Book Reviews

RACE AND HUMAN EVOLUTION. By MilfordWolpoff and Rachel Caspari. New York:Simon and Schuster. 1997. 464 pp. ISBN0-684-81013-1. $26.00 (cloth).

This excellent and highly readable bookbegins and ends with discussion of the mul-tiregional evolution model of human evolu-tion. In between, the book provides a thor-ough historical review of the relationshipbetween views on human evolution and con-temporary human biological variation, par-ticularly past attempts to trace the evolu-tion of human races. The multiregionalmodel views human evolution over the pasttwo million years in terms of a single evolu-tionary lineage of a polytypic species. Assuch, the division betweenHomo erectus andHomo sapiens is considered arbitrary andnot indicative of a speciation event. Accord-ing to multiregional evolution, the last dis-tinct speciation was the origin of Homoerectus. Since then, humans have evolved aspart of an interconnected web of populationsthroughout the Old World (and as such,Wolpoff and Caspari support the proposal tosink Homo erectus within the evolutionaryspeciesHomo sapiens).Wolpoff andCaspari start off with a discus-

sion of the history of themultiregionalmodel,noting that it was first developed to explaina general process by which polytypic speciescould evolve over time. From the start, mul-tiregional evolution was not proposed as aspecifichypothesis linking populations acrosstime and space but rather a general explana-tory model within which a number of morespecific hypotheses could be proposed. Theauthors then discuss the differences be-tween this general model and the alterna-tive model of African replacement and theextent to which both models have been usedto support social and political views on hu-man diversity and race. Wolpoff and Casparidescribe how the multiregional model hasbeen perceived as being politically incorrect.In many people’s minds, there appears to be

a link between multiregional evolution anddiscredited earlier polygenic models of race.A primary focus of this book is to counterthis assertion.Wolpoff and Caspari look closely at the

historical development of polygenic modelsof human evolution that advocated completeor near-complete separation of human races.Their historical review of monogenism andpolygenism includes discussion of the viewsof Blumenbach, Lamarck, Morton, Schwal-be, Haeckel, Hooton, and others, showinghow different interpretations of the fossilrecord have been linked to views on racialorigins.The stage is thus set for a very detailed

discussion of two key twentieth-century fig-ures, Carleton Coon and FranzWeidenreich.It is interesting (and somewhat unsettling)that many authors link the ideas of Coonand Weidenreich together. While both dealtwith fossil evidence of global change andregional continuity, they did so in differentways and with different implications. Theproblem that both Coon and Weidenreichgrappled with was the need for a generalmodel that could explain similar evolution-ary trends across different regions (e.g.,cranial expansion) while at the same timeallow for persistence of regional-specifictraits. As shown by Wolpoff and Caspari,Coon’s focus on the latter problem led to thedevelopment of a model of parallel racialevolution that was scientifically unsound.Weidenreich, on the other hand, recognizedthe need for gene flow between regions toexplain common evolutionary trends but didnot have a complete explanation that wouldalso accommodate continuity. Weidenreich’sideas were also somewhat confusing sincehe continued the practice of using differentspecies names for different samples of fossilseven though he viewed them all as part of asingle evolving lineage. Wolpoff and Casparitrace the reaction to Weidenreich’s ideas indetail and note how many of his interpreta-tions were rejected because of his focus onorthogenesis, thus throwing the baby outwith the bath water.

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r 1997 WILEY-LISS, INC.

Wolpoff and Caspari show how Weiden-reich’s ideas formed a base from which themultiregional model developed by the infu-sion of concepts and models from modernevolutionary biology. The ‘‘paradox’’ of spe-cies-wide change and regional distinctive-ness is no longer a problem, as it is wellrecognized that balance between evolution-ary forces can maintain regional distinctive-ness in the face of continued gene flow.Balance can be attained for both nonadap-tive traits (as shown by many populationgenetic models of drift-migration equilib-rium) and adaptive traits (clinal distribu-tions shaped by the balance between geneflow, drift, and selection).The last three chapters of the book pro-

