PSYCHOLOGY 100PSYCHOLOGY 100

January 29/30, 2003January 29/30, 2003

“Lifespan Development”“Lifespan Development”Chapter 11 (continued)Chapter 11 (continued)

Kathy Pichora-FullerKathy Pichora-Fuller

What Happens as a Person Ages?What Happens as a Person Ages?

Positive Change?Positive Change?

Negative Change?Negative Change?

When is a Person “Old(er)”?When is a Person “Old(er)”?

Continuity vs StagesContinuity vs Stages

Figure 11.7Figure 11.7Stage theories of development. Some theories view development as a Stage theories of development. Some theories view development as a relatively continuous process, albeit not as smooth and perfectly linear as relatively continuous process, albeit not as smooth and perfectly linear as depicted on the left. In contrast, stage theories assume that development is depicted on the left. In contrast, stage theories assume that development is marked by major discontinuities (as shown on the right) that bring marked by major discontinuities (as shown on the right) that bring fundamental, qualitative changes in capabilities or characteristic behavior.fundamental, qualitative changes in capabilities or characteristic behavior.

AdolescenceAdolescence Developmental period ~ ages 12 to 18Developmental period ~ ages 12 to 18 Many biological, perceptual, cognitive, Many biological, perceptual, cognitive,

social, and personality traits change from social, and personality traits change from childlike to adultlikechildlike to adultlike

PubertyPuberty Developmental period between the ages of 9 Developmental period between the ages of 9

and 17 when the individual experiences and 17 when the individual experiences significant biological changes that result in significant biological changes that result in developing secondary sex characteristics and developing secondary sex characteristics and reaching sexual maturityreaching sexual maturity

Erikson’s Ages of Human Erikson’s Ages of Human DevelopmentDevelopment

Young AdulthoodYoung Adulthood Young adults come to terms with the importance of companionship Young adults come to terms with the importance of companionship

and connection and connection ““Shall I share my life with another person or live alone?”Shall I share my life with another person or live alone?”

The central conflict of early adulthood is that of The central conflict of early adulthood is that of intimacy intimacy versus isolationversus isolation..

But consider an example framed in terms of continuity: But consider an example framed in terms of continuity: Teen suicide in aboriginals (Chandler)Teen suicide in aboriginals (Chandler)

http://www.cheos.ubc.ca/Urban/healthChandler.htmlhttp://www.cheos.ubc.ca/Urban/healthChandler.html

Young AdulthoodYoung Adulthood The beginning of young adulthood is marked by The beginning of young adulthood is marked by

commitments in the areas of career, commitments in the areas of career, relationships and lifestyle.relationships and lifestyle.

Knowledge gatheringKnowledge gathering

Expanding social networks/rolesExpanding social networks/roles

The quality of the period known as middle age is The quality of the period known as middle age is influenced in part by the outcome of these early influenced in part by the outcome of these early adult decisions.adult decisions.

Erikson’s Ages of Human Erikson’s Ages of Human DevelopmentDevelopment

Middle AgeMiddle Age In the middle of adulthood one wants to feel In the middle of adulthood one wants to feel

that they have contributed to society in some that they have contributed to society in some meaningful way –meaningful way –• ““Will I add anything of real value to the world as a Will I add anything of real value to the world as a

worker and a parent?”worker and a parent?”

The conflict of middle adulthood is the The conflict of middle adulthood is the desire to achieve desire to achieve generativity versus generativity versus stagnationstagnation..

Middle AdulthoodMiddle Adulthood

The Midlife TransitionThe Midlife Transition The “midlife crisis” is a dramatic expression The “midlife crisis” is a dramatic expression

for the reassessment of personal goals that for the reassessment of personal goals that many people experience.many people experience.• A more low-key and accurate term is A more low-key and accurate term is midlife midlife

transitiontransition..• Some abandon unrealistic goals set in youth and Some abandon unrealistic goals set in youth and

set new goals that fit with their current lives.set new goals that fit with their current lives.• Others try to fulfill some of those early life dreams, Others try to fulfill some of those early life dreams,

or set new ones.or set new ones.

Erikson’s Ages of Human Erikson’s Ages of Human DevelopmentDevelopment

Old AgeOld Age The reality that time is growing short forces The reality that time is growing short forces

people to face a final and profound question –people to face a final and profound question –• ““Have I lived a full and meaningful life, or have I Have I lived a full and meaningful life, or have I

squandered my time?”squandered my time?”

As older adults we struggle to determine As older adults we struggle to determine whether we have arrived at a stage of whether we have arrived at a stage of ego ego integrity versus despairintegrity versus despair..

