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Running head: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Design 1

Professional Development Design Matters in Successful Implementation:

A Literature Review

Mary Kudla

LIU Post

Author Note

This literature review was prepared for EDD 1000: Pro-Seminar in the Philosophy of Science

and Interdisciplinary Approaches to Educational Studies taught by Professor Jan Hammond, Ed

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Design 2

Abstract

Professional development is important for many careers because it provides benefits to the

individual, profession, and community. All individuals benefit when skills are consistently

evolving with society. This is especially significant considering the high paced advancement of

technology which requires professionals to keep up with changing standards of practice and

trends. While many agree that professional development is valuable, executing the concept

seems to convey mixed results. America has long been a pioneer of industrialization, however,

the factory approach of one size fits all to professional development may not be the solution. In

the past thirty years, two educational reforms A Nation at Risk and No Child Left behind have

prompted school districts across America to evaluate teacher professional development. If key

factors are considered when teacher professional development is designed, then the professional

development may be more successful. This then would, in theory, produce a more successful

student population.

Keywords: teacher, professional development, job-imbedded design models


Professional Development Design Matters in Successful Implementation:

A Literature Review

While some might argue that professional development in the education field goes as far

back as Socrates and his efforts to teach Plato proper questioning techniques, it is perhaps more

effective to focus on the more recent history. The subject of teacher professional development is

massive and has been analyzed by many researchers in the hopes of examining the relationship

between high-quality teachers and student achievement. It is this connection to student

achievement that has propelled teacher professional development into the larger discussion of

raising standards and improving test scores. Included in this review are scholarly articles that

attempt to paint a picture of philosophical, sociological, and fiscal perspectives in regards to

teacher professional development. Through the examination of extant literature, key factors in

professional development (PD) design emerge as well as potential successful implementation.

Educator Perceptions Towards Professional Development

Before any other factors are considered, the connection between teacher perception and

professional development must be addressed. Understanding what a person or group favors is a


significant factor. If perceptions are favorable, then individuals are more likely to be open to

discovering and adapting new ideas. Essentially, PD must involve all participants at take-off

and not midflight. Teacher buy-in and in-put are directly responsible for changing negative

attitudes toward professional development (Hall 2007:63). When teachers perceive that their

opinions matter it directly impact the extent to which they believe PD can expand their

knowledge and skills and improves student learning. Teacher interest also correlates to teacher

attention span. Attentive teachers equal productive training (Hall 2007: 93). If teachers can

collaborate in the design of their own training, then their attitude will be more productive,

positive, and the work itself has more potential.

An Argument Against Traditional Design

The traditional paradigm for teacher learning was one that included single day

workshops. Theses training sessions were typically taught by an outside consultant on a staff

development or superintendent conference day. Despite the fact that this approach is considered

ineffective, more than 91 percent of teachers still participated in workshop-style training sessions

during a school year (Wei, Darling-Hammond, Andree, Richardson, and Orphanos, 2009). This

is a direct contradiction of research that shows single day workshops do not provide the intensity

or duration necessary to have long-standing effects on the teacher or student population (Wei et

al. 2009). Nine studies that met What Works Clearinghouse strict evidence standards show that

PD must include a minimum of 14 hours for there to be a positive and significant impact (Yoon,

Duncan, Lee and Shapley 2007). While most teachers receive PD training, the design itself has

not changed to meet what known research has shown as essential to effective PD.

Making Ineffective Design Effective


In order to reform ineffective programs, effective design must reflect four basic

principles: support during implementation, active learning, modeling and specificity in regards to

grade level/content area (Gulamhussein 2013). When these key factors are addressed in the

design itself, researchers and practitioners alike believe that a framework can be established with

specific goals in mind. Hard data is hard to come by, but there exists a large pool of qualitative

research studies that promote innovative and popular models of PD. The three most popular

designs are inquiry teams, coaching and lesson study. Each of these design types is entrenched

in the concept of job-embedded professional learning (Wei et al. 2009). Job-embedded design,

unlike traditional workshops, involves professional development that is an ongoing part of daily

practice.

Inquiry Teams Professional Development Design Model

Collaboration through teacher teams that meet regularly to plan and review is one strong

approach to job-embedded PD design. Known as professional learning communities, teachers

pool together their collective talents. At Adlai E. Stevenson High School in Illinois, school starts

35 minutes later each day. This built-in daily PD time allows teachers to gather, check in,

problem solve and prepare (Honawar 2008). The OECD, one of the world’s largest and most

reliable sources of comparable statistical, economic and social data, sponsors The Teacher

Professional Learning and Development Best Evidence Synthesis Iteration report. This weighty

discovery of the inquiry approach includes an important concept map, which effectively

summarizes the central focus of a team design model (See figure 1). Effective professional

communities analyzed the impact of teaching through questions about student learning. This

focus was assisted by grounding discussions in artifacts representing student learning (Timperley,

Wilson, Barrar, and Fung 2007). If school districts want teachers to adapt better teaching


practices, the professional development needs to utilize teachers as experts. Doing so provides

ongoing support for implementation.