vide what I think is the best explanation ofmultiregional evolution to date. These chap-ters offer a detailed examination of thegeneral multiregional evolution model bothin terms of theory and in terms of support-ing evidence from genetic studies and thefossil and archaeological records. The discus-sion of regional continuity is made particu-larly clear by examples of Sewall Wright’sshifting balance model, an important theo-retical construct for looking at evolution insubdivided polytypic species. (Although thismay be a case of hero worship, I have rarelyseen an evolutionary question that SewallWright did not address.)The discussion of the genetic evidence for

modern human origins is clear and up-to-date, and focuses on the contrast betweenphylogenetic branching models, which as-sume a succession of population subdivi-sions rather than test for it, and an alterna-tive model which examines genetic variationin terms of variation in ancient populationsize. (Since I have advocated a larger long-term African population size as an explana-tion for greater geneticAfrican diversity andsince my work is cited here, I am obviouslynot an impartial reader.) The discussion ofthe fossil record is also very thorough andincludes discussion of a key question, oftenignored: What doesmodernmean?One of the primary benefits obtained from

reading this book is a clear understanding ofthe multiregional evolution model. In thepast there has been much confusion of thegeneral model (detailing process) with more

specific models of ancestor-descendent rela-tionships in given geographic regions. Forexample, assume that one could reject theargument for continuity of western Euro-pean Neandertals with the modern species.This would reject a specific hypothesis butnot the general multiregional model, sincethe general model can accommodate popula-tion extinctions, partial or complete replace-ments, and varying degrees of local continu-ity. The only rejection of the general modelwould lie in a claim for the recent origin ofthe contemporary species in a single region,exclusively, that is, a complete African re-placement.The distinction between a general model

of process and specific hypotheses of modernhuman origins is made clear throughout thebook.When dealingwith the specific applica-tion of themodel,Wolpoff andCaspari clearlyfavor the interpretation that modern hu-mans arose through the coalescence of mod-ern traits appearing across the species’ range.While this is a specific interpretation ofpattern within the general multiregionalmodel, it is not the only one. The generalmodel can also accommodate the origin ofmodern traits within a single region thatspread throughout a species. Although thespecific predictions of thesemodels are differ-ent, they can both be explained in terms ofthe general multiregional model. Rejectionof any specific multiregional hypothesis doesnot necessarily reject the general model.The book also offers a good antidote to

continuingmisinterpretations of themultire-gional model (and I am as guilty as othersfor having misrepresented parts of themodel). First of all, we must bury the ideathat multiregional evolution is the parallelevolution of different races—this ignores theprimary importance of gene flow to themodel. Second, we must also abandon theidea that multiregional evolution predictsthe simultaneous appearance of similartraits across the Old World. The earlierappearance of modern traits in one part ofthe world does not reject the multiregionalmodel because it does not predict simulta-neous change in the first place. Indeed, theconcepts of ‘‘center and edge’’ and gene flow,both central to multiregional evolution, pre-

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dict that the spread of any trait will taketime.This book could be used successfully in

graduate and upper-division undergraduateclasses in human evolution, human varia-tion, and the history of biological anthropol-ogy. More importantly, it should also be readby professionals in order to countermisinter-pretations of multiregional evolution and

the confusion between the general model ofprocess and more specific evolutionary hy-potheses.

JOHN H. RELETHFORD

Department of AnthropologyState University of New York Collegeat OneontaOneonta, New York

BODIES OF EVIDENCE: RECONSTRUCTING HIS-TORY THROUGH SKELETAL ANALYSIS. Editedby Anne L. Grauer. New York: John Wiley.1995. 247 pp. ISBN 0-471-04153-X. $42.50(paper).

