Developmental Neuroscience Methods Direct vs. indirect
assessment Brain Development Pre- and Postnatal development
Differential growth rates and individual differences (see Shaw et
al., 2006) Activity-dependent differentiation Functional effects of
specialization Plasticity
Slide 4
Direct Assessments EEG/ERP Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (fMRI) Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) Indirect
Assessments Marker Tasks
Slide 5
Slide 6
Baseline/Resting EEG Ongoing EEG-- summation of all electrical
activity occurring in the brain at a given moment Frequency
distributions -- indicators of state (sleep/wake) and trait
(arousal) marker
Slide 7
EEG data is time- locked to a specific stimulus or event and
then averaged Averaging allows filtering of unrelated/background
EEG
Slide 8
Slide 9
Activity-dependent specialization Face Processing example N170
to faces becomes specialized for upright faces by 12 months; prior
to that elicited to inverted and upright (de Haan et al., 2002;
Halit et al., 2003)
Slide 10
Uses magnet and radio waves to image bodily tissues Structural
Functional
Slide 11
Slide 12
IQ group and change in cortical thickness (Shaw et al.,
2006)
Slide 13
Superior minus average intelligence groups (Shaw et al.,
2006)
Slide 14
More distributed pattern of activation in children vs. adults
during face matching task (functional) From Passarotti et al.,
2003
Slide 15
Right fronto-insular cortex (rFIC) is a component of a salience
network (SN) mediating interactions between large-scale brain
networks involved in externally oriented attention [central
executive network (CEN)] and internally oriented cognition [default
mode network (DMN)]. The causal influence of the rFIC on nodes of
the SN and CEN was greater in adults than children.
Slide 16
Figure 2. Determination of task-responsive network and
hierarchical partitioning to form three levels of functional
hierarchy. (A) We determine group-level GLM random effects
contrasts of lexical minus fixation trials (task- positive) and
fixation minus lexical trials (task- negative) to define two
functional systems encompassing task-responsive brain regions.
Voxels within these regions are coarse-grained to 66666 mm3 ROIs to
form the highest-resolution units of our network, called nodes.
Time series of hemodynamic response are extracted from these nodes
and are pairwise cross-correlated to define a weighted connectivity
matrix for all subjects. (B) Schematic illustration and dendrogram
of hierarchical partitioning. All nodes are pooled together and
iteratively partitioned using modularity-based clustering
algorithms to form a hierarchical network of relations. Each group
on a higher level is partitioned to yield subgroups on the next
lower level. Three levels of partitioning are defined, with various
numbers of groups on each level: 2 systems, 9 blocks, and 33
clusters. (C) Matrix of Fishers Z-transformed correlation
coefficients averaged over all subjects. Nodes are ordered to keep
clusters, blocks, and systems contiguous. Colored bars and
dendrogram along the sides indicate group membership of nodes at
all three levels and correspond to those from (B). (D)
Categorization of link type depends on the lowest level at which
the two associated nodes are classified in the same group; i.e.
same cluster (cluster links, brown), same block but different
clusters (block links, tan), same system but different blocks
(system links, beige), or between systems (cross links, white).
Colored bars illustrate the partition of nodes into different
groups at the three levels, similar to (B) and (C), but the
specific groupings in (D) are conceptual only and do not represent
real data doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059204.g002
Slide 17
Infrared light illuminates tissue and activity below skin
Wavelengths of light scatter in tissue and are absorbed differently
depending on oxygen level (= activity)
Slide 18
Figure 4. A single near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) channel
over prefrontal cortex from Nakano et al. (2009) showing decreasing
activations in 3 blocks of 5 trials to a speech category, following
by recovery to a novel speech category (orange) in the 4th block
but not to a no-change control group (green). Hb haemoglobin. From
Prefrontal Cortical Involvement in Young Infants Analysis of
Novelty, by T. Nakano, H. Watanabe, F. Homae, and G. Taga, 2009,
Cerebral Cortex, 19, pp. 455463. Copyright 2009 by permission of
Oxford University Press.