Old AdulthoodOld Adulthood

Despite the stereotypes we hold, old age is not a Despite the stereotypes we hold, old age is not a uniform experience for humans uniform experience for humans Some deteriorate rapidly physically and/or intellectuallySome deteriorate rapidly physically and/or intellectually Shrinking social networks/roles (isolation)Shrinking social networks/roles (isolation) Others remain active and alert into their 80s and laterOthers remain active and alert into their 80s and later Knowledge givingKnowledge giving In general, the elderly in our society have been In general, the elderly in our society have been

experiencing improved health, activity and intellect.experiencing improved health, activity and intellect.

Erikson’s StagesErikson’s Stages

Lifespan Perspective: Defining AgeLifespan Perspective: Defining Age Chronological AgeChronological Age

Legal (retirement/pension)Legal (retirement/pension) Experiences (world events)Experiences (world events) Genetic clocksGenetic clocks

Generational CohortGenerational Cohort Peer ComparisonsPeer Comparisons

Self-perceptionSelf-perception Available TimeAvailable Time

PhysicalPhysical Status Status Growth vs DeclineGrowth vs Decline

ActivityActivity Profile (Cognitive) Profile (Cognitive) Quantity/QualityQuantity/Quality

ParticipationParticipation (Social) (Social) [In(ter)]dependence?[In(ter)]dependence?

World Health Organization ModelWorld Health Organization Modelhttp://www3.who.int/icf/http://www3.who.int/icf/

EnvironmentalFactors

PersonalFactors

Health Condition(disorder or disease)

Body Functions

& Structure

Activity Participation

Demographics: Booms & EchoesDemographics: Booms & Echoes

http://www.statcan.ca/english/Pgdb/demo31b.htmhttp://www.statcan.ca/english/Pgdb/demo31b.htm

Canada Ontario Mississauga 0-14 years old 5,808,745 (19%) 2,232,750 (20%) 130,465 (21%) 15-64 years old 21,616,049 (69%) 7,705,130 (67%) 430,310 (70%) 65 and over 3,989,196 (13%) 1,472,170 (13%) 52,150 ( 9%) Total Number 31,413,990 11,410,050 612,925 Median Age 38 years 37 years 35 years

The Shape of the PopulationThe Shape of the Population

The “Aging Population”:The “Aging Population”:

PrevalencePrevalence: How many in the : How many in the total population affected by a total population affected by a condition at a given timecondition at a given time

IncidenceIncidence: How many new : How many new cases in a given timecases in a given time

LongevityLongevity HealthHealth

Education/LiteracyEducation/Literacy CareerCareer

WealthWealth Happiness (Quality of Life)Happiness (Quality of Life)

LongevityLongevity

Canada Ontario Male Female Male Female Life Expectancy 75 years 81 years 76 years 81 years Disability-Free 67 years 70 years 67 years 70 years

Research QuestionsResearch Questions What changes with age?What changes with age?

Positive and/or negative change?Positive and/or negative change?

Why does it change with age? (Is it really “aging”?)Why does it change with age? (Is it really “aging”?) Causes (genetic, environmental)Causes (genetic, environmental) Predisposing conditions (genetic, environmental)Predisposing conditions (genetic, environmental)

What could counteract change?What could counteract change? Early intervention to prevent (e.g., diet, education, lifestyle)Early intervention to prevent (e.g., diet, education, lifestyle) Cure (e.g., drugs, surgery)Cure (e.g., drugs, surgery) Assistive technology (e.g., glasses, walker)Assistive technology (e.g., glasses, walker) Rehab to cope/compensate (e.g., retraining, counselling)Rehab to cope/compensate (e.g., retraining, counselling)

Fountain of Youth Fountain of Youth Longevity – Preservation and/or Regeneration of FunctionLongevity – Preservation and/or Regeneration of Function

Research DesignsResearch Designs

Cross-sectional Cross-sectional • (between subjects comparisons)(between subjects comparisons)• Simulations?Simulations?

LongitudinalLongitudinal• (within subjects process over time)(within subjects process over time)

RetrospectiveRetrospective ProspectiveProspective InterventionIntervention

HybridHybrid

Figure 11.4Figure 11.4Longitudinal versus cross-sectional research. In a longitudinal study of development between ages 6 Longitudinal versus cross-sectional research. In a longitudinal study of development between ages 6 and 10, the same children would be observed at 6, again at 8, and again at 10. In a cross-sectional and 10, the same children would be observed at 6, again at 8, and again at 10. In a cross-sectional study of the same age span, a group of 6-year-olds, a group of 8-year-olds, and a group of 10-year-study of the same age span, a group of 6-year-olds, a group of 8-year-olds, and a group of 10-year-olds would be compared simultaneously. Note that data collection could be completed immediately in olds would be compared simultaneously. Note that data collection could be completed immediately in the cross-sectional study, whereas the longitudinal study would require four years to complete.the cross-sectional study, whereas the longitudinal study would require four years to complete.