Coaching Professional Development Design Model

Many schools have embraced collaborative PD through the coaching design method. A

report to the Carnegie Corporation of New York researchers reviewed coaching methods as a

smaller scale teacher training initiative that could provide in-class support to teachers (Schen,

Rao, and Dobles, 2005). Teacher coaches involved creating a new position within the school as

an intermediary between administrators and teachers. Most often coaches have a specialty area,

such as literacy that can cross multiple disciplines. Together coach and teacher can utilize co-

teaching opportunities and provide guided practice (Schen, Rao and Dobles, 2005:10). As on-

site professional development, coaching design models ensure that implantation and practice can

be supported.

Lesson Study Professional Development Design Model

Lesson study is another job-imbedded professional development design in which teachers

collaboratively plan, execute, observe, and discuss lessons in the classroom. This Japanese

professional development tool has been attributed to Japan’s high PISA (Programme for

International Student Assessment) rating and as a result has garnered much attention in the

education field. When teachers study and conduct demonstration lessons, they think about the

fundamental objectives and goals of what they are teaching (Friedman 2005: 63). Lesson study

flips the traditional teacher activities that often involve lesson planning in isolation. Reflecting

on Japanese teacher habits in comparison to the United States teacher habits revealed that this is

a potential challenge to lesson study (see figure 2). While initially documenting striking

differences, another important consideration emerges. If teachers can re-structure their approach,


modeling through lesson study can be an opening component of effective and engaging

professional development.

Technology and Teacher Training

There exists much literature that recommends the heavy use of technology in teacher

training. Political policy itself has historically reflected the push to create 21st-century ready

teachers and students. The Ready to Teach Program, an initiative that was seen as an answer to

the increased demand for ongoing teacher training, had its roots in grants given by the U.S.

Department of Education to provide technology-based instructional development (Gill 2011:14).

The backing of government funding bolstered technology-based PD, creating a virtual school of

online coursework, research studies, and collaborative sites that provided a free standing

professional development option for teachers (Gill 2011:122).

When teachers become more comfortable with innovation, they will become more

confident in using technology in the classroom, thus creating a technology-infused curriculum

(Johnson 2016:22). The choice of the word infuse is a clear indicator that technology is not a

separate factor injected into PD, instead, it should be steeped into practice in an organic fashion.

Infusing technology into teacher PD is another way of creating job-embedded opportunities.

Dysert and Wekerle’s conceptual model visual maps an effective technology-based professional

development approach (see figure 3). The core of this approach is that in order for technology

to be a beneficial factor in teacher PD, it must be a revisited and expanded upon throughout a

teacher’s career. This way teachers can become technologically literate in the tools and use them

for higher level thinking assignments in class.

Money Matters


Ideological conversations about best practices and effective design, must also consider

the funding available and needed. Teacher training is expensive and no professional

development design can succeed without carefully considering finances. These specifically

include six cost elements: 1) teacher time, 2) training and coaching, 3) administration, 4)

materials, equipment and facilities, 5) travel and transportation, and 6) tuition and conference

fees” (Odden et. al 2002: 64). Understanding the finances behind implementation, in a slower

economy that the media often proposes as in crisis, is clearly a significant consideration. While

job-imbedded professional development clearly involves the cost of teacher time, fundamentally

it is a more cost-effective approach. This is due to the fact that two of the cost elements can be

eliminated.

Many schools have, a difficult time finding room in their budget to create PD opportunities,

which makes new studies that encourage teacher performance through a financial reward based

system seem contradictory. The tradition of private sector bonuses linked to performance

reviews may be an adaptable design for education. The Teacher Incentive Fund (TIF) provides

grants to high-performing teachers, rewarding educators for improving students’ achievement.

(Hanley, C., Wellington, A., Hallgren, K., Speroni C, Herrmann M., Glazerman, S., and

Constantine, J. 2015). Some suggest that the cost of the rewards would be less in the long run

because higher performance would reduce costs in other areas. While the potential of a merit-

based system that would pay teachers for professional development and student performance

seems like a potential solution, the practice is highly controversial and research has shown mixed

results. These mixed findings were possibly an indicator that before considering financial

motivators, time and funds would be better spent directly towards PD programs.

Closing Thoughts


The number of factors to consider when designing teacher professional development is

akin to considering iceberg formation. Just as ninety percent of the iceberg remains hidden from

eyesight beneath the water, factors influencing PD design are seemingly endless. All parties

agree on the importance of continuing teacher professional development, yet none seem to know

with certainty the best course of action. What emerges from a survey of previous studies is that

successful professional development is a scaffolding approach of resources, collaboration,

feedback, and constant refinement. While studies can provide markers, indicators, and causal

relationships, they are not meant to be considered in isolation.