True to its title, this book is about histori-cal reconstruction from human skeletal re-mains. Its three subdivisions address relatedpolitical and logistical concerns, demographicinterpretation, and reconstruction of healthand disease patterns. Each contributing au-thor uniquely illustrates the highly complextreatment required for historical skeletalresearch in virtually every aspect of design,execution, analysis, and interpretation.While comprehensive accounts of themateri-als dealt with here have been publishedelsewhere, this volume provides a consoli-dated rendering of shared experience (andan opportunity to present standardizedmethods) regarding many aspects of historicmortuary archeology and the study of theassociated skeletal remains. On anotherlevel, the book explores the complexity andnuances of the political and social contextembedding historic mortuary site investiga-tions and helps to redefine the goals, respon-sibilities, and limitations of science in suchendeavors.Part I includes two papers sensitizing

anthropologists to this delicate (and poten-tially volatile) sociopolitical environment,examining the ethical responsibilities andpartnering obligations to descendant groups.The next two papers detail how taphonomicprocesses and preservation status shouldguide excavation strategy for maximum re-covery of osseous and soft tissues. Part II

includes four papers that concentrate onunderstanding the representative relation-ship of the skeletal sample to the livingpopulation and on building a problem-oriented approach to excavation and analy-sis which allows a bias check of both histori-cal demography and the skeletal data. PartIII includes six papers utilizing traditionaland site-specific techniques to interprethealth and disease patterns.The first two chapters of Part I introduce

the unfolding of political events and theensuing negotiations surrounding mortuaryexcavations which may be new to manyreaders. Goldstein details her lengthy expe-rience in the encounter of politics and arche-ology surrounding the burials at Ft. Ross(California), from deciphering burial laws tofunding sources and project responsibilities.She concludes that historical mortuary siteexcavations must be collaborative efforts,with scientists acting as partners in plan-ning, removal, curation, and data sharingbut not posing as the sole proprietors ofbiocultural remains or their recovered data.Roberts and McCarthy follow with an en-lightening case-in-point discussion of ‘‘scien-tific/descendant community partnering’’ re-lated to the First African Baptist ChurchCemetery excavations (in Philadelphia), il-lustrating the creation of a mutually benefi-cial relationship between scientists and thedescendant community. Such effective col-laborations ought to promote a reevaluationof our scientific program, perhaps fosteringrestructured research designs which accom-modate broader and more responsive socialperspectives. Such partnering is now com-monplacewith descendant communities, who

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are eagerly becoming active supportersrather than remaining passive onlookers. Inthe last two chapters of this section,Ubelakerdiscusses preservation and related safetyconcerns in relation to excavation strategyand recovery methods, and, in the context ofthe Oneida Burial Site poorhouse remains,Nawrocki encourages us to appreciate tap-honomic principles and to consider the mul-tiple sources of sampling bias.In Part II, all the authors show how

mid-nineteenth-century historic records canbe interpreted and applied to generate avariety of specific biocultural research ques-tions. The St. Thomas Anglican Church ar-chives provided 50 years of fully docu-mented parish records fromOntario to createa nearly ideal situation for Saunders andher coworkers to reconstruct and correlate,among other things, demography and neona-tal and infant mortality patterns associatedwith disease and weaning practices. Simi-larly, Higgins and Siriani used vital statis-tics to find a strong association betweenage-specific mortality and rates of dentaldisease, taking this as an indicator of poorhealth among poorhouse inmates of MonroeCountry, New York, compared to their Roch-ester contemporaries. On the other hand,Grauer and McNamara found that whiletheir Dunning poorhouse skeletal data mir-rored some results from the Monroe Countystudy, somewhat conflicting mortality find-ings resulted from their comparison withhistoric records and with local and federalcensus data of 1860–1870 Chicago. Thus,the latter authors demonstrate the potentialfor incongruencies between records and skel-etal demography in comparing poorhousesamples to the general population, espe-cially in the subadult mortality patterns.Reconstructing disease patterns from a

broad spectrum of bioarcheological ap-proaches, Larsen et al. and Winchell et al.demonstrate, respectively, that a small fam-ily plot from central Illinois and a smallcommunity cemetery from northeast Texascan provide a wealth of biocultural informa-tion when synthesized with historical rec-ords. They show that such series, convention-ally offering only descriptive data, can alsoyield evidence for low life expectancies,