Increasing differentiation of areas of cortex Infant is born
during height of brain development Tertiary sulci develop from 1
month before to 12 months after birth
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YXTA0lUBZW4http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YXTA0lUBZW4
1:20-2:19
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=86NDMfxU4ZUhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=86NDMfxU4ZU
structural view
Slide 22
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lGLexQR9xGs neurulationstraight
forward 1:49https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lGLexQR9xGs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cu4lQYbOzzY detailed, no
wordshttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cu4lQYbOzzY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00CAAK0jjf4
didactichttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00CAAK0jjf4
Slide 23
From Bloom, Nelson, & Lazerson, 2001
Slide 24
Many elements of initial neural migration specified genetically
By 20 weeks gestation, 100 billion neurons! n 50,000 500,000
neurons per minute Neurons follow path of glial cells outward from
ventricles To form 6 layers of cortex
General pattern of brain development genetically specified By
20 weeks, most neurons present 3rd - 16th prenatal week most
crucial At 8 weeks, head is half of fetus But specific connections
depend on generic growth processes and sensory-motor stimulation
Trillions of connections still forming Trimming of these
connections is developmental task
Slide 27
Once in place, synapses are overproduced somewhat haphazardly 1
year old has 150% more synapses than adult These are pruned
(diminish) during development Repetition of sensory-motor patterns
create more specific set of experience dependent synaptic
linkages
Slide 28
Like a growing forest
Slide 29
Does increasingc omplexity asymptote?
Slide 30
15,000 synapses for every cortical neuron 1.8 million per
second in first 2 years! Cerebral cortex triples in thickness in 1
st year Sensory and motor neurons must extend to correct brain are
and form correct synapses This quantity of information cannot be
genetically micro-managed Edelman
Slide 31
Postnatal Development Differentiation of cerebral cortex
Synaptic density growth curves
Slide 32
See Thompson- Schill et al. (2009) for interesting Discussion
of benefits of Protracted PFC development
Slide 33
(Pascalis, de Haan, & Nelson, 2002)
Slide 34
Extent of plasticity depends on age at injury, site of damage,
skill area Early injury ( < 6 mos) to either hemisphere affects
language competence, rapid improvements by 5 yrs with compensatory
activation (Stiles et al., 2001) Greater spatial impairments with
effects differing on hemispheric damage Sleeper effects
Slide 35
- Examples of functional regressions Face perception (Pascalis,
de Haan, & Nelson, 2002) By 9 months lose ability to
discriminate monkey faces as well as human faces Phonemic
discrimination (Werker & Polka, 1993) Young infants
discriminate all phonetic contrasts (regardless of native language)
but only up until 12 months of age
Slide 36
Differentiation of Cerebral Cortex Reflection of innate
modularity or experience- dependent processes? Adults tend to have
similar functions housed within same regions of cortex Does this
imply innateness? Likely a combination of both Generic large scale
regions with functional specialization dependent on activity
Slide 37
Similar patterns of cortical expansion between infants and
adults as between macaque monkeys and adults The pattern of human
evolutionary expansion is remarkably similar to the pattern of
human postnatal expansion (Hill et al., 2010) Bell
Slide 38
Postnatal cortical surface expansion. Hill J et al. PNAS
2010;107:13135-13140 2010 by National Academy of Sciences Fig. 1.
Postnatal cortical surface expansion. Maps of postnatal cortical
surface expansion on the standard mesh average inflated term infant
surfaces for both hemispheres, shown in lateral (A), medial (B),
dorsal (C), and ventral (D) views. The absolute expansion scale
indicates how many times larger the surface area of a given region
is in adulthood relative to that regions area at term. The relative
expansion scale indicates the difference in proportion of total
surface area at term birth and adulthood.
Slide 39
(A) Map of regional evolutionary cortical expansion between an
adult macaque and the average human adult PALS-B12 atlas (right
hemisphere only). Evolution expansion scale indicates how many
times larger the surface area is in humans relative to the
corresponding area in the macaque. (B) Map of human postnatal
cortical expansion (combined left and right hemispheres) for
comparison. (C) Correlation map comparing postnatal to evolutionary
cortical surface expansion.
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