet in place and further consultation and agreement is needed with Zanzibar TVET stakeholders, particularly employers, before the design phase can be completed.

All of the above leads to the conclusion that while some of these reforms are steps in the right direction; others are of questionable efficacy and relevance.

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Part 4: TVET links with the labour market

This section examines the links of TVET with the labour market and the challenges to overcome in response to labour market dynamics.

4.1 Labour Market Information SystemZanzibar has developed a Labour Market Information System (LMIS) with technical support from ILO, where two initial modules on employers and job seekers and skills development are currently in the testing phase. These will be made available at: www.zanzibaremploymentservices.go.tz. The system is expected to be demand driven in order to address the needs of users and consumers.

System users are expected to include:

• Job seekers: college graduates looking for jobs ormaking decisions on short or long-term career planning (e.g.whether to attend college for skills upgrading or longer training);

•Employers:makingdecisionspertainingtorecruitment,businessexpansion,relocation,employeeskilldevelopment;

•Educationandtraininginstitutions:inplanning,implementingandevaluatingtrainingprogrammes,curriculaandcareersguidance to meet the needs of both job seekers and employers; and

•Governmentofficialsmakingpolicydecisionsregardingthefunding,designandoperationofpublicprogrammesforemployment promotion.

The most important current source of information is the Labour Force Survey (LFS) but this is not conducted in a regular basis. The most recent source of information on the labour force is currently found within the Household Budget Survey, and the Youth Employment Programme is planning to perform a situation analysis on the informal public transport sector. A major significant challenge in obtaining clear information is that many employers are small or medium sized concerns, some of which operate informally, without proper registration.

The degree of informality raises an important issue, given that an effective information system should cover all aspects of VET and should be able to collect, process and retrieve relevant, reliable and timely data. Misinformed policymakers risk making decisions of reduced relevance when designing, steering and evaluating new policies.

The current TVET information system covers broad indicator information such as institutional enrolment data, number of graduates, etc., and currently faces five main problems:

• The data available are not broad enough in scope (covering mainly formal TVET) and are not reliable enough to provide any insight into system performance and the identification of potential areas for reform;

• The data available exist within different institutions, but no mechanism is in place to connect the various sources;• The reporting system is bottom-up only, with little feedback given to TVET institutions and staff;• A thorough and regular information flow supported by a sound infrastructure (soft and hard) is not available; and • Insufficient financial resources and human capacity are available in the VTA and the Ministry of Employment

for the completion of regular professional surveys

The UNESCO team firmly believes that all attempts to design and implement a comprehensive and systemic reform framework are doomed to failure unless the mechanisms to inform policymakers and field staff can be put into place.

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4.2 Employment and LMI servicesThe Government adopted the first Youth Employment Programme in 2007 and the programme is currently under review to accommodate emerging challenges and opportunities. Consultations have been held to assess implementation of the 2007 action plan with key stakeholders, examining the strengths, challenges and opportunities. The draft has been completed and will be presented to the Principal Secretary’s committee for employment and economic empowerment and a stakeholder meeting will be convened to validate the findings. A technical working group will be constituted to oversee review of the action plan, which is expected to extend over the four year period from 2013 to 2016.

A short term multi-sector programme has been formulated and the Government has allocated TSH 1.1 billion (approximately US$ 681,549 at September 2013) for the implementation of activities. The authorities will also be mobilising more resources from development partners to support implementation of the remaining sectors and completion of the programme as a whole.

This programme will work towards expanding opportunities for employment in the formal sector (with a particular focus on youth) as well as promoting the business environment, entrepreneurship culture and the capabilities needed to encourage self-employment and formal jobs (see Box 4).

The programme includes skills development components covering entrepreneurship training and the creation of the Youth Livestock Farmers Field School (YLFFS) in four districts of Zanzibar: Micheweni and Mkoani in Pemba, North A and South in Unguja. A total of sixteen YLFFS will be established in four selected districts, eight delivering training in poultry farming and the other eight in goat rearing. The Field Schools will be used as a satellite farm concentrating on animal husbandry management skills training such as livestock breeding, nutrition, animal disease control and record keeping.

Box 4: Youth Employment Programme

Overall objective

To contribute to the creation of employment opportunities for young men and women in Zanzibar.

Specific Objectives

1. To enhance access to financial facilities and business support services;

2. To encourage and promote savings, investments and the meaningful participation of youth in economic activities;

3. To enhance youth employability in the formal sectors,

4. To build the capacity of youth to engage in deep sea fishing.

More specifically, the programme aims to attain the following objectives:

5. To promote entrepreneurship culture and capabilities;

6. To foster and support business ventures;

7. To encourage the development of competitive and effective businesses and enterprises;

8. To encourage business activities in processing and farming.

9. To engage youth in promotion of links between tourism and other sectors of employment

Source: Youth Employment Project Document, RGoZ

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The programme will cover the entire area of Zanzibar, urban and rural, and will focus on the following components: (i) youth economic empowerment; (ii) smallholder livestock development; (iii) off-shore fishing; (iv) rosella production; (v) solid waste management, and; (vi) promotion of the tourism industry.

Considerable effort has been expended in development of the programme but its feasibility is limited by the absence of clear guidelines on policy, institutions and operational implications.

From a labour market standpoint, the lack of reference to occupations and the skills required for development of the sectors mentioned in the document constitute a flaw in programme design. For example, the proposed measures give no indication of the level of qualifications or skills required, or the degree to which wages or revenues will have an influence on job creation. A case in point can be seen in the solid waste management which might require both high-end skills as well as semi-skilled workers.

The Youth Employment Programme is at risk due to its failure to deal with the skills development supply side. For instance, the skills development component will not succeed if the quality assurance modalities are not in place to ensure quality and relevant training for youth.