high infant mortality, and an arduous life-style consistent with a pioneer subsistence.The studies in the remainder of Part III

are all quite varied. Cadaver portions fromthe Medical College of Georgia and com-mingled, fragmented remains from the sec-ondary deposits of a Cincinnati potter’s fieldtogether provide insights into the analysis ofremains from nonmortuary contexts. Har-rington and Blakey plan to recreate dissec-tion patterns on bone, performing ‘‘experi-mental anatomy’’ with nineteenth-centurytools to assess differential dissection prac-tices according to ancestry and gender, whileMurray and Perzigian assayed the generalhealth of the latter sample using bone-chemistry techniques. In a sister analysis toHiggins and Siriani’s, Sutter’s study of den-tal pathology of the Monroe Country poor-house to interpret the lifeways of the inhab-itants against their mortality records andskeletal pathology illustrates the full per-spective that dental pathology can bring tothe interpretation of diet, health, and adap-tation. The final two papers both developspecific, problem-oriented methods to re-fute, support, or revise historical hypoth-eses. Katzenberg and Pfeiffer apply stablecarbon isotope analysis of bone collagen toassess weaning-age mortality, while Cristemploys elemental bone chemistry analysisto test a specific hypothesis about African-American slave subsistence. Unfortunately,Crist’s is the only chapter focusing upon anAfrican-American sample.This is a timely and extraordinary book,

one which defines the potential of skeletalbiology to biohistorical research and helps toredefine routine bioarcheological methods.It exemplifies a blossoming use of skeletalmaterial to evaluate both long-held andrecently debated historical theories. The his-torical obscurity of the research samplesassayed here only elevates their value inlight of traditional historiographic perspec-tives. The book reflects the successes ofnumerous skeletal biologists who, duringthe last decade, have pursued a rapidlyexpanding research interest in historic, non-indigenous human adaptation. AlongsideSaunders and Herring’s Grave Reflections,the book examines the current political con-siderations informing the excavation and

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analysis of human bones from historicalcontexts, and underscores the shifting goalsand commitments of our science. The impor-tance of cooperationwith descendant groups,in light of their deep emotional involvement,cannot be overstated. Finally, as the mediasharpen the public’s morbid curiosity withtheir extensive coverage of skeletal researchactivity, nondescendant groups as well asdescendant groups will pay more active at-

tention to historicmortuary research. Hence,the changing political roles and responsibili-ties of skeletal biologists will require anaccommodation to many other interests be-yond their own research.

MURRAY K. MARKS

Department of AnthropologyUniversity of TennesseeKnoxville, Tennessee

BOOKS RECEIVED

Aldenderfer M, and Maschner HDG (eds.)(1996) Anthropology, Space, and Geo-graphic Information Systems. New York:Oxford University Press, 294 pp. $49.95(cloth).

Alt KW, and Turp JC (eds.) (1997)Die Evolu-tion der Zahne: Phylogenie, Ontogenie,Variation. Berlin: Quintessenz Verlags-GmbH, 764 pp. $120.00 (paper).

Johanson D, and Edgar B (1996) From Lucyto Language.NewYork: Simon and Schus-ter, 272 pp. $50.00 (cloth).

Kaplan G, and Rogers L (1994)Orang Utansin Borneo. Armidale, Australia: Univer-

sity of New England Press, 196 pp. $53.00(paper).

Maschner HDG (ed.) (1996) Darwinian Ar-cheologies. New York: Plenum Press, 261pp. $42.50 (cloth).

Mitchell RW, Thompson NS, and Miles HL(eds.) (1996) Anthropomorphism, Anec-dotes, and Animals.Albany: State Univer-sity of New York Press, 518 pp. $21.95(paper).

O’Shea JM (1996) Villagers of the Maros: APortrait of anEarly Bronze-Age Society.NewYork: PlenumPress, 398 pp. $59.50 (cloth).

Renfrew JW (1997) Aggression and ItsCauses: A Biopsychosocial Approach.NewYork: Oxford University Press, 274 pp.$19.95 (paper).

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