Table 10.5 (Kalat, Introduction to Psychology)Table 10.5 (Kalat, Introduction to Psychology)Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal StudiesCross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies

Sources of BiasSources of Bias

Selective attritionSelective attrition differential survivaldifferential survival increased probability of some kinds of increased probability of some kinds of

subjects dropping out.subjects dropping out.

Cohort effectsCohort effects bias created because groups of bias created because groups of

contemporaries all have the same experience, contemporaries all have the same experience, knowledge or behaviors.knowledge or behaviors.

Hybrid DesignHybrid DesignVictoria Longitudinal StudyVictoria Longitudinal Study

(http://web.uvic.ca/psyc/VLS/index-projects.html)(http://web.uvic.ca/psyc/VLS/index-projects.html)

Research ApproachesResearch Approaches

ExperimentalExperimental GroupGroup CorrelationalCorrelational

Case StudyCase Study ObservationObservation Interviews/NarrativesInterviews/Narratives

Population SurveyPopulation Survey Stats CanadaStats Canada

Healthy (“Successful”) AgingHealthy (“Successful”) Aging Maturity Maturity

Growth CompletedGrowth Completed Strength/SkillStrength/Skill

Experience/ExpertiseExperience/Expertise Knowledge Knowledge

WisdomWisdom IndependenceIndependence

WealthWealth Contribution to OthersContribution to Others

LeadershipLeadership

Negative Aspects: Negative Aspects: Ageist Stereotypes?Ageist Stereotypes?

Aging Mind and BrainAging Mind and Brain

Same PerformanceSame Performance More widespread activation ~ brain reorganizationMore widespread activation ~ brain reorganization Deterioration or Compensation?Deterioration or Compensation?

http://www.rotman-baycrest.on.ca/content/people/profiles/grady.htmlhttp://www.rotman-baycrest.on.ca/content/people/profiles/grady.html

Predicament & Enchancement Predicament & Enchancement Models of Communication & AgingModels of Communication & Aging

Ageist Stereotypes fuel Ageist Stereotypes fuel communicative incompetence.communicative incompetence.

Dependent behaviours are Dependent behaviours are reinforced and independent reinforced and independent behaviours are ignored by behaviours are ignored by nurses in residents of care nurses in residents of care facilities (Margaret Baltes).facilities (Margaret Baltes).

Ryan EB, Giles H, Bartolucci G, Henwood K. Ryan EB, Giles H, Bartolucci G, Henwood K. Psycholinguistic and social psychological components Psycholinguistic and social psychological components of communication by and with the elderly. Language of communication by and with the elderly. Language and Communication 1986;6:1-24.and Communication 1986;6:1-24.

Ryan EB,Ryan EB, Meredith SD, Maclean MJ, Orange JB. Meredith SD, Maclean MJ, Orange JB. Changing the way we talk with elders: Promoting Changing the way we talk with elders: Promoting health using the Communication Enhancement Model. health using the Communication Enhancement Model. International Journal of Aging and Human International Journal of Aging and Human Development 1995;41:89-107.Development 1995;41:89-107.

Key Finding: Key Finding:

Early experiences influence latter lifeEarly experiences influence latter life http://www.earlylearning.ubc.ca/research.htmhttp://www.earlylearning.ubc.ca/research.htm

Example from aging research: “Nun’s Study”Example from aging research: “Nun’s Study” Those who wrote more complex language Those who wrote more complex language

did not show symptoms of dementia in did not show symptoms of dementia in Alzheimer’s diseaseAlzheimer’s disease

Snowdon, D.A., Kemper, S., J.A. Greiner, L.H., Wekstein, D.R., Markesbery, W.R. Snowdon, D.A., Kemper, S., J.A. Greiner, L.H., Wekstein, D.R., Markesbery, W.R. (1996). Cognitive ability in early life and cognitive function and Alzheimer's disease in (1996). Cognitive ability in early life and cognitive function and Alzheimer's disease in late life: Findings from the Nun Study. late life: Findings from the Nun Study. J American Medical AssociationJ American Medical Association, , 275275, 528-532., 528-532.

Key Finding:Key Finding:Age differences in memory are diminished when Age differences in memory are diminished when

contextual support is available.contextual support is available.