Finally, the Government is providing few openings for other stakeholders to become involved in the steering, management and implementation of the programme. The proposed form of operation favours ministries and a central planning mechanism with very little, if any, place for the private sector, civil society and youth organisations.

4.3 Public-private partnershipThe 2005 VET policy highlights the importance of public-private partnership and a specific policy statement proposed that ‘effective and continuing interaction between VET and productive work shall be fostered in the area of production of materials, business and services’ (RGoZ, 2006, p.15). The Policy also included provision regarding the partnership between VET institutions, employers’ associations and workers’ organisations stating that ‘fruitful cooperation with VET Colleges/Centres and Associations of Employers and Trades Unions shall be fostered and shall work together to develop and decide and Trades Unions may be associated in sponsoring, investing and developing VET activities within and outside VET Colleges/Centres’ (RGoZ, 2006, p.10).

The VET policy envisages the establishment of a special coordination unit to link the VET Institutions with industries, business and other services.

The UNESCO policy review team considers that the VET system in Zanzibar still faces significant challenges in linking VET system with the productive sector. The field visits clearly demonstrated that TVET institutions offer a restricted range of traditional training programmes in the areas of car mechanics, plumbing, basic electricity and carpentry.

Centralised management of the VTCs only compounds this situation, with decisions being made centrally on curricula and human resources, with no provision for advisory boards to incorporate key representatives of the productive sector into the governance of VET institutions.

During the UNESCO missions, several focus group discussions were conducted with employers representing both the formal and informal sectors, with the main focus being the partnership between the TVET institutions and enterprises.

Formal sector enterprises participating in the focus groups discussion confirmed that they connect with TVET providers on ad-hoc basis in the design and development of programmes and through internship, while informal sector representatives expressed concerns over their relationship with TVET providers and the public sector, stating that they face greater challenges in establishing partnerships and benefiting from support.

There is an evident need to build further employer engagement and trust, strengthening the role of the Chamber of Commerce and associations in the informal sector and increasing their institutional capacity to participate in TVET.

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4.4 Work-place learning: apprenticeship, continuing training and earn and learn programmes

4.4.1 ApprenticeshipZanzibar has a long tradition of skill development through informal apprenticeships and this pathway represents the main training route for sectors and occupations such as: the arts and crafts,1 the construction sector, retail trade, garment making and repair, tailoring and automobile maintenance. Informal apprenticeships typically take place entirely within the workplace and do not involve any complementary classroom-based education or training; they exist without any form of formal contract and lead to no qualification. No data is available on the extent of informal apprenticeships.

The Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar has developed a policy document entitled the Zanzibar Apprenticeship Training Policy based on research and extensive stakeholder consultation within the five regions of the country. The Apprenticeship Training Policy for Zanzibar is driven by the two different but related agendas of poverty reduction and competitiveness.

The main objective of this policy is to promote and regulate the provision of apprenticeships and prepare the apprentices for productive employment irrespective of gender.

The specific objectives of the Apprenticeship Training Policy are to:

a. Improve the quality and quantity of apprentices, including the establishment of a National Apprenticeship Scheme and Apprenticeship Sector Skills Committees;

b. Utilise fully the facilities available in the private and informal sector for imparting practical training with a view to meeting the requirement for skilled workers;

c. Contribute significantly to the solving of unemployment and poverty-related issues through a flexible and high-quality apprenticeship system;

d. Improve the quality of apprenticeship training through the provision of better training facilities and equipment;

e. Improve utilisation of the country’s natural and human resources through the provision of quality apprenticeship training in accordance with anticipated technological and socio-economic needs;

f. Ensure the availability of a sufficient number of adequately qualified and experienced training providers (institutional and workplace) to meet the labour market needs;

g. Establish a tripartite institution to coordinate, harmonise and supervise the administration of apprenticeship training;

h. Ensure equal opportunities for female and male apprentices including their participation in non-traditional trades; and

i. Ensure the social security fund is available to employees.

The combination of work and learning in the classroom and the workplace has been considered as an attractive option for policy makers concerned with employment, education, vocational training and youth transitions for 30 years or more in both developed and developing economies. Sweet (2010) noted that apprenticeship has been particularly attractive to policy makers as a way of combining the workplace and the classroom, and the German dual system has been of enduring interest in the past and present. The four main arguments for policies combining work and learning for youth are that these are particularly strong on: improved pathways to adulthood; delivering economic and labour market benefits; improved pedagogy; and reduced costs and increased capacity within the vocational education system.

1 The preservation of traditional skills and knowledge is a key aspect of sustainability in the fields of traditional crafts and performing arts. Apprenticeships are the single most important means by which to preserve such traditional knowledge and skills.

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Implementation of the apprenticeship policy must be realistic about opportunities for growth and the likely constraints on this. It must consider the realities of the labour market in Zanzibar and particularly the large informal sector in the economy, where traditional low-quality informal apprenticeships are the dominant form of skill formation for young people.

More importantly, if the apprenticeship model is to be expanded, appropriate regulatory, financing and governance systems must be in place to involve employers and trade unions in the planning and operation of apprenticeships. Employer involvement in planning and managing apprenticeship is more likely to occur when they feel their voices are being respected and when they can have a real influence upon the decision-making process. The Government and national stakeholders in Zanzibar have shown their awareness of this and they are moving toward putting this into effect. It is important to remain aware that quality assurance can be ensured through appropriate involvement of the TVET institutions providing the complementary education and training.

Several issues remain for discussion before moving ahead with the apprenticeship policy. These include the expected contribution of the Vocational Training Fund, the regulatory role of VTA and the role of VTCs. The apprenticeship policy mentions the need for intermediary bodies to be established to participate in programme governance, funding, management and quality assurance and the policy considers establishment of an Apprenticeship Training Fund.