Impact on Practitioners

The impact on practitioners is significant, because of the dual role of researcher and

teacher. In both roles, there is a vested interest in discovering what works with teacher

professional development. The research which exists shows that professional development

availability is not the problem. The difficulty is that traditional professional development design

is ineffective. Short-term professional development that takes place over a single conference day

is useless. Professional development that incorporates teacher input at the design level has better

results. Job-embedded design is a highly successful approach and existing studies do a good job

giving policy makers a starting point for evaluating and planning their own professional

development.

Limitations of the Studies

The bulk of the research regarding teacher professional development design is qualitative

in nature. This type of data cannot be measured in a traditional sense and that is perhaps where

the biggest gap exists. Professional development best practices need quantitative data. Hard

numbers can provide measurable evidence of a concrete connection between student


achievement and teacher professional development. Most studies seem to assume the connection

and establish it as an accepted paradigm. As a result, a majority of studies rely heavily on

teacher interviews and observations. Generally, hard evidence based practices are absent in the

research surrounding teacher professional development design.

Future Research

Ultimately, the largest part of further study must focus on student achievement as a

reflection of effective of teacher professional development. The impetus for such a focus is

based on the public concern that student performance should be competitive in comparison to

other parts of the world. There are however other questions to consider. Can teacher

professional development blend aspects of each type of job-imbedded design? Would a

longitudinal study of qualitative research over an extended time period provide the credibility of

hard numbers? Does it matter if the professional development is mandated or voluntary? Finally,

why don’t teacher professional development studies incorporate student or parent perceptions?

References

Dysart, S., & Weckerle, C. (2015). Professional development in higher education: A model for

meaningful technology integration. Journal of Information Technology Education:

Innovations in Practice, 14, 255-265 Retrieved from

http://www.jite.org/documents/Vol14/JITEv14IIPp255-265Dysart2106.pdf

Friedman, R. E. (2005). An examination of lesson study as a teaching tool in united states public

schools (Order No. 3166440). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

(305384804). Retrieved from

http://0-search.proquest.com.liucat.lib.liu.edu/docview/305384804?accountid=12142


Gill, W. E. (2011). The Ready to Teach Program: A Federal Initiative in Support of

Online

Courses for Teachers. Online Submission.

Gulamhussein, Allison. (2013, September). Teaching the teachers effective professional

development in an era of high-stakes accountability. The Center for Public Education.

Retrieved from http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/Main-Menu/Staffingstudents/

Teaching-the-Teachers-Effective-Professional-Development-in-an-Era-of-High-Stakes-

Accountability/Teaching-the-Teachers-Full-Report.pdf

Hall, L. (2007). Inspiration, implementation, and impact: examining teacher professional

development in successful school districts (Order No. 3269648). Available from ProQuest

Dissertations & Theses Global. (304718970). Retrieved from http://0-

search.proquest.com.liucat.lib.liu.edu/docview/304718970?accountid=12142

Hanley,C., Wellington, A., Hallgren, K., Speroni C, Herrmann M, Glazerman, S., and

Constantine, J (2015). Evaluation of the teacher incentive fund: implementation and

impacts of pay-for-performance after two years (NCEE 2015-4020). Washington, DC:

National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education

Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

Honawar, V. (2008, April 01). 'Working smarter by working together. Education Week.

Retrieved from http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2008/04/02/31plc_ep.h27.html

Johnson, J. L. (2016). Technology related professional development models in independent

school settings (Order No. 10103314). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses

Global. (1787145880). Retrieved from

http://0-search.proquest.com.liucat.lib.liu.edu/docview/1787145880?accountid=12142


Odden, A., Arichibald, S., Fermanich, M., & Gallagher, H.A. (2002). A Cost framework for

professional development. Journal of Education Finance, 28 (1), 51-74

Schen, M., Rao S., and Dobles R. (2005). Coaches in the high school classroom. Retrieved from

Carnegie Corporation of New York by Annenberg Institute for School Reform:

http://annenberginstitute.org/sites/default/files/product/267/files/Coaches_SNS.pdf

Timperley, H., Wilson, A., Barrar, H., & Fung, I. (2007). Teacher professional learning and

development best ... Retrieved October 29, 2016, from

http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/48727127.pdf

Wei, R. C., Darling-Hammond, L., Andree, A., Richardson, N., and Orphanos, S. (2009).

Professional learning in the learning profession: A status report on teacher development

in the United States and abroad. Dallas, TX. National Staff Development Council.

Yoon, K. S., Duncan, T., Lee, S. W.-Y., Scarloss, B., & Shapley, K. (2007). Reviewing the

evidence on how teacher professional development affects student achievement (Issues

& Answers Report, REL 2007–No. 033). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation

and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest. Retrieved from

http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs


Figure 1 Inquiry Teams Concept Map

Figure 1. Summary of Teacher Team Inquiry Path (Timperley, Wilson, Barrar, and Fung 2007:2)


Figure 2 Teacher Activities Triangle

Figure 2 Comparing Teacher Activities in the United States and Japan (Friedman 2005: 149).

Figure 3 Conceptual Model Visual

Figure 3. Breakdown of Technology PD training continuum (Dysert &Wekerle 2015: 5)

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