Free recallFree recall “What did you learn last week?”“What did you learn last week?”>>

Cued recallCued recall “Last week you learned about which “Last week you learned about which two experimental designs?” two experimental designs?”

>>Recognition recallRecognition recall “Last week did you learn “Last week did you learn about cross-sectional and longitudinal designs?”about cross-sectional and longitudinal designs?”

Key Finding:Key Finding:

Knowledge is enhance/preservedKnowledge is enhance/preserved Processing is slowedProcessing is slowed

PerceptionPerception CognitionCognition

Performance varies with time/timing of Performance varies with time/timing of task componentstask components

Key Finding: Key Finding: Sensory & Cognitive Aging Sensory & Cognitive Aging LinkedLinked

Sensory and cognitive processing both Sensory and cognitive processing both decline with age: Coincidence or not?decline with age: Coincidence or not?

HypothesesHypotheses::1.1. DeprivationDeprivation2.2. Information DegradationInformation Degradation3.3. Cognitive Load on PerceptionCognitive Load on Perception4.4. Common CauseCommon CauseLindenberger U, Baltes PB. Sensory functioning and intelligence in old age: A Lindenberger U, Baltes PB. Sensory functioning and intelligence in old age: A

strong connection. Psych Aging 1994;9:339-55strong connection. Psych Aging 1994;9:339-55..

Older Listeners: Models & HypothesesOlder Listeners: Models & Hypotheses

Modular vs Integrated SystemsModular vs Integrated SystemsSchneider BA, Pichora-Fuller MK. Implications of perceptual deterioration for cognitive Schneider BA, Pichora-Fuller MK. Implications of perceptual deterioration for cognitive

aging research. In: Craik FIM, Salthouse TA, eds, The Handbook of Aging and aging research. In: Craik FIM, Salthouse TA, eds, The Handbook of Aging and Cognition, 2nd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000; 3: 155-219.Cognition, 2nd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000; 3: 155-219.

UTM ResearchUTM Research: : Equating for Perceptual Difficulty during Equating for Perceptual Difficulty during

Cognitive Processing to Test the Cognitive Processing to Test the Information Degradation HypothesisInformation Degradation Hypothesis

http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3cihrsc/Cihr/index.htmhttp://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3cihrsc/Cihr/index.htm

Would old do as well as young if cognitive Would old do as well as young if cognitive measures were tested under enhanced measures were tested under enhanced perceptual conditions?perceptual conditions?

Would young do as poorly as old if cognitive Would young do as poorly as old if cognitive measures were tested under degraded measures were tested under degraded perceptual conditions?perceptual conditions?

Is it really aging or just hearing loss?Is it really aging or just hearing loss?

Speech Perception in Noise TestSpeech Perception in Noise TestPichora-Fuller MK, Schneider BA, Daneman M. How young and old adults Pichora-Fuller MK, Schneider BA, Daneman M. How young and old adults

listen to and remember speech in noise. J Acoust Soc Am 1995; 97:593-608.listen to and remember speech in noise. J Acoust Soc Am 1995; 97:593-608.

8 lists of 50 sentences8 lists of 50 sentences Half low-contextHalf low-context

John did not talk about the John did not talk about the feastfeast.. Half high-contextHalf high-context

The wedding banquet was a The wedding banquet was a feastfeast..

Repeat last word of sentenceRepeat last word of sentence

Vary S:NVary S:N Conversation at 65 dB SPLConversation at 65 dB SPL Noise in home at 50 dB SPLNoise in home at 50 dB SPL + 15 dB S:N in quiet living room+ 15 dB S:N in quiet living room - 2 dB S:N in subway/aircraft- 2 dB S:N in subway/aircraft

Effect of Simulated Auditory Aging on Effect of Simulated Auditory Aging on Working Memory SpanWorking Memory Span

Brown S, Pichora-Fuller MK. Temporal jitter mimics the effects of aging on word Brown S, Pichora-Fuller MK. Temporal jitter mimics the effects of aging on word identification and word recall in noise. Canadian Acoustics 2000;28:126-128.identification and word recall in noise. Canadian Acoustics 2000;28:126-128.

Noise and Discourse ComprehensionNoise and Discourse ComprehensionSchneider BA, Daneman M, Murphy D, Kwong See S. Listening to discourse in Schneider BA, Daneman M, Murphy D, Kwong See S. Listening to discourse in

distracting settings: The effects of aging. Psych Aging 2000;15:110-125.distracting settings: The effects of aging. Psych Aging 2000;15:110-125.

Final CommentFinal Comment

Should we think about older adults like Should we think about older adults like younger adults performing under stressful younger adults performing under stressful conditions?conditions?