The apprenticeship policy illustrates the importance of achieving coherent TVET systems in which work-based learning programmes (particularly apprenticeships) complement other types of TVET such as full-time programmes. In Zanzibar, as in other countries, achieving coherence in the relationship between apprenticeship and other forms of TVET is at risk due to the division of responsibility for programmes between different ministries (the VTA and the Ministry of Social Welfare, Youth, Women and Child Development, for instance), the multiplicity of intermediary bodies and the absence of national strategies to plan for improved coherence and the co-ordinating mechanisms for these.

4.4.2 Continuing trainingIt is difficult to provide a clear picture of continuing training programmes and participation, as there is simply no data available on continuing training programmes. The focus group organised with enterprises from the formal and informal sectors identified the four main issues as being under-investment, access, quality and certification.

According to the formal enterprises interviewed (telecoms sector, media, tourism), big private and public enterprises currently undertake in-service training for workers. When asked if their own company organised in-service training for staff, one public enterprise active in mechanical engineering, mentioned that the company provides its own training on technical issues and that recruits also attend training on the mainland organised by the Government. The representative from the tourism company also stated that their company provides staff training, while the telecoms company reported a training unit in the human resources department that uses both internal and external training in areas such as customer care. Some enterprises, including the telecoms company, have benefited from international cooperation.

All participants noted that training and increased knowledge has no impact on the scope for promotion or career management in general.

The focus group discussions show that participation in continuing training is still unequal, favouring those with higher levels of educational attainment and those employed in larger firms.

The link between human resource development and enterprise competitiveness is not yet understood by all enterprises. For both the Government and enterprises, the levy is not yet viewed as a mechanism to encourage greater participation and to promote training for low-skilled adults, and there is little sign of any ‘sector-based’ training activities being established in partnership with employers’ associations. There is, nevertheless, a growing interest in the levy and the new training fund to serve continuing training for workers, at least within the Chamber of Commerce.

Only 10 per cent of SMEs in Zanzibar reported a formal training programme, compared to 26 per cent in Dar es Salaam and 31 per cent elsewhere on the mainland. When enterprises without formal programmes were asked why this was, the most common responses were that training was not affordable or that in-house informal training was adequate for their needs.

This attitude among employers means greater emphasis is needed on financial incentives and policies to open up training opportunities for low-skilled individuals and SMEs; an element that constitutes a major policy challenge. Another key policy issue, given that enterprises favour in-house informal training, is the establishment of a time scale (and

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resource base) for the creation of a credible structure to certificate learning and competence outcomes for the continued training of individuals. Both the future development of an NQF and the establishment of a training fund will contribute to the development of a lifelong learning perspective. An emphasis on the recognition of prior learning and skills acquired in the workplace should also complement the vision.

4.5 Earn and learn programmesThe field visits and the various focus groups discussions have very strongly demonstrated the wide range of earn and learn programmes and their apparent positive results. In all of these initiatives, the combination of short on-the-job learning and the ability to earn a wage make them particularly suitable for young people and adults from poor families in both rural and urban areas, and for women wishing to transit from household activities to a more productive and market-based pursuit. At present, these programmes are local and community-based and Government involvement is not critical. Discussions with the CEO of the leading, well-established funding institution, the ‘Women Entrepreneurship Development Trust Fund’ (see Box 5) has mentioned critical issues, including:

1. A lack of entrepreneurial skills among clients;

2. A lack of funding to train clients. In fact, according to the lending system adopted by the trust fund a critical action before the loan is a session of two weeks (14 days) compulsory pre-loan training. However, according to WEDTF CEO this training is no longer conducted;

3. Competing micro-finance institutions;

4. Poor Government involvement and a lack of formal communication with public institutions;

5. Absence of a supporting system for clients including clearing-house function, technical assistance and training.

Box 5: The Women Entrepreneurship Development Trust Fund (WEDTF)

The Women Entrepreneurship Development Trust Fund (WEDTF) started as a Credit Scheme for Productive Activities of Women in Zanzibar in 1991. The Project was supported by UNIFEM and implemented under the Ministry of Women and Children in collaboration with ILO who provided technical assistance. DANIDA provided seed money for the revolving loan fund.

The aims of the project are to develop the entrepreneurial and technical skills of women and to facilitate access to the productive resources that will enable them to undertake sustainable income-generating activities. The project also aims to disseminate any useful information for the well-being of its members.

The initial Project ended in 1995 and the WEDTF was reconstituted as an NGO responsible for implementing further rounds of loans on a sustainable basis with little support from DANIDA. WEDTF has been supported by the African Development Foundation (ADF) in capacity-building and the expansion of its Revolving Loan Fund from 1997 to 2006.

There are 4126 members of WEDTF, and the lending system process adopted is based on the Grameen Bank model of group lending, where the organisation provides loans to members who have formed project groups. The lending stage occurs as the culmination of several other activities undertaken to identify suitable potential members.

The WEDTF starts by identifying several potential beneficiary communities, conducting a Community Needs Assessment (CNA) in each village or community. When approaching the community for the CNA, the Credit and Training Officers will gain permission to proceed from community leaders and other influential people in the area. The results of the CNA show the economic status of the people, the allocation of infrastructure and other relevant details. These findings will determine the degree of need and importance of rendering loan services in the area.

The initial stage is followed by mobilisation meetings in which WEDTF staff encourage members of the community to become involved in the organisation's activities. One week later, the WEDTF staff return to the respective location to provide guidance to willing participants. These people are then registered as members of the organisation before undertaking a two-week (14 days) session of compulsory pre-loan training before the loan process begins. Once the loan application procedure has been completed, the forms are submitted for approval and, finally, the loans are disbursed.

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As the small groups form and register their business names, they are merged into a larger group known as a Centre. A Centre will contain between four and twelve small groups within the same geographically manageable area and one village or community may have several different Centres. The small groups of any Centre should live within close proximity of each other.

The Centre is then asked to form a committee of seven members with representatives from among the group leaders of the smaller groups. Each groups and Centre must develop their own bylaws as monitoring tools.

The completed Centres have a membership of between 20 and 100 members, and the WEDTF has established seventy-seven member-managed loan collection and disbursement Centres so far.

4.6 ConclusionThis section began by stressing the weak link between the TVET system and the labour market, before examining various mechanisms to identify skills needs and enhance school-to-work transition and concluding that there is a strong need to develop frameworks for public-private partnerships and a deeper understanding of labour market dynamics. These frameworks must take into account and better reflect the institutional and resource realities of Zanzibar as well as the diversity of labour market segments (public, formal and informal, rural and urban).

The key challenges faced by the TVET system lie in the identification and anticipation of the skills needs of the labour market, and there are several unresolved challenges on this score despite the efforts to collect more correct and reliable information on skills needs. The main challenges are:

1. Regular household surveys such as the LFS are only undertaken at long intervals which limit their relevance.

2. Implementation of employer surveys are hampered by the fact that many employers are small or medium-sized concerns and some operate informally, without proper registration. Thus it is not always possible to correctly identify the population of employers and to find respondents from the group. The use of intermediary bodies such as employers’ associations and the organisation of focus groups might be the best way to conduct employers’ surveys.

3. While the importance of labour market information has been widely accepted, there is limited awareness among national policymakers of the need to collect more detailed skills needs data through employers’ surveys. The absence of strong public-private partnerships reduces the capacity to conduct cost-effective employers’ surveys and to ensure that they buy-in to the process.

4. There are insufficient financial resources and human capacity for regular professional surveys, meaning that increased investment is needed in this area through the mobilisation of national and international resources. It is important that any external support should be considered supplementary to internal national support, and not be views as a replacement for this.

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Part 5: Donor support to TVET

Donor support for the TVET system is limited in scope and volume and is scattered in an uncoordinated manner.

The most significant project is the Alternative Learning and Skills Development Programme (ALSD II) funded by the AfDB.

There is also a range of other small down-stream projects that aim to support youth or rural communities in developing productive activities such as the Pro-Poor Tourism in Zanzibar project, co-financed by the European Union and Fondazione Cariplo, and implemented by the Italian NGO ACRA together with Hands Across Borders and the Labayka Development Fund.

5.1 African Development Bank (AfDB)ALSD II builds on the achievements of a first project (ALSD I). The new project, with a budget of UA 21.02 million, includes the two components of:

• Alternative Learning and Skills Development Centres: including the construction of three alternative learning centres and two skills development centres along with the construction and equipment of training facilities for the Zanzibar Institute of Tourism Development and KIST. The project will provide technical assistance for curriculum development and work on public-private partnerships for skills development as well as community sensitisation drives on skills development, alternative learning and social issues (reproductive health issues, HIV/AIDS, drug abuse and the environment).

• Capacity Building and Institutional Development Services: covering the provision of staff training and institutional support to MoEVT, VTA, ZIToD, KIST and the Zanzibar Commission for Labour and the training of civil society organisations involved with youth skills training and youth employment issues.

In conclusion, there appears to be very little evidence of coordination and pooled funding amongst TVET donors in aid for cooperation and a key cause of this may lie in the sheer diversity of the TVET sector in Zanzibar. A second cause may be the vast gap between the approaches adopted by big donors such as the AfDB, aimed at system-wide changes, and those of the small, down-stream, community-based and individual international NGOs or bilateral donors, aimed at very particular TVET initiatives. It can therefore be stated that there is probably room for stronger cooperative interventions at country level.

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Part 6: Conclusions, recommendations and points for further discussion

This section makes specific recommendations where relevant, and draws together clear conclusions. It also highlights some areas where continuing policy discussions could be fruitful and where further consideration could be of benefit.

6.1 Progress achieved and remaining challengesThis report highlights the importance of changes already taking place in TVET in Zanzibar, most notably the creation of relevant institutions such as the VTA, the definition of a set of priorities and programmes, such as the apprenticeship and employment programmes, and the mobilisation of sustainable financial resources particularly through the Training Fund.

Key findingsTen principal findings emerge from the policy review as guides to future TVET policy development in Zanzibar. These findings are clustered around the four points of VET policy relevance and currency, unresolved tensions, unfinished actions and new policy challenges:

VET Policy relevance and currency

1. The 2005 VET policy took important steps toward improving the equity, quality and relevance of TVET programmes, but the initial diagnosis and design overlooked important factors such as: the competing challenges of improving quality and relevance and addressing equity; incentives to promote stakeholder involvement in the VET policy implementation process (particularly among employers); and the costing of VET policy and reform. In addition, there have been delays in the implementation of some components and, more importantly, questions are being asked about the relevance of some elements of TVET that fail to address the overarching educational and economic needs of youths and adults. These are unable to prepare future workers for participation in the development of Zanzibar and do little to alleviate the pressure on the labour market. Incomplete initial assessment coupled with continued piecemeal implementation, partly due to the lack of resources, ultimately mean that while VET policy can still be considered a key framework for the entire TVET system, it is now time for a thorough review.

Unresolved tensions

2. A key consideration for TVET policy in Zanzibar must be the creation of a single, uniform TVET system. The current situation consists of a set of different sub-systems differentiated by the level of formality, links between education and the world of work and the characteristics of each target group. A variety of providers deliver non-formal training programmes to youth and adults, ranging from public alternative education centres, through private providers and NGOs, to small businesses offering informal apprenticeships and community-based learning. While this scenario is common to many countries, the key issues in Zanzibar are the absence of a clear approach for the TVET sector as a unit, and the fact that the various parts of the system are not linked together under a single institutional system.

3. The evidence presented on specific problems for each type of programme suggests it may be more productive for policy to focus on factors to transform TVET and make better links with the diverse needs of the labour market and individuals, rather than concentrating on the expansion of formal provision through VTCs alone. Apprenticeships

62

provide a case in point of how TVET systems can effectively transform and expand skills development through partnering with enterprises and use of the workplace, enhancing the quality of learning in workplace settings.

Unfinished actions

4. VTA efforts to establish a registry of TVET institutions form an important step toward the harmonisation and upgrading of programmes. However, the registration process also requires a programme of support to help address key quality issues and to ensure that TVET institutions are engaged in a quality improvement process. This registration can be seen as an initial step in the right direction towards the establishment of an overall quality control mechanism.

5. Access to TVET learning is limited for many potential learners, and fewer women than men are able to gain access to the sector. The effort to expand TVET enrolment in VTCs has been insufficient. Furthermore, other programmes including NGO-led programmes, informal apprenticeships and community-based programmes are not well covered, and little information is available regarding their quality and relevance.

6. Strategic planning and evaluation functions are at an early stage of development, and very few tools are available or used by national stakeholders. This has resulted in delays in the implementation of several programmes and in an absence of coordination among the various initiatives. Also, while some input data is being collected and analysed, this does not contribute toward an evidence-based analytical system capable of assessing the relevance and outcomes of TVET. There is a critical need for information-based and other related research and analyses to appropriately underpin the expansion and diversification of TVET.

7. Public-Private Partnerships and finance provide powerful levers for promoting reforms. The 2005 VET policy indicates that Government and national stakeholders are aware of this. It is now time for the relevant frameworks to be put into place in order to achieve this.

The new policy challenges

8. It is clear that TVET policies cannot be conducted in isolation from those of other sectors. TVET policies must have a conceptual basis that extends further than that of a simple remedy policy for earlier failure in education, and they must be articulated with the MKUZA II goals and with emerging employment policy. In addition, the success of a relevant TVET strategy is dependent upon the active participation of the productive sector.

9. Support to skills development in the informal sector and rural areas is essential to poverty alleviation. This review has found that there is a strong demand for TVET services among business associations, community groups and other stakeholders, but they remain beyond the reach of TVET institutions and other public services and institutions. The needs of this large section of the population must be addressed urgently by the Government and national stakeholders.

10. It is equally important that a quality TVET option is offered to students within the formal education system. This will require the provision of quality programmes and teachers, and the creation of pathways between the general, technical and VET streams in order to attract students and allow progress towards university and non-university tertiary education. The NQF is an important element that can be used to achieve this.

Preliminary policy recommendationsFurther policy dialogue and a deeper level of TVET development are required on top of current efforts and the set of policy recommendations given in the coming pages provide a broad agenda of possible reforms that will require further prioritisation, trade-offs and debate.

Moving forward with policy review and reform

A common concern of TVET policymakers, professionals, the private sector and civil society representatives in Zanzibar is the desire to expand and enhance the relevance of TVET. In addition, as evidenced by the focus given to skills in MKUZA II and in the newly adopted employment and apprenticeship policies, there is a general agreement on the important role of TVET in enhanced youth employment, increased enterprise competitiveness and reduced poverty. The Government request to UNESCO for facilitation of a policy review and the significant increase in the VTA budget provide

63

further evidence that the Government views the TVET sector as an important area. The current common vision and momentum mean that present conditions are conducive to TVET policy review and reform.

The Government could move forward with the policy review in various complementary ways. While policy coordination must be addressed immediately and relevant structures put into place, an inter-sector ad-hoc committee could be established in the interim period. In parallel, policy debate on the key building blocks of TVET policy, including funding and certification, can now get underway, building on the progress made in the training fund and NQF. Finally, a unifying reform framework could be established on the basis of this policy review and other major stocktaking exercises.

Several key enabling factors must be put into place to support the reform process, ranging from participation and consensus-building, planning (including costing) and management factors, to policy support (including donors) and the establishment of a conceptual framework. These factors cover: (i) timing and support from national stakeholders and the international community; (ii) establishment of a unifying reform framework; (iii) adoption of a project-based management approach; and, (iv) assessment of the costs of the reform and its implications on public financing.

Moving toward a more demand-driven TVET system

A basic theme running through this report is that too many potential learners are denied TVET opportunities, while TVET is often far from the mark when it comes to providing those skills required in the labour market. Some of the major tasks facing TVET policymakers in Zanzibar are therefore to ensure that: (i) diversification exists, so that various kinds of TVET provision is developed to address the needs of the different constituencies; (ii) actions are undertaken to make sure that TVET is aligned with the needs of employers and learners; and (iii) relevant institutional arrangements and provisions are in place to respond to those needs.

A wide range of programmes are needed to provide the skills needed for a wide selection of economic activities, ranging from subsistence activities, through ‘traditional’ crafts and trades, to the formal sector including international hospitality companies and tourism operators.

Building a strong supporting system for TVET learning, employment and entrepreneurship opportunities

A key source of concern for policymakers has arisen from deeper stakeholder analysis. This shows that the institutional setting the policymakers considered to be relevant is not in practice sufficient to cover the wide range of communities and target groups.

Young people and adults in Zanzibar face an opportunity gap – a divide between those who have access to skills development opportunities and to success, and those who do not. Closing this opportunity gap is one of the most important and urgent actions the Government can take to secure the future of the youth sector and of the economy as a whole.

There is currently no relevant institution or mechanism designed and in place to support relevant actors in creating an enabling environment for TVET learning, entrepreneurship and jobs for young people and adults. Such an institution would act as a ‘one stop shop’ for supporting advances in the sector.

A ‘one stop shop’ for workforce development also has the potential to easily provide the Government and other stakeholders with advice on jobs and skills development opportunities, micro-finance information and other services.

Furthermore, the Government could move its main focus from the provision of training to the creation of an enabling environment where TVET and skills development could take place, including: (i) provision of a clear policy framework regarding regulations and incentives; (ii) support for actions to improve the quality and relevance of TVET and skills development programmes through curriculum development, trainer training and skills assessment; and, (iii) provision of relevant and reliable information for prospective learners or job-seekers to help them make informed choices.

Building Stronger Public-Private Partnership

It is clear from the meetings with individual employers, focus group discussions and informal sector associations that private sector intervention will generally not happen without facilitation by another party - be it the Government, donor or NGO. Employers are more likely to engage in skills development at any level if the benefits of doing so are apparent, the

64

business environment is favourable and there is minimal bureaucracy attached. Their engagement is most effective if it takes place early in the planning process and results from a proactive role for the sector.

Hence, there is a need to build up stronger public-private partnership within the TVET system and to engage with individual employers through initiatives such as workplace learning, internships and apprenticeships. There is also a need to strengthen the role of the Chamber of Commerce and informal sector employer associations and to build up their institutional capacity for participation in TVET.

Linking registration with the upgrading of TVET institutions

The report commends the progress made in registering and assuring the quality of TVET institutions. Registration requirements provide a policy lever for upgrading TVET institutions and improving quality and relevance. A competitive funding system can serve as a tool to direct the development of TVET institutions (public and private) in response to demand from enterprises and individuals. This also has consequences that change registration requirements from input requirements such as courses, teachers and infrastructure, to output requirements, namely learning and labour market outcomes measured in multiple ways including placements, wages and self-employment rates.

Ensure an effective and sustainable funding system

In order for all young people and adults to benefit from TVET, there will need to be a ‘dramatic increase’ in the funds available, particularly given the likely shift towards the lifelong dimension of TVET funding in the near future.

The national training fund envisaged will be established to co-ordinate and expand training provision. However, such a fund must have a clear purpose and procedures established, with annually agreed targets and transparent management and decision-making practices. Strong involvement of the private sector, both formal and informal, is important in ensuring credibility and maintaining a good public perception. Further policy discussion is also required into the most appropriate type of fund and the most suitable location for this, while capacity-building for fund management and governance will also be needed.

Given the importance of this fund, further policy discussion should be accompanied by national and international technical assistance.

Further strengthen the engines of change of the TVET system

There are two key institutions that can act as engines of change for TVET in Zanzibar: the VTA as a regulatory body, and KIST as the sole institution responsible for TVET instructor training.

There has been an appreciable attempt to reinforce the regulatory and oversight roles of the VTA, including areas such as quality assurance and funding. However, there is a need to align the VTA mandate with the needs of TVET institutions and providers and the other challenges to be addressed by the reform such as: qualifications and certifications issues, strategic planning and evaluation, funding, etc. KIST is clearly fairly well occupied in the provision of initial TVET at post-secondary level, but its role in instructor training and upgrading and the introduction of new pedagogical approaches for teaching, learning and assessment could also be enhanced. KIST’s actions through the African Development Project are signalling better connections with developments in TVET institutions and should improve the quality of instructors in a way that offers potential positive implications for the quality of the teaching and learning process.

Ensure Gender mainstreaming in TVET

The promotion of gender equality should be an overarching priority for the Government in order to reverse discriminatory practices and promote gender equality and education and training as a basic human right. Under the principle of the four-As (devised by the former UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education Katarina Tomasevski) TVET must be available, accessible, acceptable and adaptable to the needs of all learners, especially girls.

For this to be achieved, the following areas must be considered:

• TVET laws and policies: effective legislation and policies and their implementation are important for creating an enabling environment for the institutionalisation and sustainability of gender equality and for promoting TVET learning among girls and women;

• Teaching and learning approaches: it is important to develop and improve the capacity of those responsible

65

for the development and implementation of laws and policies as, at present, these are not necessarily translated into action;

• The learning environment: TVET institutions and other learning settings must be safe for all students and teachers, particularly females – who are the most vulnerable group – and these must cater to the specific needs of the learners, particularly the needs of girls;

• Reaching those hardest to reach: special attention must be given to potential students from the most vulnerable groups as they are less likely to enrol in education and are more likely to drop out of school. Girls, especially adolescent girls, those from extremely poor socio-economic backgrounds and living in remote rural areas, face additional barriers that prevent them from attending school.

The progress achieved on the back of the 2005 TVET Policy is acknowledged, but given its limitations, combined with the changing landscape outlined in the previous paragraph, UNESCO strongly feels a new TVET Policy should be created and implemented to strengthen the relevance of the TVET system. This new TVET policy must be based on the creation of an enabling environment that allows for the participation of public and private partners; an initiative that will require the definition of incentives and regulations in order to promote movement toward a new institutional setup. The Policy Review undertaken by UNESCO has identified new directions for reform and a set of priorities to be used in initiating this process.

66

Annexes

Annex 1: S

tructure of Ed

ucation (1999)

67

Annex 2: S

tructure of VTA

VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  AUTHORITY  

ORGANIZATION  STRUCTURE  

 

Board  of  Directors  

Execu1ve  Director  

Director  of  Human  Resource  

Management  and  Administra1on  

Research  and  Stats1cs  Division    

(I)  

Planning  Division  

(II)  

Human  Resource  Management  Division    

(I)  

Director  of  Voca1onal  Training  

Registra1on  Division  

(IV)  

Training  Division  

(V)  

Regional  Voca1onal  Training  Centres  

(VIII)  

Curriculum  Development  Examina1ons  

(VII)  

Voca1onal  Training  Centres  

(IX)  

Internal  Auditor  

Inspectorate  Division  

(VII)    

Procurement  and  Managemnet  Unit   Chief  Accountant  

Accountant    

Cashier  

Voca1onaal  Training  Coordinator,  Pemba  

 (I  -­‐  X)  

Accountant  

Cashier  

Board  CommiJees  

68

Annex 3: Data on public and private institutions providing TVET and their enrolment figures

Vocational Training Centres and Skills Specialisation

S/N CENTRE NAMEALLOCATION

(DISTRICT)PROGRAMME SPECIALISATION

NO. OF STUDENTS

1. Adult Computer Training Centre

Chake Chake Computer 14

2. Adult Education Urban Tailoring, food production 70

3. The African Utalii College Urban Hotel management, Computer Secretarial, Languages

113

4. Al Noor ComputerInstitute

West Computer Not available

5. Amani Computer Training Centre

Urban Computer Not available

6. Classic Computer Technology

Computer 52

7. Danaos Training Centre Steward, Deck, Fire safety, Engine room, Language

28

8. Dar es salaam College of Hotel and Business Studies (Chake Branch)

Chake Chake Public Relation, Business Management , Hotel and Tourism , Accounting

102

9. Dar es salaam College of Hotel and Business Studies (Vuga)

Urban Public Relation, Business Management , Hotel and Tourism, Accounting

136

10. Dar es salaam College of Hotel and Business Studies (Wete branch)

Wete Public Relation, Business Management , Hotel and Tourism and Accounting

86

11. Dhow CountriesMusic Academy

Urban Music Instruments, Singing, Dancing /and Drama

Not available

12. Dole Urban Information Technology, Travel and Tourism Not available

13. The East African Utalii College

Hotel management and languages Not available

14. Electro tech and InformationSystems Centre

West Computer, drivingSchool, English Language

Not available

15. Hamoup Hotel and Catering Institute

Urban Hotel Management, English and French, Entrepreneurship

15

16. Infrotech Computer Centre Urban Computer and Language 25

17. Jambiani TourismTraining Institute

South Hotel management, Computer, Entrepreneurship, Mathematics and Languages

Not available

69

S/N CENTRE NAMEALLOCATION

(DISTRICT)PROGRAMME SPECIALISATION

NO. OF STUDENTS

18. Karume Instituteof Science and Technology (KIST)

West Electronics,Computer application,,Carpentry and joinery, masonry,Plumbing, Civil draftsmanship, welding, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, ICT,Automotive

276

19. Kibweni universal Centre West Computer Not available

20. Kilimani Driving School Driving Not available

21. Koinonia Education Centre West Language, Computer, Music 30

22. Melisha Computer Centre West Computer Not available

23. MicrowavesComputer services

Urban Computer Not available

24. Mikunguni Technical School Urban Not available

25. Millennium Computer and Service Centre

Urban Computer Not available

26. Mkokotoni Vocational Training Centre

North A Auto Mechanic, Electronics, Tailoring, Food & Beverage Services, Food Production, Painting decoration, Masonry, Plumbing, Welding &Fabrication, Carpentry & Joinery Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

353

27. Modern polytechnic Urban Computer, Radio and TV Maintenance 245

28. Modern tailoringAcademy

UrbanTailoring

231

29. Mtafurahi Tailoring Micheweni Tailoring 27

30. Mubarak Al-mazrui West Electrical ,Plumbing, Computer and Tailoring Not available

31. Mwanakwerekwe Training Centre

West Carpentry & Joinery, Electronics, Tailoring, ICT

92

32. Mwenge Community Centre

Urban Electrical, Tailoring, computer, first aid Not available

33. Noah Bakery Training Centre

West Food Production

34. Omar Ibn Al Khatwaab Technical Centre

West Computer, Tailoring,Carpentry ,Fibre boat, Arabic and English languages , Islamic Religion

Not available

35. Polisi Vocational Centre Urban Electrical, Masonry , Driving Not available

36. Radiant Universal StudyCentre (Ruscentre)

Urban Computer, Driving School Not available

37. Residence Zanzibar House Keeping, Front Office, Food Production, Food and Beverage Services, Hospitality Industry

30

38. Smart Institute of Business College

Business, Marketing, Accounting, Computer. 40

39. St.Clement Institute of Technology

Urban Midwifery Not available

70

S/N CENTRE NAMEALLOCATION

(DISTRICT)PROGRAMME SPECIALISATION

NO. OF STUDENTS

40. Standard Information Technology

Urban Computer, English, Business Management, Administration and Accounts.

Not available

41. The Standard Information Technology Institute

Urban Computer, Law, Finance Management, Economics

81

42. Stone Town Youth Centre Urban Computer, Language 153

43. Streeter’s ClassComputer Technology

Urban Computer Not available

44. Taalim Computer Centre Wete Computer 6

45. Taveta ComputerCentre

West Computer Not available

46. The Tech 2000Training Centre

Urban Computer Not available

47. Tip Top Training Centre Micheweni Computer 9

48. Traditional Taarab Musical Academy.

Urban Music Instruments, Singing, Dancing and Drama

Not available

49. Tujiendeleze Ushonaji na Ufumaji

Wete Tailoring and Knitting Patterns 18

50. Upendo Urban Tailoring 25

51. Vitongoji Vocational Training Centre Chake Chake

Tailoring, Food Production, Electrical Installation, Masonry, Plumbing, Welding &Fabrication

275

52. Wete Vijana Centre Wete English language, Tailoring, Computer 138

53. Women Muslim Academy West Arabic Language, Islamic religion, English, Tailoring, Computer, Cookery.

250

54. Zala FoundationEducation Centre

South Computer, Wildlife Conservation,Resources Management, Zoo Keeping , Park Rangers Guides,Marine Biology, Animal Husbandry

Not available

55. Zanzibar Adventure School South Culture Not available

56.. Zanzibar Business Education and Consultancy service

Chake Chake Accounting, Human Resource, Mass Communication, Procurement and supply

Not available

57. Zanzibar Business School Urban Business Not available

58. Zanzibar Coastal Products

Computer Not available

59. Zanzibar College of Business & Management

West ComputerEnglish language.Preparatory training on:Numeracy and statistics, Quantitative methods for Managers, Accounting, Business management and Administration, Customer service, Information technology, Economics for business

Not available

60. Zanzibar Commercial Institute

Urban Business, Computer 30

71

S/N CENTRE NAMEALLOCATION

(DISTRICT)PROGRAMME SPECIALISATION

NO. OF STUDENTS

61. Zanzibar Information College

Urban Computer maintenance, Electronics, Commerce

20

62. Zanzibar Institute of Technology

Urban Computer Not available

63. Zanzibar Mosquito Net West Tailoring Not available

64. Zanzibar Professional Training College

West Public Relations, Customer Care, Mass communication, Economics, Human Resource, Marketing.

40

65. Zanzibar School of Health

Urban Laboratory Assistant,Counselling on HIV/AIDS

Not available

66. Zanzibar School of Nursing West Nursing Not available

67. Zanzibar Technology College

Urban Computer Not available

Annex 4: Student enrolment in Technical Secondary Schools

NAME OF SCHOOLENROLMENT

BOYS GIRLS TOTAL

1. Mikunguni Technical Secondary School 104 57 161

2. Kengeja Technical Secondary School 123 40 163

TOTAL 227 97 324

Annex 5: Student enrolment in VTCsYear: 2011

CENTRE MKOKOTONI VITONGOJI MWANAKWEREKWE

LEVEL I

M F TOTAL M F TOTAL M F TOTAL

146 53 199 86 40 126 35 17 52

LEVEL II 70 35 105 61 22 83 - - -

TOTAL 216 88 304 147 62 209 35 17 52

Year: 2012CENTRE MKOKOTONI VITONGOJI MWANAKWEREKWE

LEVEL I

M F TOTAL M F TOTAL M F TOTAL

89 42 131 80 41 121 28 27 55

LEVEL II 70 34 104 56 27 83 25 12 37

LEVEL III 62 28 90 54 17 71 - - -

TOTAL 221 104 325 190 85 275 53 39 92

72

Enrolment details in VTA centres – 2012

i) Mkokotoni Vocational Training Centre

OCCUPATIONLEVEL I LEVEL II LEVEL III

TOTALM F Total M F Total M F Total

Electronics 8 5 13 12 8 20 9 3 12 45

Automotive 15 - 15 22 - 22 19 - 19 56

Refrigeration/Air con. 16 1 17 16 1 17 8 2 10 44

Tailoring - 18 18 - 21 21 - 12 12 51

Painting and Decoration 3 5 8 1 3 4 1 11 12 24

Welding 7 - 7 1 - 1 10 - 10 18

Carpentry 6 - 6 9 - 9 5 - 5 20

Food Production 12 8 20 - - - - - - 20

Food & Beverage Services 5 5 10 - - - - - - 10

Masonry 5 - 5 1 1 2 4 - 4 11

Plumbing 10 - 10 8 - 8 8 - 8 26

TOTAL 89 42 131 70 34 104 62 28 90 325

ii) Vitongoji Vocational Training Centre

OCCUPATIONLEVEL I LEVEL II LEVEL III

TOTALM F Total M F Total M F Total

Electrical installation 24 6 30 20 3 23 12 2 14 67

Tailoring 4 26 30 1 15 16 2 9 11 57

Masonry 18 0 18 13 0 13 12 2 14 45

Plumbing 15 5 20 11 2 13 18 1 19 52

Food Production 9 4 13 1 7 8 1 3 4 25

Welding 10 0 10 10 0 10 9 0 9 29

TOTAL 80 41 121 56 27 83 54 17 71 275

iii) Mwanakwerekwe Vocational Training Centre

OCCUPATIONLEVEL I LEVEL II

TOTALM F Total M F Total

Tailoring 12 04 16 - 08 08 24

Electronics - 14 14 13 01 14 28

ICT 15 05 20 06 03 09 29

Carpentry - 05 05 06 - 06 11

TOTAL 27 28 55 25 12 37 92

73

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UNESCO 7 place Fontenoy

75007 Paris

Education Sector Division for Education Strategies and Capacity Building

Section for Technical and Vocational Education and Training

info.tvet@unesco.org

Policy ReviewTVET

Zanzibar

Developing skills through the expansion of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is increasingly seen as critical to reducing poverty, economic recovery and sustainable development worldwide. UNESCO Member States are increasingly dedicating policy attention to responding to the demand for relevant skills in the world of work, which has led to TVET becoming one of the four priority

areas in UNESCO’s education programme.

UNESCO conducts TVET policy reviews to establish policy dialogues with the governments concerned on future developments in the sector in order to align it with the labour market and individual needs. This TVET system policy review for Zanzibar comes in response to an invitation from the Government of Zanzibar to conduct a review of its TVET system in order to support their actions in developing relevant policies.

Zanzibar has experienced rapid economic expansion in recent years, but high population growth has moderated any positive impact on poverty alleviation. With accelerating urbanisation and fertility rates among the highest in the world, Zanzibar will be facing a significant demand for education in the coming decades, coupled with large influxes of new entrants to the labour force. Meeting the changing skills needs of a growing economy with diversified demand means that developing an education and TVET system suited to the acquisition and adaptation of skills in line with evolving economic and social needs is necessary.

Although the Government of Zanzibar has shown to be making progress towards universal primary education, high dropout rates suggest that the education system offers little in the way of TVET opportunities. The Government of Zanzibar adopted the 2005 Vocational Education and Training (VET) policy, which has provided a key framework for the TVET system. However, what the report indicates is that the 2005 policy is in need of review in order to be fully relevant to overarching educational and economic needs.

With particular focus on reform the 2005 VET policy; this policy review identifies policy options and strategies for enhancing TVET relevance, efficiency and effectiveness in Zanzibar. The report highlights important developments in the TVET sector already underway, as well as key enabling factors needed to be in place to support the reform process.

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